What is Metrology? | | » Metrolagy comes from the Greek word “metron” and “logos” which literally means the study of measurement. » This study covers both the experimental and theoretical aspects of measurement and the determination of the levels of uncertainty of these aspects. » The study of measurement is a basic requirement in any field of science and technology, most importantly in engineering and manufacturing. » Metrology is divided into three subfields. Scientific or fundamental metrology Applied or industrial metrology Legal metrology Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaScientific or Fundamental Metrology | | » This subfield deals with the establishment of units of measurement, unit systems, and quantity systems. The units of measurement sets standards adopted conventionally and by law, of the definite magnitude of a physical quantity. » On the other hand the units systems are composed of the traditional systems, metric systems, and the natural systems. » There are also some unit systems that are derived from a set of fundamental units. ® Moreover, scientific metrology goes beyond than just the establishment of units, and includes the realization of these standards to the users in the society; and the development of new methods in measurement. Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaApplied or Industrial Metrology | | » Applied metrology is rather specific in its applications, which are primarily various industrial processes including manufacturing among others » This metrology subfield intends to establish the importance of measurement in the industry. Moreover it also ensures the appropriateness of measurement instruments including the maintenance, quality control, and proper calibration of these instruments. Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaLegal Metrology » For the protection of life, the environment, health, and public safety, regulatory requirements of measurement and measurement instruments have to be looked after. These are the concerns of legal metrology. » With the objective of regulating appropriate rules and regulations pertaining to measurement, and measurement instruments as well; the consumers are definitely protected and guaranteed that fair trade is observed. Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M Jadeja» Thus, in a broader sense metrology is not limited to length and angle Measurement but also concerned with numerous problems theoretical as well as practical related with measurement such as: Units. of measurement and their standards, which is concerned with the establishment, reproduction, conservation and transfer of units of measurement and their standards. Methods of measurement based on agreed units and standards. Errors of measurement. Measuring instruments and devices, Accuracy of measuring instruments and their care. Industrial inspection and its various techniques. Design, manufacturing and testing of gauges of all kinds. Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaNeed of Inspection || » Where and When to Inspect? Inspection can be performed at any of several places in production: Receiving inspection, when raw materials and parts are received from suppliers, At various stages of manufacturing, and Before shipment to the customer. Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaNeed of Inspection » To determine the true dimensions of a part. » To convert physical parameters into meaningful numbers. » To test if the elements that constitute the system function as per the design. » For evaluating the performance of a system. » To ensure interchangeability with a view to promoting mass production. » Toestablish the validity of design and for finding new data and new designs. » Toensure that the part conforms to established standard. » To meet interchangeability of manufacture. » To maintain customer relations. » To find shortcomings in manufacture. » Helps to purchase good quality of raw materials. © Helps co ordination of different departments. » To take decision on defective parts. Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaPrinciples of Measurements » Measurement is an essential part of the development of technology, » When you can measure what you are speaking about and express it in numbers, you know something about it, but when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is a meager and unsatisfactory kindProcess of Measurements Standard (Known quantity) Measurand (Quantity to be measured) Result (Read out)» The methods of measurement may be broadly classified into two categories: Direct Measurement Indirect Measurement » Following are the three modes of measurement: Primary Measurement Secondary Measurement Tertiary Measurement. Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaDirect Method of Measurement » The unknown quantity (also called the measurand) is directly compared against a standard. » The result is expressed as a numerical number and a unit. » The standard, in fact, is a tangible form of a unit. » Direct methods are quite common for the measurement of physical quantities like length, mass and time. « < Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaIndirect Methods of Measurement » Measurements by direct methods are not always possible, feasible and practicable. These methods in most cases, are inaccurate because they involve human factors. They are also less sensitive. Hence direct methods are not preferred and are less commonly used, » In engineering applications Measurement Systems are used. These measurement systems use indirect methods for measurement purposes. » A measurement system consists of a transducing element which converts the quantity to be measured into an analogous signal. The analogous signal is then processed by some intermediate means and is then fed to the end devices which present the results of the measurement. Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaPrimary Measurement » A primary measurement is one that can be made by direct observation without involving any conversion (translation) of the measured quantity into length. » Typical example of primary measurements are 1. the matching of two lengths, such as when determining the length of an object with a metre rod, (2) the matching of two colors, such as when judging the colour of red hot metals and (3) the counting of strokes of a clock chime to measure the time. Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaSecondary Measurements » A secondary measurement involves only one translation (conversion) to be done on the quantity under measurement to convert into a change of length. » The measured quantity may be pressure of gas, and therefore, may not be observable. Therefore, secondary measurement requires An instrument which translates pressure changes into length changes, and A length scale or a standard which is calibrated in length units equivalent to known: change in pressure. ® Therefore, in a pressure gauge, the primary signal (pressure) is transmitted to a translator and the secondary signal (length) is transmitted to observer's eye. Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaTertiary Measurements > A tertiary measurements involves two translations (conversions). A typical examples of such a measurement is the measurement of temperature of an object by thermocouple. Temp. Voltage Length eT oy es te siete 3 voltmeter Primary Secondary Tertiary Signal Signal Signal Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaInstruments » The instrument serves as an extension of human faculties and enables the man ta determine the value of unknown quantity or variable which unaided human faculties :can not measure. » A measuring instruments provides information about the physical value of some variable being measured. & The instrument would sense a physical parameter (eg,, velocity, pressure, temperature, etc. ), process and translate it into a format and range which can be interpreted by the observer, > The instrument must also provide the controls by which the operator can obtain, manipulate and respond to the information. Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaClassification of Measuring Instruments ® The instruments may be classified as follows Absolute and secondary instruments. Analog and Digital instruments. Mechanical, Electrical and electronic instruments. 4. Manual and automatic instruments, 5. Self-contained and remote indicating instruments. 6 Self-operated and power-operated instruments. 7. Deflection and null output instruments. Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaAbsolute and Secondary Instruments “ > 2. Secondary Instruments: Absolute instruments: These instruments give magnitude of quantity under measurement in terms of physical constants of the instrument. Examples: Tangent galvanometer and Rayleigh’s current balance These instruments are seldom used except in standard institutions. These instruments are so constructed that the quantity being measured can only be measured by observing the output indicated by the instrument, These instruments are calibrated by comparison with an absolute instrument er another secondary instrument which has already been calibrated against an absolute instrument. Examples: Voltmeter, Glass Tube Thermometer, Pressure Gauge etc... The secondary instruments find wide use in every sphere of measurement, Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaAnalog and Digital Instruments Ee 1, Analog Instruments: » The signal of an analog unit in a continuous fashion and can take on infinite number of values in a given range. » Examples: Fuel gauge, ammeters and voltmeters, wrist watch, ° speedometer of an automobile etc.... 2. Digital Instruments: » Signals varying in discrete steps and taking on a finite number of different values in a given range are digital signals and the corresponding instruments are of digital type. » Examples: Odometer of an automobile, calibrated balance of a platform scale, timer on a scoreboard, etc. Ba Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaMechanical Instruments » These instruments are very reliable for static and stable conditions. » They are unable to respond to the measurements of dynamic and transient conditions due to the fact that they have moving parts that are rigid, heavy and bulky and consequently have a large mass. Mass presents inertia problems and hence these instruments cannot faithfully follow the rapid changes which are involved in dynamic instruments. Most of the mechanical instruments cause noise pollution. v Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaElectrical Instruments » The electrical methods of indicating the output of detectors are more rapid than that of mechanical methods. » Unfortunately an electrical system normally depends upon a mechanical meter as an indicating device. This mechanical movement has some inertia due to which the frequency response of these instruments is poor. Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaElectronic Instruments » Most of the scientific and industrial instruments require very fast responses. Such requirements can not be met with by mechanical and electrical instruments. » These instruments use semiconductor devices, In electronic devices, since the only movement involved is that of electrons, the response time is extremely small owing to Very small inertia of electrons. » With the use of electronic devices very weak signals can be detected by using pre-amplifiers and amplifiers. Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaManual and Automatic Instruments © In case of manual instruments services of an operator are required. » Example: Measurement of temperature by resistance thermometer incorporating a Wheatstone bridge in its circuit. » In an automatic instruments an operator is not required. e » Example: Measurement of temperature by mercury in glass tube i thermometer. Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaSelf-contained and remote indicating instruments » A self contained instrument has all its different elements in one physical assembly » In a remote indicating instrument, the primary sensing element may be located at an adequate long distance from the secondary indicating element. Such types of instruments are finding wide use in the modern instrumentation technology. Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaSelf-operated and power-operated instrumen » A self ‘operated instrument does not require any outside power for its operation; the out put energy is supplied wholly or almost wholly by the input signal Examples: Mercury in glass thermometer, Dial Indicator v » The r operated Instruments are those instruments which requires some auxiliary source of power such as electricity, compressed air, hydraulic supply etc. for their operation. In such cases, the input signal supplies only an insignificant portion of the output power. » Example: Electro-mechanical measurement system Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaDeflection and null output instruments » Ina “deflection type instrument”, the deflection of the instrument provides a basis for determining the quantity under measurement. The measured quantity produces some physical effect which deflects or produces a mechanical displacement of the moving system of the instrument. » An opposing effect is built in the instrument which tries to oppose the deflection or the mechanical displacement of the moving system. The balance is achieved when opposing effect equals to cause producing the deflection or mechanical movement. The deflection or mechanical displacement at the point of balance then gives the value of measured Quantity. © Examples: Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC) ammeter, spring scale for weight measurement, etc. © These instruments are more suited for measurements under dynamic conditions than null type of instruments whose intrinsic response is slower. Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaDeflection and null output instruments © Ina “null type" of instrument, a zero or null indication leads to determination of the magnitude of measured quantity. The null condition is dependent upon some other known conditions. » Example: D. C. Potentiometer. » Advantages: more accurate than deflection type Highly sensitive as compared with deflection type, Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaSelection of Measuring Instruments ® The selection of measuring instruments depends on the measurement to be performed; 1, The range and magnitude of the parameter to be measured and the accuracy of the measurement (the instrument should have the range to cover effectively the range of the parameter). 2. The resolution of the measuring instrument should be smaller than the minimum unit of the measurement of the parameter. 3. Third important criterion for the selection of a measuring instrument is the accuracy of measurement. Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaSelection of Measuring Instruments » For example, if a process temperature of 100°C is being measured, the range of the temperature indicator should be such that it can measure not only 100°C, but also temperature above and below that value. » Suppose the following thermometers are available: {a) 0-99 °C (b) 0-199 °C (c) 0-99.9 °C (d) O-199.9 °C » From the range specification it is clear that the thermometers at (a) and (b) have a resolution of 1 °C, while those at (c) and (d) have a resolution of 0.1 °C. For measurement of the above parameter, i.e 100 °C, the thermometers at (a) and (C) above are not suitable, since these do not have the required range. The choice is therefore between (b) and (d). Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaFunctions of Instruments and Measurement System » Following are the three main functions of E, instruments: 1h) 1. Indicating Function sw tm 2 Recording Function 3. Controlling Function Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaApplication of Measurement systems » The instruments and measurement systems are employed for the following applications: 1, Monitoring of processes and operations. 2. Contral of processes and operations. 3. Experimental engineering analysis Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaApplication of Measurement systems Monitoring of processes and applications. » In these type of applications the measuring instruments simply indicate the value or condition of parameter under study and do not serve any control function, » Examples : Water and electric energy meters installed in homes An Ammeter or a voltmeter indicates the value of current or voltage being monitored at a particular instant. Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaApplication of Measurement systems 2. Control of processes and operations: » There is a strong association between measurements and control. The instruments find a very useful application in automatic control systems. » A common example is the typical refrigeration system which employs a thermostatic control. A temperature measuring device senses the room temperature, thus providing the information necessary for proper functioning of the control system. Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaApplication of Measurement systems » Experimental engineering analysis: » The engineering problems can be solved by theoretical as well as experimental methods; several applications require the use of both methods. v Following are the uses of experimental engineering analysis: To determine system parameters, variable and performance indices. To formulate the generalized empirical relationships in cases where there is no proper theoretical backing, To test validity of theoretical predictions To solve mathematical relationships with the help of analogies. = Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaAccuracy and Precision... > Accuracy: It may be defined as conformity with or closeness to an accepted standard value (true value). Accuracy of an instrument is influenced by factors like static error, dynamic error, reproducibility, dead zone. Precision: It refers to the degree of agreement within a group measurements. It is usually expressed in terms of the deviation in measurement. Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaGood Precision —_ Good Precision Poor Precision Good Accuracy Poor Accuracy Poor Accuracy Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M JadejaErrors in Measurement » Error in Measurement = Measured Value — True Value. Types of Errors » Static errors, which includes a. Reading errors b. Characteristics errors. c. Environmental errors. » Instrument loading errors » Dynamic errors a. Systematic Errors b. Random Errors Prepared by: Ratnadeepsinh M Jadeja