INTRODUCTION OF DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTWhat is design??22 * Design is to formulate a pian satisfy a particular need and to create something with physical reality. Realization of a concept or idea into a configuration. Design is the creation of a plan or convention for the construction of an object, system or measurable human interaction .Nat is Machine??2 Machine is defined as a combination of resisting bodies with successfully constrained relative motions which is used transform other forms of energy into mechanical energy or transmit and modify available energy to do some useful work. ‘An apparatus using mechanical power and having several parts, each with a definite function and together performing a particular task. Semi or fully automated device that magnifies human physical and/or mental capabilities in performing one or more operations.What is Machine Design??? * Machine is a combination of several machine elements arranged to work together as a whole fo accomplish specific purpose. Machine Design involves designing the elements and arranging them optimally to obtain some useful work. Machine design is the process of engineering design. A machine is made up of mechanisms that work together to satisfy the requirements of what the machine needs to accomplish.on of Machine Design Adaptive Design Development aa designTypes of Machine Design 1) Adaptive Design:- The designer's work is concerned with adaptation of existing design. The designer only makes minor alternation or modification in the existing designs of the product. 2 Development Design: This type of design needs considerable scientific training and design ability in order to modify the existing design into a new idea by adopting a new material or different method of manufacture. The designer starts from the existing design, but final product may differ quite markedly from the original product. 3) New Design: This type of design needs lots of research, technical ability and creative thinking.Types of design based on method Empirical DesignTypes of Design based on method |) Rational Design:- Based on determining the stresses and strains ‘of components and thereby deciding their dimensions. This type of design depends upon mathematical formulae of principal of mechanics. 2) Empirical Design:- This type of design depends upon empirical formulae based on the practice and past experience .of Design based on method |) Industrial Design:- This type of design depends upon the production aspects to manufacture any machine component in the industry. Based on industrial considerations and norms viz. market survey, external look, production facilities, low cost, use of existing standard productsTo be considered in Machine Design > What device or mechanism to be used??? To decide the relative arrangement of the constituent elements. » Material » Forces on the elements » Size » Shape and space requirements » Weight of the productTO be considered in =. , . Machine Design é method of manufacturing the components and their issembly. > How will it operate. > Reliability and safety aspects. » Inspectibilty » Maintenance » Cost and aesthetics of the designed product.e in Machine f Design of Elements Material Selection = “= Modification Detailed Drawing §Siandardization Standardization is defined as obligatory (or compulsory) norms, to which various characteristics of a product should comply (or agree) with standard. The characteristics include materials, dimensions and shape of the component, method of testing and method of marking. packing and storing of the product. A standard is defined as a set of specifications for parts, materials or processes, The objective of, a standard is to reduce the variety and limit the number of items to a redsonable level.Standardization + On the other hand, a code |s defined as a set of specifications for the analysis, design, manufacture, testing and erection of the product. The purpose of a code is to achieve a specified level of safety. + There are three types of standards used in design :- » Company Standarcls: They are used in a particular company or a group of sister concerns.> Naticnal standards: ~ India -BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards), ~ Germany - DIN (Deutsches Institut fir Normung), = USA - AISI (American iron and Stee! Institute) or SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers), ~ UK -B5 (British Standards) > Intemational standards: These are prepared by the International Standards Organization (ISO).Geres are Used in mechanical ineering design + Standards for Materials, theic chemical compositions, Mechanical Properties and Heat Treatment: For example, Indian standard ee ee species seven grades of grey cast iron Ci nated as FG 150, FG 200, F 0, FG 260. FG 300, FG 350 and 400. The: f indicates ultimate tensile Renan in N/mm:. ® Standards for Shapes and dimensions of commonly used Machine Elements: The machine elements include bolts, screws and nuts, rivets, belts and chains, ball ‘and roller bearings, wire ropes, keys and splines, etc For example, IS 2494 (Part 1) specifies dimensions and shape of the crass- section of ‘endless V-belts for power transmission, The dimensions of the trapezoidal cross-section of the belt, viz. width, and included angle are specified in this standard betasmaares are Used in mechanical neering design > Stondords for fils, Tolerances and Surface Finish of Component: For , selection of the Of fit for different applications is illustrated in IS ‘ont Guide torselection of fis, P The tolerances or upper and lower limits for various sizes of holes and shalts are specified in iS 919 on ‘Recommendations for limits and fils for engineering’. 1S 10719 expl ® Stondords for Tes ting of Products: These standards, sometimes called ‘codes’, give procedures to test the praducts such as pressure vessel, boiler, crane and wie rope, where safety of the ‘operator is an important consideration, For example, |S 807 is a code of practice for design, manufacture, erection and testing of cranes and hoists. method for \dicating surface texture on technical drawings.fits Of Standardization » Reductions in types and dimensions of identical components (inventory control). » Reduction in manufacturing facilities. » Easy to replace (Interchangeability). No need to design or test the elements. © Improves quality and reliability. > Improves reputation of the company which manufactures standard components. ® Sometimes it ensures the safety. » It results in overall cost reduction.Preferred Numbers > With the acceptance of standardization, there is a need to keep the standard sizes or dimensions of any component or product in discrete steps. » The sizes should be spread over the wide range. at the same time these should be spaced properly. > For example, if shafl diameters are to be standardized between 10 mm and 25 mm, then sizes should be like : 10 mm, 12.5 mm, 16mm, 20 mm, 25 mm and not like +10 mm, 11 mm, 13mm, 18mm, 25 mm. ® This led to the use of geometric series known as series of preferred numbers or preferred series > Preferred series are series of numbers obtained by geometric progression and rounded off.red Numbers + There are five basic series with step ratios of: Vid, “VIG, “VI0. “VI0.& “VIO + These ratios ate approximately equal to 1.58, 1.26, 1.12, 1.06 and 1.03. » The five basic series of preferred numbers (known as preferred series) ore designated as: R5, R10, R20, R40, and R80. * The examples of preferred number series are: standard shaft diameters, power rating of coupling, center distances of standard gear boxes, etc.vantages Preferred Numbers » The difference in two successive terms has a fixed percentage. + It provides small steps for small quantities and large steps for large quantities. * The product range is covered with minimum number of sizes without restricting the choice of the customers.vantages Preferred Numbers » The difference in two successive terms has a fixed percentage. + It provides small steps for small quantities and large steps for large quantities. * The product range is covered with minimum number of sizes without restricting the choice of the customers.SSSSS8 95 S28 S59 A388 nn 5 Ssmic Considerations in a present days of buyer's market, with a number of products available in the market are having most of the parameters identical, the appearance of Product is offen a major factor in attracting the customer. This is particularly true for consumer durables like: automobiles, domestic refrigerators, television sets, etc. Aesthetics is defined as a set of principles of appreciation of beauly. |i deals with the appearance of the product. Appearance is an outword expression of quality of the product and is the first communication of the product with the user. For any product, there exists a relationship between the functional requirement and the appearance of a product.Resinenc Considerations * The aesthetic quality contributes to the performance of the product, though the extent of coniribution varies from the product to product. The following guidelines may be used in aesthetic design (design for appearance): » The appeararice should contribute to the performance of the product. For example, the aerodynamic shape of the car will have a lesser air resistance, resulting in the lesser fuel consumption. + The appearance shouid reflect the function of the product, For example. the aerodynamic shape of the car indicates the speed. * The appearance should reflect the quality of the product. For example. the robust and heavy appearance of the hydraulic pares re strength and rigidityssinetic Considerations " The appearance should not be at too much of extra cost unless it is. a prime ‘requirement. + The appearance should be suitable to the environment in which the product is used. + The growing importance of the aesthetic considerations in product design has given tise fo a separate disciple known as industrial design. + The job of an industrial designer is to create new shapes and forms for the product which are aesthetically appealing — Form (Shape) ‘There are five basic forms of the products, namely. step. taper. shear, sireamiineConsiderations e step form is a stepped structure having vertical accent Itis similar to the shape of a multistorey building. > Taper form The toner form consisls of tapered blocks or tapered cylinders. > Shear tom The shear form has a square outlook. > ine f The streamline form hos 0 streamlined shape having o smooth flow'as seen in’ ‘geroplane structuresConsiderations ‘Q Colours one of the major contributors to the aesthetic appeal of the product. Many colours are linked with different moods and conditions, Gi The selection of the colour should be compatible with the conventions. Mergan has suggesied the colour code given in the following Table. Colour Meaning Red Danger, Hazard, Hot Orange Possible Danger Yellow Caution Green Satety Blue ‘Caution-Cold Grey Dulletic Considerations rial and Surface Finish Gi The moterial and surface finish of the product contribute significantly to the appearance. The material like, stainless steel gives better appearance than the cast irons, plain carbon steels or low alloy steels. © The brass or bronze give richness to the appearance of the product. The products with better surface finish are always aesthetically pleasing: © The surface coating processes like: spray painting, anodizing, electroplating, etc. greatly enhances the aesthetic appeol of the product.jonomic Considerations Ergonomics is defined as thie scientific study of the man-machine-working environment relationship and the application of anatomical, physiological ‘and psychological principles to solve the problems arising from this relationship The word ergonomic is formed fram two Greek word: ergo means work and nomic mean natural laws. * The final objective of the ergonomics is to make the machine fit for user rather than to make the user adapt himself or herself to the machine. + It aims at decreasing the physical and mental stresses to the user. * Psychology - Experimental psychologists who study people at wark to provide: data on such things as: Human sensory capacities, psychomotor z performance, Human decision making, Human errer rates, Selection tests and procedures, Leaming and training,ic Considerations ely - An applied branch of anthropology concemed with the elterient of the prysicel fectures.of people, Measures how tol we are, how farwe can reach, how wide our hips are. how our joints flex. and how our bodies move Applied Physiology - Concerns the vital processes such as cardiac function, respiration, oxygen consumption, and electromyography activity, and the responses of these vital processes to work, stress, and environmental, influences.Ergonomic Considerations Machine | pe | Information _ Display Reception Working Environment : Lighting. Noise Temperature, Husmidity and Air Circulation. © Machine Corrective. @ Conirals ~|“*— | — “action ~~] Man-Machine Closed Loop Systemic Considerations man-machine closed ioop system in influenced by the working environmental aero lighting, noise, femperature, humidity, air circulation, etc. + Ergonomic Considerations in Design of Displays + Ergonomic Considerations in Design of Controls + Working Environment. = lighting + Noise = Temperature Humidity and air circulationFManufacturing and Assembly * Design for manufacturing and assembly are simple guidelines formulated to get the below benefits + itsimplifies the design * Itsimpiifies the production processes and decreases the product cost + Ihimproves product quality and reliability (because if the production process's simplified, then there is less. opportunity for errors). = It decreases the assembly cost. + It decreases the assembly time. « Itreduces time required to bring a new product into market.ae fanuvfacturing and Assembly + Design for Assembly or DFA Guidelines (Assembly Considerations in Design) — Reduce the Part Counts — Design engirieeis should try for product design that uses the minimum number of parts ~ Fewer parts result in lower costs = Italso makes assembly simpler and fewer chances of defects. a a SSif Manufacturing and Assembly » Design for Assembly or DFA Guidelines (Assembly Considerations in Design) ~ ‘Use modular designs: Modularize multiple parts into single sub-assemblies Modular design reduces the number of parts baing assembled at any, ‘one time and also simplifies final assembly Field service becomes simple, fast-and cheap because dismantling is faster and requires fewer tools.+ Design for Assembly or DFA Guidelines (Assembly Considerations in Design) = Assemble in the open + Design to allow assembly in open spaces, not confined spaces + Assembly operation should be caried out in clear view. This is important in manual assemblygn for Assembly or DFA Guidelines (Assembly Considerations in Design) * Design parts for simple assembly: ~ Design parts with orienting features to make alignment easierfor Manufacturing and Assembly * Design of components for casting * Why casting?#22 * Complex parts which are difficult to machine, are made by the casting process Almost any metal con be melted and cast. Most of the sand cast parts are made of cast iron, aluminum alloys and brass ie ac of the sand casting can be as small as 10 g and as large as 200 x Sand castings have irregular and grainy surfaces and machining Is required if the part is moving with respect to some other part or structureAufacturing and Assembly * Design of components for casting ~ Why casting? 222 + Cast components ore stable; rigid and streng compared with machined or forged parts. + Typical examples of cast components are machirie tool beds and siructures, cylinder blocks of internal combustion engines, pumps and gear bex housings.f Manufacturing and Assembly + Design of components for casting » Basic considerations of casting Always keep Ihe stressed areas of the parts in compression Round all extemal corners Wherever possible, the section thickness throughout should be held ‘as uniform as compatible with overall design considerations Avoid concentration of metal at the junctions Avoid very thin sections The wall adjacent to the drilied hole should have: thi equivalent fo the thickness of the main body:9 Manufacturing and Assembly + Design of components for casting + Qvalshaped holes are preferred with larger dimensions along the direction of forces + To facilitate easy removal, the pattern must have some draft + Qutside bosses should be omitted to facilitate a straight pattern draftWiacturing and Assembly . Design of components for casting + Always keep the stressed areas of the parts in compression + Cast iron has more compressive strength than its tensile strength: + The castings should be placed in such @ way that they are subjected to compressive rather than tensile stresses.facturing and Assembly + Design of components for casting + Always keep the stressed areas of the parts in compression + When tensile stresses are unavoidable, a clamping device such as ‘G tie rod or a bearing cap should be considered. + The clamping device relieves the cast iron components from tensile: stresses. a“+ Round all external comers + It increases the endurance limit of the component and reduces the formation of brittle chilled edges + When the metal in the comer cools faster than the metal adjacent to the corner, brittle chilled edges are formed » Appropriate fillet radius reduces the stress concentration ft wl en med besManufacturing and Assembly components for casting « Wherever possible, the section thickness throughout should be held as uniform as compatible with overall design considerations = Abrupt changes in the cross-section result in high stress concentration + Ifthe thickness is to be varied at all, the change should be gradual == (@) Poor {b} Good = | (o)Betteri esign for Manufacturing and Assembly + Design of components for casting » Avoid concentration of metal at the junctions * At the junction, there is a concentration of metal. + Even after the metal on the surface solidifies, the central portion still remains in the molten stage. with the result that a shrinkage cavity or blowhole may appear at the center + There are two ways to avoid the concentration of metal. * One is to provide a cored opening in webs and ribs * Alfernatively, one can stagger the ribs and websof componenis for casting © Avoid concentration of metal at the junctions Cored Holes Staggered ribsManufacturing and Assembly n of components for casting * Avoid very thin sections * Ifdepends upon the process of casting such as sand casting , permanent mold costing or die casting = The wall adjacent to the drilled hole should have a thickness equivalent to the thickness of the main body + The inserted stud will not restore the strength of the original thickness.. Qval-shaped holes are preferred with larger dimensions along the direction of forces irs {@) Poorfanufacturing and Assemblyignitor Manufacturing and Assembly (DFMA) + Design of components for Forging * Why forging? ##? * Aproperly designed forging is not only sound with regard to strength but it also helps reduce the forging forces, improves die life and simplifies die design + Forged components are usually made of steels and non-ferrous metals, + They can be as small as. a gudgeon pin and as large as a crankshaft. * Forged components are used under the following circumstances: * Moving components requiring light weight to reduce inertia forces, e.g, connecting rod of |. C. engines, Components subjected to excessive stresses, e.g. Gircraft structures, Small compenents that must be supported by other structures of parts, e.g. hand tools and handles, Components requiring pressure: where the part must be free from internal cracks, e.g. valve bodies, whose failure would cause injury and expensive damage are forged forignitor Manufacturing and Assembly (DFMA) + Design of components for Forging * Why forging? ##? * Aproperly designed forging is not only sound with regard to strength but it also helps reduce the forging forces, improves die life and simplifies die design + Forged components are usually made of steels and non-ferrous metals, + They can be as small as. a gudgeon pin and as large as a crankshaft. * Forged components are used under the following circumstances: * Moving components requiring light weight to reduce inertia forces, e.g, connecting rod of |. C. engines, Components subjected to excessive stresses, e.g. Gircraft structures, Small compenents that must be supported by other structures of parts, e.g. hand tools and handles, Components requiring pressure: where the part must be free from internal cracks, e.g. valve bodies, whose failure would cause injury and expensive damage are forged forfor Manufacturing and Assembly (DEM) + Design of components for Forging Wile designing « forging. advantage should be taken of the direction offre fines There are no fibre lines in the cast component and the grains are scattered. In case of a compenent prepared by machining methods, such as tuming ‘of milling, the original fibre lines of rolled stock are broken. It is only in case of forged parts that the fibre lines are arranged in a favorable way to withstand stresses due to external load. While designing a forging, the profile is selected in such a way that fibre lines ore parallel to tensile forces and perpendicular to shear forcesacturing and Assembly for Forging designing a forging, advantage should be taken of the crection of foe tines (a) Cast Component (b) Machined Component (©) Forged ComponentCS is YQ Manufacturing and Assembly nents for Forging The forged component should be provided with an adequate draft BCD UU The draft angle is provided for an easy removal of the part from the die T Ee ZZ Z | e angle is impressionsfacturing and Assembly ents for Forging as line should be in one plane as far as possible and it should divide the two equal parts. . = al porting line is broken. it results in unbalonced forging forces, which tends to displace: the two die halves. xManufacturing and Assembly - n eam penetbs for Welding + Why welding??22? = Welding is the most important method of joining the parts into a complex ‘assembly + Select the Material with High Weldabitity + Ingeneral, low carbon steel is more easily welded than high carton steel. * Higher cerben content tends to harden the welded joint, as a result of which the weld is susceptible to cracks.Besion for Manufacturing and Assembly (DFMA) + Design of components for Welding Use Minimum Number of Welds + Only the adjoining area of the joint is heated up, which has no freedom to expand or contract. Uneven expansion and contraction in this adjoining area and parent metal fesults in distortion. + Since distortion always occurs in welding, the design should involve a minimum number of welds and avoid over welding. it will not only reduce the distortion but also the costUse Standard Components The designer should specify standard sizes for plates, bars and rolled sections. Non-standard sections involve flame cutting of plates and additional welding. AS far as possible, the designer should select plates of equal thickness for a butt joint.for Manufacturing and Assembly (DFMA) + The designer should consider the sequence in which the parts should be + This is particularly important for a Complex job involving a number of welds. Design of components for Welding Select Proper Location for the Weld The Welded joint should be located in on area where stresses and deflection are not critical, Also, it should be located at such ¢ place that the welder and welding machine hos unobstructed access to that location. Prescribe Correct Sequence of Welding welded fogether for minimum distortion. An incorrect sequence of welding causes distortion and sometimes cracks in the weld metal due to stress concentration at some point in fabricationjanutacturing and Assembly ‘components for Welding duce edge preparation + It is necessary to prepare bevel edges for the components prior to welding operation. + This preparatory work can be totally eliminated by making a slight change in the arrangement of components. ”FManufacturing and Assembly PR aneeHT Fo Machining Why machining??? Machined components are widely used in all industrial products. They are usually made from ferrous and non-ferrous metals. They are as small as d gear in a wristwatch and as large as huge turbine housing. Metal-cutting operations: Tuming, Milling, drilling, shaping, boring. reaming ete. Surface finishing operations: Grinding, buffing etc.