DEPARTMENT OF

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Transistor Amplifiers and their Equivalent

Circuits

January 28, 2024

© Theraja, B. L., & Theraja, A. K. (2005). A textbook of electrical

technology. Ram Nagar, New Delhi: S. Chand & Company Ltd.
© Malvino, A. P. (2015). Electronic Principles. New York, United States:
McGraw-Hill US Higher Ed USE Legacy.

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Learning Outcomes

By the end of this class you should be able to:

1. Represent npn and pnp transistors using their dc equivalent
circuits,

2. Represent npn and pnp transistors using their ac equivalent

circuits,

3. Analyse CB amplifiers using their equivalent circuits,

4. Analyse CE amplifiers using their equivalent circuits,

5. Determine the effect of source resistance on the voltage

gain of an amplifier.

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Introduction

In this topic, we consider ideal transistors, and only discuss the

small-signal equivalent circuits.

A small-signal operation is that in which the ac input signal

(voltages and currents) are approx. ±10 % of Q-point values.

There are two approaches regarding the equivalent circuit to

be substituted for the transistor.

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The two approaches make use of

1. The four h-parameters of the transistor and the values of
circuit components,

2. The beta (β) of the transistor and the values of the

circuit components.

The hybrid parameters produce more accurate results in the

analysis of amplifier circuits.

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However, the use of h-parameter equivalent circuit is

persistently trouble with the following difficulties:

1. The values of h-parameters are not so readily or easily

available.

2. Their values vary considerably with individual transistors

even of the same type number.

3. Their values are limited to a particular set of operating

conditions for reasonably accurate results.

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Thus the second method which employs transistor β and

resistance values is lately gaining more popularity.

The second method has the following advantages:

1. The required values are easily available

2. The procedure followed is simple and easy to understand

3. The results obtained are quite accurate for the study of

amplifier circuit characteristics.

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DC equivalent circuit

(a). CB configuration circuit

An ideal transistor has α = 1 which means that IC = IE .

Regarding dc signals, we have seen that the emitter diode acts

like any forward-biased ideal diode...

...while the collector diode acts as a current source due to

transistor action.

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And so, we can view an ideal transistor as a rectifier diode in

emitter and a current source in collector

Figure 1: (a) A common base NPN transistor circuit, (b) the dc

equivalent of a common base NPN transistor circuit.

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In the dc equivalent circuit of Figure 1(b), current arrow points

in the direction of conventional current,...

...the emitter current flows from B to E and collector current

from C to B.

The dc equivalent circuit in Figure 2 for an PNP transistor is

exactly similar, but with opposite direction of current flow.

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Figure 2: (a) A common base PNP transistor circuit, (b) the dc

equivalent of a common base PNP transistor circuit.

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(b). CE configuration circuit

In the ideal CE configuration, we disregard leakage current

and take βac equal to βdc .

Figure 3: (a) A common emitter NPN transistor circuit, (b) the dc

equivalent of a common emitter NPN transistor circuit.

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AC equivalent circuit
(a). CB configuration circuit

In the case of small input ac signals, the emitter diode does

not rectify, instead it offers resistance called ac resistance...

...while as usual, collector diode acts as a current source.

Figure 4 shows the ac equivalent circuit of a transistor connected

in the CB-configuration

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Figure 4: The ac equivalent circuit of a transistor connected in the

CB configuration.

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This circuit is valid both for PNP as well as NPN transistors

∵ the difference in the direction of ac current does not matter.

The ac resistance offered by the emitter diode is

rac = rj + rB (1)

where
▶ rj is the junction resistance and

▶ rB is the bulk (base-spreading) resistance1 .

1
rE , the (emitter-spreading) resistance is considered zero because the emitter
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Assuming that rB is negligible

rac = rj + rB
25mV
= + negligible
IE
25mV
=
IE
where IE is dc emitter current in mA

It is written as re′ to signify junction resistance of the emitter,

that is, a.c resistance looking into the emitter.

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Thus the junction resistance of the emitter is

25mV
re′ =
IE
The a.c collector current is α times the emitter current, ie . Thus,

ic = αie

As a result, the a.c equivalent circuit of a CB configuration is

shown in Figure 5.

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Figure 5: The simplified ac equivalent circuit of a transistor

connected in the CB configuration.

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(b). CE configuration circuit

Figure 6(a) shows the equivalent circuit when an NPN transistor

has been connected in the CE-configuration.

Figure 6: The simplified ac equivalent circuit of a transistor

connected in the CB configuration.

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The a.c resistance looking into the base is

25mV
rac = − Here the d.c current is IB not IE
IB

25mV 25mV 25mV

= =β· ≈β· since IC ≈ IE
IC /β IC IE

≈ βre′

The a.c collector current is β times the base current. Thus,

ic = βib

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Equivalent circuit of a CB amplifier

Figures 7 and 8 shows the circuit and the equivalent circuit

respectively of a CB amplifier

Clearly, emitter is forward-biased by −VEE and collector is

reverse-biased by +VCC .

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Figure 7: The circuit of a CB amplifier.

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The a.c signal source voltage vs drives the emitter, and...

...produces small voltage and current fluctuations in the

output circuit.

We will see that ac output voltage is amplified because it is

more than vs .

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(a). DC equivalent circuit

To draw the dc equivalent circuit, the following procedure may

be adopted:
1. Short all ac sources to ground i.e. reduce them to zero,

2. Open all capacitors because they block dc.

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Figure 8: The dc equivalent circuit of a CB amplifier.

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Doing this, we see from Figure 7, that neither emitter current

can pass thro’ C1 nor collector current can pass thro’ C2

These currents are confined to their respective resistances RE

and RC (earlier we had been designating it as resistance RL ). Here,

IC = αIE ≈ IE

VCB = VCC − IC RL

Hence, the dc equivalent circuit becomes as shown in Figure 8.

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(b). AC equivalent circuit

To draw the ac equivalent circuit, we adopt the following

procedure:
1. All dc sources are shorted i.e. they are treated as ac ground,

2. All coupling capacitors like C1 and C2 in Figure 7 are

shorted and

3. Emitter diode is replaced by its a.c resistance rac = re′

25mV
re′ =
IE
where IE is dc emitter current in mA.

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As it sees, the input a.c signal, vs has to feed RE and re′ in

parallel. See Figure 9(a).

Figure 9: The ac equivalent circuit of a CB amplifier.

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Here, the collector has to feed RC and RL which are connected

in parallel across it

The ac signal in collector sees an output load resistance of

rL = RC ||RL

In Figure 9(b), the collector diode is shown as a current source.

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(c). Principal operating characteristics

1. Input resistance

▶ As seen from Figure 9(a), the input resistance of the circuit

(or stage) is given by

re′ RE
rin = rin(stage) = RE ||re′ =
RE + re′

In practice, RE is always much greater than re′ so that parallel

combination RE ||re′ ≈ re′

Thus, rin ≈ re′ is the input resistance of the emitter diode

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2. AC load resistance

▶ The collector load as seen by output ac signal, designated

as rL , consists of a parallel combination of RL and RC .

rL = RL ||RC

Note that this is the output resistance as seen by

collector.

Also note that in case RL is not connected, then rL = RC

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Figure 10: The ac equivalent circuit of a CB amplifier.

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3. Current gain

▶ It is given by the ratio

ic
Ai = =α
ie
4. Voltage gain

▶ It is given by the ratio

vout
Av =
vin
But,

vout = ic rL = βib rL
vin = ie rin = (1 + β)ib · rin

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Note here, that vin equals vs ∵ there is no internal

resistance of the source. With RS , the two wont be equal.

Thus voltage gain is given by the ratio

ic rL βib rL αrL
Av = = =
ie rin (1 + β)ib rin rin
∼ rL β
= Assuming that =α=1
rin 1+β
β rL rL
Taking the ratio = α as unity, Av = = ′
1+β rin re

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5. Power gain

▶ It is given by the ratio

Ap = Av · Ai

When expressed in decibels, it is written as

Gp = 10 log10 Ap dB

When expressed in terms of rin and rL , the a.c equivalent

circuit becomes as shown in Figure 10

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Example 1

For the single-stage CB amplifier shown in Figure 11;

a). Find
i). rin ,
ii). rL ,
iii). Ai ,
iv). Av and
v). Ap .
b). What would be the rms value of the signal voltage across the
load if vs has an rms value of 1.5mV ?
Assume silicon material and transistor α = 0.98.

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Figure 11: A single-stage CB amplifier.

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Example 2

For the CB amplifier circuit shown in Figure 12, find

i). stage rin
ii). rL
iii). a.c output voltage vout
iv). voltage gain Av .
Take VBE = 0.7V .

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Figure 12: The amplifier circuit.

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Equivalent circuit of a CE amplifier

Consider the base bias CE amplifier circuit of Figure 13(a).

Figure 13: The amplifier circuit along with its dc equivalent circuit.

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(a). DC equivalent circuit

To draw the dc equivalent circuit, the same procedure, as

presented above, is adopted. See Figure 13(b). Clearly,

VCC − VBE
IB =
RB

IC = β IB

IE ≈ IC = βIB

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(b). AC equivalent circuit

Let us now analyse the ac equivalent circuit given in Figure 14.

Figure 14: AC equivalent circuit.

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As shown previously, the ac resistance rac as seen by the input

signal when looking into the base is = βre′ .

It may be called rin(base) to distinguish it from rin which is

resistance of the CE stage as shown in Figure 14(a).

Note that in the absence of ac voltage source resistance RS ,...

...the whole of vs acts across RB as well as βre′ because the two

are connected in parallel across it.

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Also note that major part of source current passes through βre′ and
an extremely small part (= vs /RB ) passes through RB .

Since RB is usually very large, current passing thro’ it can be easily

neglected.

Hence, as shown in Figure 14(b), ib = is .

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(c). Principal operating characteristics

1. Input resistance
As seen from Figure 14, input resistance of the stage is

rin = RB ||βre′ ≈ βre′ RB ≫ βre′

≈ input resistance of the base
rin(stage) ≈ rin(base)

2. AC load resistance

rL = RC ||RL

3. Current gain
ic
Ai = =β
ib
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4. Voltage gain The voltage gain of the stage or circuit is

vout
Av =
vin

But vin = ib · βre′ and

vout = ic · rL = βib · rL

βib · rL rL
∴ Av = ′
= ′ if RB ≫ βre′
ib · βre re

5. Power gain

Ap = Ai · Av

Gp = 10 log10 Av dB

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Example 3

If in the CE circuit of Figure 13(a), VCC = 20V , RC = 10K ,

RB = 1M, RL = 1M, vs = 2mV and β = 50, find
i). ib and ic
ii). rin
iii). rL
iv). An
v). Ap and Gp .

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Example 4

The CE amplifier circuit of Figure 15 is employing emitter

feedback. Taking transistor β = 100,
a). find;
i). rin
ii). rL
iii). Av
iv). Ap and
v). Gp .
b). How will these values change if emitter bypass capacitor is
removed?

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Figure 15: CE amplifier circuit.

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