(20A56201T) Applied Physics

▶ PREPARED BY

Dr. U. Sasikala
Associate Professor
Department of H&S
 COURSEOUTCOMES

▶ CO1: Identify the wave properties of light and the interaction of energy with the matter .
▶ CO2: Understands the response of dielectric and magnetic materials to the applied electric
and
magnetic fields.
▶ CO3: Study the quantum mechanical picture of subatomic world along with the
discrepancies
between the classical estimates and laboratory observations of electron transportation
▶ CO4: phenomena by free electron theory and band theory.
▶ CO5: Elaborate the physical properties exhibited by materials through the understanding of
properties of semiconductors and superconductors.
 APPLIED PHYSICS
Unit – I: Wave Optics
Interference- Principle of superposition – Interference of light – Conditions for sustained interference
- Interference in thin films (Reflection Geometry) – Colors in thin films – Newton’s Rings –
Determination of wavelength and refractive index.
Diffraction- Introduction – Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction – Fraunhofer diffraction due to single
slit, double slit and N-slits (qualitative) – Grating spectrum.
Polarization- Introduction – Types of polarization – Polarization by reflection, refraction and double
refraction - Nicol’s Prism - Half wave and Quarter wave plates with applications.

Unit – II: Lasers & Fiber Optics

Lasers- Introduction – Characteristics of laser – Spontaneous and Stimulated emission of radiation –
Einstein’s coefficients – Population inversion – Lasing action – Pumping mechanisms – Nd-YAG
laser – He-Ne laser – Applications of lasers.
Fiber optics- Introduction – Principle of optical fiber – Acceptance Angle – Numerical Aperture –
Classification of optical fibers based on refractive index profile and modes – Propagation of
electromagnetic wave through optical fibers – Propagation Losses (qualitative) – Applications.
 APPLIED PHYSICS
Unit – III: Dielectric and Magnetic Materials

Dielectric Materials- Introduction – Dielectric polarization – Dielectric polarizability, Susceptibility

and Dielectric constant – Types of polarizations: Electronic, Ionic and Orientation polarizations
(Qualitative) – Lorentz internal field – Clausius-Mossotti equation.
Magnetic Materials- Introduction – Magnetic dipole moment – Magnetization – Magnetic
susceptibility and Permeability – Origin of permanent magnetic moment – Classification of magnetic
materials: Dia, para & Ferro-Domain concept of Ferromagnetism (Qualitative) – Hysteresis – Soft and
Hard magnetic materials.

Unit – IV: Quantum Mechanics, Free Electron Theory and Band theory of Solids

Quantum Mechanics- Dual nature of matter – Schrodinger’s time independent and dependent wave
equation – Significance of wave function – Particle in a one-dimensional infinite potential well.
Free Electron Theory- Classical free electron theory (Merits and demerits only) – Quantum free
electron theory – Equation for electrical conductivity based on quantum free electron theory – Fermi-
Dirac distribution – Density of states – Fermi energy.
Band theory of Solids- Bloch’s Theorem (Qualitative) – Kronig-Penney model (Qualitative) – E vs K
diagram – Classification of crystalline solids – Effective mass of electron – m* vs K diagram –
Concept of hole.
 APPLIED PHYSICS
Unit – V: Semiconductors and Superconductors

Semiconductors- Introduction – Intrinsic semiconductors – Density of charge carriers – Electrical

conductivity – Fermi level – Extrinsic semiconductors – Density of charge carriers – Dependence of
Fermi energy on carrier concentration and temperature – Drift and diffusion currents – Einstein’s
equation – Direct and indirect band gap semiconductors – Hall effect – Hall coefficient – Applications
of Hall effect.
Superconductors- Introduction – Properties of superconductors – Meissner effect – Type I and Type
II superconductors – BCS theory – Josephson effects (AC and DC) – High Tc superconductors –
Applications of superconductors.

Textbooks:
1. Engineering Physics – Dr. M.N. Avadhanulu & Dr. P.G. Kshirsagar, S. Chand and Company
2. Engineering Physics – B.K. Pandey and S. Chaturvedi, Cengage Learning.
Reference Books:
1. Engineering Physics – Shatendra Sharma, Jyotsna Sharma, Pearson Education, 2018
2. Engineering Physics – K. Thyagarajan, McGraw Hill Publishers
3. Engineering Physics - Sanjay D. Jain, D. Sahasrambudhe and Girish, University Press
4. Semiconductor physics and devices- Basic principle – Donald A, Neamen, Mc Graw Hill
 LASERS
6
LASER: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

2.1 Introduction

 Laser is one of the outstanding inventions of the 20th century.

 A laser is a photonic device that emits light(electromagnetic radiation)through a process of
optical amplification based on the Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
 The term "LASER" originated as an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission
of Radiation.
 In 1960 An American Scientist T.H .Maiman was first invented solid state laser (Ruby LASER)
 In 1961, A.Javan and associates developed the first gas laser (He-Ne gas LASER).Further many lasers was
invented based on their applications.
 In now days, laser is a important tool in a wide variety of fields such as optical communication
systems, metal working, entertainment, surgery and weapon guidance in wars.
 7

2.2. Characteristics of Lasers

Laser has certain unique properties when compared to
ordinary sources of light. They are

1. Monochromaticity
2. Coherence
3. Directionality
4. Intensity
 8

2.2.1. Monochromaticity
 Monochromatic light means a light containing a single color or wavelength.
 The photons emitted from ordinary light sources have different energies, frequencies,
wavelengths, or colors. Hence, ordinary light sources emit polychromatic light.
 On the other hand, the photons emitted from laser light sources have same energies,frequencies,
wavelengths, or colors. Hence, laser emits a single wavelength or color light.

a) Ordinary Light b) Laser light

 9

2.2.2. Coherence
The photons emitted from ordinary light sources have different energies, frequencies, wavelengths,
or colors and are out of phase. Therefore, ordinary light sources produce incoherent light.

 The photons emitted from laser light sources have same energies, frequencies, wavelengths, or
colors and are in phase. Therefore, a laser light source produces coherent light.
To produce coherent light in a laser, a new technique used called stimulated emission of radiation.
 10

2.2.3. Directionality

 Directional means that the beam is well collimated (very parallel) and travels over long
distances with very little spread.
In conventional light sources (lamp, sodium lamp and torchlight), photons will travel in random
direction. Therefore, these light sources emit light in all directions and is highly divergent.
On the other hand, in laser, all photons will travel in same direction. Therefore, laser emits light only in
one direction. This is called directionality of laser light.

 The width of a laser beam is extremely narrow. Hence, a laser beam can travel to long
distances without spreading.
 11

 For example, if an ordinary light travels a distance of 2 km, it spreads to about 2 km in diameter.
 On the other hand, if a laser light travels a distance of 2 km, it spreads to a diameter less than 2 cm.
 Therefore, the divergence or angular spread of a laser is very small and high directional.
2cm

(a) (b)

The angular spread or divergence (θ) = degrees

Where: d1 = Beam diameter at point 1.
d2 = Beam diameter at point 2.
l1 = Distance from laser to point 1
l2 = Distance from laser to point 2. (c)
 12

2.2.4. Intensity
 The intensity of a light is defined as the light energy per unit time flowing thriugh a unit area
 In an ordinary light spreads in all directions; the intensity reaching the target is very less.
 But in the case of laser, due to high directionality many beams of light incident in small area,therefore the
intensity of light high.

Target Target
 13

2.3. Interaction of radiation with matter

When the incident radiation (Photon) interacts with atoms in the energy levels then three distinct
processes can takes place.
1. Absorption of radiation
2. Spontaneous emission of radiation
3. Stimulated emission of radiation
 14

2.3.1. Absorption of radiation

Suppose if an atom in the lower energy level (or) ground state energy level E1 and absorbs the incident
photon radiation of energy then it goes to the higher energy level (or) excited state E2 as shown in Fig.
This process is called absorption of radiation
15
 16

2.3.2. Spontaneous emission of radiation

Normally the atom in the excited state will not stay there, for a long time i.e., it can stay up to 10-9 second.
This called life time of atom. After the life time of the excited atom, it returns to the ground state by
emitting photon energy E= E2-E1 = hv, spontaneously without any external energy as shown in Fig .

This process is known as Spontaneous emission of radiation

17
 18

2.3.3. Stimulated emission of radiation

Suppose if we incident some suitable form of energy on the atom in the excited state, then it can also
return to the ground by emitting a photon, known as stimulated emission. In this process two photons are
released. They have same frequency, wavelength and in phase difference and of same directionality as
shown in Fig.
19
 20

2.4. Difference between spontaneous and stimulated emission of radiation

21
 22

2.6. Einstein’s coefficients and their relations

In 1917 Einstein proposed a mathematical relation between absorption and emission of radiation
based on Boltzmann’s distribution law and Planck’s theory of radiation.
Consider two energy levels of energies E1 and E2 (E2 >E1) .Let N1 and N2 be the number of atoms per unit
volume of E1 and E2.

Fig. Three different processes during the interaction of light with matter
23
24
25
26
 27

Thus, the spontaneous emission of radiation dominates the stimulated emission of radiation at
normal conditions. This is why it is difficult to achieve laser action.
The spontaneous emission produces incoherent light, while stimulated emission produces coherent light. In
an ordinary conventional light source, the spontaneous emission is dominated. For, laser action stimulated
emission should be predominant over spontaneous emission and absorption. To achieve this, an artificial
condition is required, known as population inversion.
 28

2.7. Population Inversion

In general, the population of lower energy level will be greater than that of the higher energy level. To get
stimulated emission of radiation, the population of higher energy level (E2) should be greater than the
population of the lower energy level (E1).i.e., N2>N1.
The process of making a state in which the population of higher energy level (E2) is greater than the
population of the lower energy level (E1) is known as population inversion.

N1>N2 N2>N1
 29

Explanation
In general, a two energy level diagram is suitable for spontaneous emission of radiation the life time of higher
energy level is in the order of 10-9sec. But, to attain population inversion the life time of higher energy level must
be longer. Hence population inversion cannot be attained in a two energy level diagram.

 To explain Population Inversion, let us Consider a there energy level system in which three energy
levels E1, E2 and E3 are present and populations in those energy levels are N1, N2 and N3 respectively.
 In normal conditions E1<E2< E3 and N1> N2 > N3 obeying Boltzmann’s distribution law.
E1 is the lower energy state with more time of an atom, E3 is the higher energy state with less lifetime of an
atom (10-9sec) and E2 is the intermediate energy state with more life time of an atom (10- 3sec) compare to that
of E3.

 This intermediate energy state with more life time of atoms is known as metastable state.
 30

 This state provides necessary population inversion for the laser action.
 When suitable form of energy is supplied to the system, then the atoms excite from ground state E1
to higher energy state E3 and E2.
 Graphically this has been as shown in Fig.
 Let the atoms in the system be excited from E1 state to E3 state by supplying energy equal to
E3-E1= hv from an external source.
The atoms in E3 state are unstable; they can stay up to 10-9 s. This called life time of atoms. After the life
time of the excited atoms, they can returns to the meta stable state E2 without emission of any radiation
.This process is called non-radiative transition. In E2 state, the atoms can stay for a very long time (10-3s).
As atoms in E1 state are continuously exciting to E3 , so the population in E1 energy state goes decreasing.

 A state will reach at which the population in E2 State is greater than E1 state (i.e.N2>N1). This
situation is known as population inversion.
 31

Fig.(a) Boltzmann’s distribution (b) Population inversion between E1 and E2

 32

2.8 EXCITATION MECHANISMS: PUMPING

The population inversion cannot be achieved thermally. To achieve population inversion suitable form of energy must
be supplied. The process of supplying suitable form of energy to a system to achieve population inversion is called
pumping.

There’re several methods for achieving the condition of population inversion necessary for laser action. Some of the
most commonly used pumping methods are,

(i) Optical pumping

(ii) Electrical discharge(Direct electron excitation)
(iii) Inelastic atom-atom collision
(iv) Direct conversion
(v) Chemical reaction.
 33

2.8.1 OPTICAL PUMPING METHOD

 The process of supplying suitable form of optical energy to a system to achieve population inversion is called
optical pumping.

 In this method, light source is used to supply suitable form of optical energy to excite the atoms to higher energy
level to achieve population inversion.

 This type of pumping is used in solid state lasers (Ex: Ruby laser and Nd-YAG Laser).
 34

2.8.2 ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE (DIRECT ELECTRON EXCITATION) PUMPING METHOD

 In this method, a high voltage or electric field is applying to electrodes at both sides of the discharge tube containing
the gas causes Electrons are ejected from the cathode, accelerated toward the anode, and collide with the gas
molecules along the way.

 During the collision, the mechanical kinetic energy of the electrons is transferred to the gas molecules, and excites
them. (This same method of energy transfer is used in common fluorescent lights).

 This type of pumping is used in gaseous ion lasers (Ex: He-Ne laser and co2 Laser).
 35

2.8.3 INELASTIC ATOM-ATOM COLLISION PUMPING METHOD

 In this method a combination of two types of gases are used say A and B, both having same or nearly
coinciding excited states A* and B*.

 In the first step, during electric discharge, A gets excited to A* (meta stable state) due to collision with
electrons. The excited atom now colloid with the B atoms so that B goes to excited state B*.

 For example, in the helium-neon laser the electrons from the discharge collide with the helium atoms,
exciting them. The excited helium atoms then collide with neon atoms, transferring energy so that Ne atoms
go the excited state.
 36

2.8.4 DIRECT CONVERSION PUMPING METHOD

when a p-n junction diode is forward biased and then the recombination of electrons and holes across the
junction emits the radiation.
Electron + hole photon
This method is used in semiconductor lasers.

2.8.5 CHEMICAL REACTIONS PUMPING METHOD

In this method, due to some chemical reactions, the atoms may be raised to excited state.
For example, hydrogen fluoride chemical laser, in which hydrogen can react with fluorine to produce
hydrogen fluoride liberating heat energy. This heat energy will try to excite the atoms to higher energy level.

H2 + F2 2HF + Heat energy

 37

2.9 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A LASER SYSTEM

The block diagram of laser system

contains three parts, they are

1. Source of energy

2. Active medium and

3. Optical resonator.
 38

2.9.1 SOURCE OF ENERGY

 To achieve population inversion suitable form of energy must be supplied. It supplies suitable form of energy
by using any one of the pumping methods.

For example in ruby laser, helical xenon flash tube used as pumping source.

 In helium-neon laser, electrical discharge tube used as pumping source.

2.9.2 ACTIVE MEDIUM

 To achieve population inversion medium is necessary.

 The material medium in which population inversion takes place is called as active medium. In which
metastable state is present.

 In metastable state only the population inversion takes place. It can be a solid, liquid, gas or semiconductor
diode junction.
2.9.2 ACTIVE MEDIUM

 To achieve population inversion medium is necessary.

 The material medium in which population inversion takes place is called as active medium. In
which metastable state is present.

 In metastable state only the population inversion takes place. It can be a solid, liquid, gas or
semiconductor diode junction.

 The material medium in which the atoms are raised to exited state to achieve population
inversion is called as active centers.
• The material medium in which the atoms are raised to exited state to achieve population inversion
is called as active centers.

• For example, in ruby laser, the active medium is aluminum oxide (Al2O3) doped with chromium
oxide (Cr2O3). In which chromium ions (Cr3+) act as active centers.

• In helium -neon laser it is the combination of helium and neon in the ratio of 10:1 in which Ne
atoms act as active centers.
2.9.3 OPTICAL RESONATOR
 An optical resonator which consists of two mirrors. One mirror is fully reflective and other is partially
reflective.

 An active medium is kept between in them. The light emitted due to the stimulated emission of radiation
bounces back and forth between the two mirrors and hence the intensity of the light is increased enormously.
 Finally the intense, amplified beam called laser is allowed to come out through the partial mirror
PRINCIPLE OF LASER ACTION
Due to stimulated emission the photons m u l t i p l y i n each step giving rise to a n
intense beam of photons that are coherent a n d moving i n the same direction .
Hence the Light Is Am p l i f i e d by Stimulated Emission of R a d i a t i o n
2.10 Nd-YAG [Neodymium-Yttrium Aluminum Garnet] Laser
Characteristics of Laser

Type : Solid state laser (4-level solid state laser)

Active medium : Yttrium Aluminum Garnet [Y3Al5012]

Active center : Nd3+ ions

Pumping method : Optical pumping

Pumping source : Xenon flash lamp
Optical resonator : Two ends of the rod polished with silver
Wave length : 1.064 µm.
Principle: The neodymium ions are raised to exited states by using optical pumping. Then the ions are accumulated at
Meta stable state by non radiative transition. Due to stimulated emission the transition of ions takes place from Meta
stable state to ground state, the laser beam of wavelength1.064 µm emitted.

 Construction:

 A Nd-YAG laser consists of a cylindrical Nd-YAG rod [Y3Al5012].

 In the Nd-YAG rod, Nd3+ ions are the active ions taking part in the laser action.

 The Nd-YAG rod will act as an active medium.

 One end of the Nd-YAG rod is fully silvered and the other end is partially silvered so that the two ends will act as
optical resonator (or) cavity.

 The Nd-YAG rod surrounded by elliptical glass cavity which in turn is enclosed by xenon flash lamp filled with xenon
gas shown in Fig.
 Energy level diagram of Nd-YAG laser
Construction of Nd-YAG laser
2.10.1 WORKING
 The xenon flash lamp is switched on.

 A few thousand joules of light energy is discharged in a few milliseconds.

 A part of this light energy will be flashes on the Nd-YAG rod.

 Then the Nd3++ ions in the rod absorbs the particular wavelength of the incident light energy and are
excited to higher energy states as shown in fig(2).

 The Nd3+ ions absorbs the light of photon of wavelength 0.73 µm and go to E4 excited state and by
absorbing wavelength 0.80 µm they go to E3 excited state as shown in the energy level diagram.

 The excited Nd3+ ions then make a transition from these energy levels.

 The Nd3+ ions remain for about 10-8 second in these energy levels and makes non-radiative transition to
the Meta stable state (E2).
  In Meta stable state, the Nd3+ ions remain for longer duration of the order 10-3 second, so population
inversion takes place between Meta stable and ground state.

 As a result, stimulated emission takes place and Nd3+ ions transmitted from Meta stable state to ground state.

 Hence, pulsed form of laser beam of wavelength 1.064 µm is emitted during transition from E2 to E1.

2.10.2 APPLICATIONS OF Nd-YAG LASER

 These lasers are widely used for cutting, drilling, welding in the industrial products.

 It is used in long haul communication systems.

 It is also used in the endoscopic applications.

2.11 HELIUM-NEON LASER
This laser is discovered by Ali Javan an USA Scientist. He-Ne stands for Helium-Neon. The He-Ne laser
active medium consists of two gases which do not interact form a molecule. Therefore He-Ne laser is one
type of atomic gas lasers.

Characteristics of laser

Type : Gas laser

Active medium : Mixture of Helium and Neon in the ratio10:1

Active Centre : Neon

Pumping method : Electrical pumping

Optical resonator : Pair of concave mirrors

Wavelength : 632.8 nm
Principle
This laser is based on principle of stimulation emission, produced in the active medium of gas. Here, the
population inversion is achieved due to the interaction between two gases which have closed higher energy
levels.

Construction

 It consists of a gas discharge tube, which made up of quartz and is filled with the mixture of helium under a
pressure of 1mm of hg and neon under the pressure of 0.1mm of hg. The ratio of the He-Ne mixture is 10:1.
i.e., the number of Helium atoms is greater than the number of Ne atoms.
 The electrons at the ends of the discharge tube are connected to the radio frequency oscillator to produce
electrical discharge in the He-Ne mixture as shown in Fig.
The end faces of the discharge tube are tilted at the Brewster angle and are called as Brewster windows. It is used to
produce plane polarized light by reflecting the perpendicularly polarized light .A fully reflecting and partial reflective
concave mirror is placed at the left and right ends of the discharge tube respectively which acts as a resonant cavity.

Construction of He-Ne Laser

WORKING
 By electrical discharge in a tube, the ground state helium atoms are excited to higher energy levels.

 The excitation occurs due to the collision of discharged electrons with helium atoms.

 The excited He atoms colloid inelastically with the neon atoms which have close energy level as that of helium
energy level.

 Therefore the helium atoms deliver its energy to neon atoms by the process known as resonant collision energy
transfer.

 This resonant energy transfer takes place because the corresponding energy levels of Helium atoms (2s1 and
2s2) are almost closer to the neon energy levels (2s and 3s).
ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAM OF He-Ne LASER
Applications of He-Ne Laser
The Helium-Neon gas laser is one of the most commonly used laser today because of the
following applications.

 He-Ne lasers are produced in large quantities from many years.

 Many schools / colleges / universities use this type of laser in their science programs and
experiments.

 He-Ne lasers also used in super market checkout counters to read bar codes and QR codes.

 He-Ne lasers also used by newspapers for reproducing transmitted photographs.

 He-Ne lasers can be use as an alignment tool.

 It is also used in Guns for targeting.

Advantages of He-Ne Laser
 He-Ne laser has very good coherence property

 He-Ne laser can produce three wavelengths that are 1.152µm, 3.391 µm and 632.8nm, in which the 632.8nm
is most common because it is visible usually in red color.

 He-Ne laser tube has very small length approximately from 10 to 100cm and best life time of 20.000 hours.

 Cost of He-Ne laser is less from most of other lasers.

 Construction of He-Ne laser is also not very complex.

Disadvantages of He-Ne Laser
 It is relatively low power device means its output power is low.

 He-Ne laser is low gain system/ device.

 To obtain single wavelength laser light, the other two wavelengths of laser need
suppression, which is done by many techniques and devices. So it requires extra technical
skill and increases the cast also.

 High voltage requirement can be considered its disadvantage.

 Escaping of gas from laser plasma tube is also its disadvantage.

2.13 APPLICATIONS OF LASERS

Lasers find applications in various fields of science technology. They are

described below.
Medical applications
 Lasers are used in eye surgery.
 Lasers are used for treatments such as plastic surgery, skin injuries
and to remove moles and tumors developed in skin tissue.
 Lasers are used in cancer diagnosis and therapy.
Scientific field
 Lasers are used in counting of isotopes separation and to separate isotopes of uranium.
 Lasers are used to estimate size and shape of biological cells such as erythrocytes.
 Lasers are used to create plasma.
 Lasers are used to produce chemical reaction
 Lasers are used in recording and reconstruction of a hologram.
Industry applications
 Lasers are used to cut glass and quartz.
 Lasers are used to drill holes in ceramics.
 Lasers are used to drill aerosol nozzles.
 Lasers are used for heat treatment in the tooling and automotive industry.
Fibre Optics

Communication from Womb to Tomb

Contents
Introduction
Optical Fiber Communication System
Optical fiber
Total internal reflection
Acceptance Angle
Numerical aperture
Types of optical fibers
Attenuation
Applications
 The Evolution of Communication through the Centuries

Communication :
The English word “communication” derived from the greek word Comminicare which mean exchange of
information.

For as long as humans have been on this planet, we’ve invented forms of communication—from Cave Paintings,
Symbols, Smoke Signals, Carrier Pigeon, Postal System, Newspapers, Radio, Telegraph ,Telephone, Television,
Internet, E-mail, Text Message, Social Media like Face book, Messenger, Whats Up , Twitter , Instagram and
Telegram etc., that have constantly evolved how we interact with each other

Technology has indeed redefined communication. People no longer have to wait for years, months, weeks, and days to
receive an information or message. Today, texts, e-mails, tweets, and personal messages can reach the recipient in
just a matter of seconds. i.e.,we communicate in a fingersnap.

Now, we can send information in forms : 1)Audio, 2) Video, 3) Data

 Now, optical fibers became on of the greatest communicating media in the world.
Everywhere on this planet optical fibers carry vast quantities of information from
place to place.
What is Fiber Optics ?
Fiber optics is a branch of optics which deals with the study of propagation of information in the form of light (rays
or modes) through transparent dielectric optical fibers.

Optical fiber
Optical fiber is a thin and transparent guiding dielectric medium or material which guides or transmits the information as
light waves, using principle of total internal refection.
Optical fiber

Optical fiber is a thin and transparent guiding dielectric medium or material which guides or transmits the information as
light waves, using principle of total internal refection.
Optical fiber cable
A bundle of optical fibers consists of thousands of individual fiber wires as thin as human hair, measuring 0.004mm in
diameter is known as optical fiber cable.
History of Fiber Optics

John Tyndall demonstration in 1870

Total Internal reflection is the basic idea of fiber optics

Optical fiber structure and construction:
A typical structure of optical fiber as shown in fig.
Optical Fiber dimensions:
Core diameter : 5μm to 600μm.
Cladding diameter : 125μm to 750μm
Protective layer : 250μm to 1500μm.
Numerical aperture : 0.1 to 0.5.
Acceptance angle : 200 t0 500.
Band width : 50MHZ.
Principle of optical fiber:
An optical fiber works on the principle of total internal reflection.
John Tyndall observed that the propagation of light through the optical fiber will be in the form of multiple
total internal reflections.

Definition:
when a light ray travels from denser medium to rarer medium and angle of incidence is greater than the critical
angle, then the light ray reflects totally, this phenomenon is known as total internal reflection.
Principle of Optical Fiber
Derivation for Critical Angle:

If n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of denser and rarer medium

According to Snell’s law, n sin i =n sin r.

1 2

When i = Ѳcthen r = = 900 .

Therefore; n1sin Ѳc= n2 sin 900 .
n1sin Ѳc = n2 .
sin Ѳc = n2/n1
Ѳc= sin-1 (n2/n1 )
If the rarer medium is air, then n2=1.
Ѳc= sin-1 (1/n1 )
Conditions for total internal reflection:
1. The light ray should move from denser to rarer medium.

2. When i < Ѳc ,then the light ray refracts into rarer medium.

3. When i = Ѳc ,then the refracted light ray passes along interface of the two media.

4. When i > Ѳc ,then the light ray is reflected back into the denser medium and we get total internal reflection.
Acceptance angle and acceptance cone:
The maximum angle at which the light can suffers total internal refection is called as acceptance angle.
The acceptance cone is derived by rotating the Acceptance Angle about the fiber axis.
Numerical aperture (N.A):
Numerical aperture represents the light gathering power of an optical fiber. It is a
measure of the amount of light that can be accepted by a fiber.
The value of NA ranges from 0.13 to 0.50.
Numerical aperture is proportional to acceptance angle. So, numerical aperture is
equal to the sine of acceptance angle.
Types of optical fibers:
Optical fibers are classified into 2 major categories based on
1. Number of modes transmitted into the optical fibers and
2. Refractive index profile of the fibers.
According to the mode of propagation, optical fiber is classified into two: single-mode and multi-mode
optical fibers
Single mode optical fibers:
If the optical fiber which allows one mode of light propagation, then it is known as single mode optical fiber.
Because it has very small core diameter so that it can allow only one mode of light propagation as shown fig.
In general single mode optical fibers are step index optical fibers.
They are made from doped silica with mixtures of metal oxides.
The ray travels along the axis of the fiber
Single mode Optical Fiber dimensions:
Core diameter : 5μm to 10μm.
Cladding diameter : around 125μm.
Protective layer : 250μm to 1000μm.
Numerical aperture : 0.08 to 0.10.
Acceptance angle : 200 t0 300.
Band width : more than 50MHz.
Multi mode optical fibers:
•The core diameter is very large compared to single mode fibers, so that it can allow many modes of light
propagation and hence, it is called multi- mode optical fiber as shown in fig.
•The multi mode optical fibers are useful manufacturing both for step index and graded index optical fibers.
•They are made by multi-component glass compounds such as Glass-clad silica, Silica-clad silica, doped silica etc.,
Multi mode Optical Fiber dimensions:
Core diameter : 50μm to 350μm.
Cladding diameter : 125μm to 500μm.
Protective layer : 250μm to 1100μm.
Numerical aperture : 0.12 to 0.5.
Acceptance angle : 200 t0 300.
Band width : Less than 50MHz.
Step index optical fibers and graded index optical fibers:
Based on the variation in the refractive index of the core and the cladding, the fibers are classified
into two types. They are.
1) Step index optical fibers (multimode, single mode) and
2) Graded index optical fibers (multimode).
Step index optical fibers:
•In the step index fiber, the refractive index of the core is uniform throughout and undergoes an abrupt or
step change at the core-cladding boundary.
•The refractive indices of air, core and cladding varies step by step with increase radial distance from the
axis of the fiber and hence, it is known as step index optical fiber as shown in fig.
•The path of light propagation is in zigzag manner.
• Step index fiber can be single mode step index fiber or multimode step index fiber.
•The single mode step index fiber has low intermodal dispersion compared to multimode step index
fiber.
•It is used widely as data link cables.
Applications:
Because of its less band width, they are used in short haul communication systems (data and
audio/video applications in LANs)
A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that interconnects computers in a limited area such as
a home, school, computer laboratory, or office building using network media
Advantages:
•Launching of light is easy.
•Connecting two fibers is easy.
•Fabrication is easy.
•Cost is low.
Fig: 2) Multimode step index optical fiber
Fig: 3) single mode step index optical fiber.
Graded index optical fiber:
Graded index fibers do not have a constant refractive index in the core but the refractive index decreases
gradually with increase in radial distance from the axis of fiber, hence the name "graded-index as sown in fig.
The path of light propagation is in a helical or spiral manner.
Graded index fibers are multimode fibers.
The multimode graded index fiber has very less intermodal dispersion compared to multimode step index fiber.
It is used in medium range communications, medical field and in industries.
Multi mode graded index Optical Fiber dimensions:
Core diameter : 50μm to 350μm.
Cladding diameter : 125μm to 500μm.
Protective layer : 250μm to 1100μm.
Numerical aperture : 0.12 to 0.5.
Acceptance angle : 180 t0 300.
Band width : Less than 50MHz.
 Fig: Graded- index optical fiber
Note:
Inter-modal dispersion: When more than one mode is propagating through a fiber, then the inter-modal
dispersion will occur. Since, many modes are propagating; they will have different wavelengths and will
take different time to propagate through the fiber, this results in elongation or stretching of data in the
pulse. This is known as inter-modal dispersion.
Optical fiber communication system:
An optical fiber communication system mainly consists of three parts viz., (1) transmitter section (2) optical
fiber (3) receiver section as shown in fig.
Advantages of optical fiber communication:
Optical fibers have largely replaced copper wire communications in core networks in the developed world, because
of its advantages over electrical transmission. Here are the main advantages of fiber optic transmission.
Safety
The fiber is non-conducting, and is therefore safe in all environments.
It uses light waves for communication hence it is shockproof.
Since it is shockproof, it is very useful in sensitive areas like petroleum industries, oil and natural gas industries, cotton
industries etc.

Weight
Fiber optic cables are made of glass or plastic, and they are thinner than copper cables. These make them lighter
weight and easy to install.

Low Power Loss

An optical fiber offers low power loss, which allows for longer transmission distances than comparison to copper cable.

Bandwidth
Fiber optic cables have a much greater bandwidth than metal cables. The amount of information that can be transmitted
per unit time of fiber over other transmission media is far greater than copper cables.
Security :

It CANNOT be tapped unlike copper cables.

There is NO any leakage of signals so communication is secured.

It is very strong, flexible and can work on high temperature.

It does NOT have corrosion due to water, chemicals and high humidity etc.

It is cost effective and maintenance free.

It is very easy to install. It does NOT require skilled labor.

Losses in Fiber Optics
Attenuation
Dispersion-intermodel, Intramodel,
Bending loss-micro ,macro
scattering losses-Linear, Non linear,
Absorption- Intrinsic, Extrinsic
Coupling
 Attenuation
Attenuation means loss of light energy as the light pulse travels from one end of the
cable to the other.
It is also called as signal loss or fiber loss.
It also decides the the number of repeaters required between transmitter and
receiver.
Attenuation is directly proportional to the length of the cable.
Attenuation
Attenuation is defined as the ratio of optical output power to the input power in the fiber of
length L.
α= 10log10 Pi/Po [in db/km]
where, Pi= Input Power
Po= Output Power, α is attenuation constant
The various losses in the cable are due to
Absorption
Scattering
Dispersion
Bending
Bending losses
The loss which exists when an optical fiber undergoes bending is called bending losses.

There are two types of bending

i) Macroscopic bending

Bending in which complete fiber undergoes bends which causes certain modes not to be

reflected and therefore causes loss to the cladding.

ii) Microscopic Bending

Either the core or cladding undergoes slight bends at its surface. It causes light to be

reflected at angles when there is no further reflection.

 Microscopic Bending
Macroscopic Bending
Absorption Loss
Absorption of light energy due to heating of ion impurities results in dimming of light at the end of
the fiber.
Two types:
1.Intrinsic Absorption
2.Extrinsic Absorption
Intrinsic Absorption:
Caused by the interaction with one or more components of the glass
Occurs when photon interacts with an electron in the valence band & excites it to a higher energy level near
the UV region.
Extrinsic Absorption:
Also called impurity absorption.
Results from the presence of transition metal ions like iron, chromium, cobalt, copper & from OH ions i.e.
from water
Dispersion Loss
As an optical signal travels along the fiber, it becomes increasingly distorted.
This distortion is a sequence of intermodal and intramodal dispersion.
Two types:
1.Intermodal Dispersion
2.Intramodal Dispersion

Intermodal Dispersion:
Pulse broadening due to intermodal dispersion results from the propagation delay differences between
modes within a multimode fiber.
Intramodal Dispersion:
It is the pulse spreading that occurs within a single mode.
Material Dispersion
Waveguide Dispersion
1) Material Dispersion:
Also known as spectral dispersion or chromatic dispersion.
Results because of variation due to Refractive Index of core as a function of wavelength, because of which
pulse spreading occurs even when different wavelengths follow the same path.
2) Waveguide Dispersion:
Whenever any optical signal is passed through the optical fiber, practically 80% of optical power is
confined to core & rest 20% optical power into cladding.
Scattering Losses
It occurs due to microscopic variations in the material density, compositional fluctuations, structural in
homogeneities and manufacturing defects.

Coupling Losses
The machanical losses due to the coupling of optical fiber cables is called coupling losses
Applications of optical fibers:
1. Communication:
Optical fibres are used in exchange of information between different networks of computers.
For example, A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that interconnects computers in a limited area such as
a home, school, computer laboratory, or office building using network media to exchange the information.. They are
used for short distances about 1to 2 km.
Long haul communication: they are used for long distances, 10 km or more. Tele phone cables in which Optical fibres
are used in to exchange of information between various places.
They are used for exchange of information in cable television, space vehicles, submarines, etc.

2. Medical field:
Fibre optic technology is used in medical diagnostics. Optical fibres are used in medicine, in the fabrication of
fiberscope in endoscopy to view internal body parts without having to perform surgery.
Gastroscope is used to examine the stomach.
Bronchoscope is used to see upper passages of lungs.
Orthoscope is used to see the small spaces within joints.
Peritoneoscope is used to test the abdominal cavity, lower parts of liver and gall bladder.
DIELECTRICS
A Dam with full of Power
 MAGNETISM

The origin of infatuation between

the materials
 Basic Definitions

Magnetism
A substance that attracts pieces of iron (or) steel is called “Magnet”. This property of a substance is called
“magnetism.
Magnetic Poles:
Poles of magnet are regions near the two ends of a magnet with maximum power of attraction.
The strength of the pole is called pole strength denoted by m. The S.I. unit of pole strength is Ampere-
Meter.
The distance between two magnetic poles is called “magnetic length” (2l).
Magnetic Dipole
Two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance is called an electric dipole. Similarly a north
pole and south pole separated by a small distance 2l (magnetic length) constitute a magnetic dipole.
For example: A bar magnet, a compass needle etc. are the magnetic dipoles. And also a current loop behaves
as a magnetic dipole.
Magnetic Dipole Moment:
The behavior of magnetic dipole is described by the magnetic dipole moment.
(a)In the case of bar magnet:
It is defined as the product of pole strength (m) and magnetic length (2l).

m = m (2l)

It is a vector quantity. It is directed from South Pole to North Pole.

The S.I.Unit of magnetic dipole moment: Ampere – meter 2 (A-m2).
(b) In the case of current loop:
A current carrying loop behaves as a magnetic dipole.
Consider a current carrying conductor loop of wire as shown fig.
The current (I) establishes a magnetic field around the loop.
By right hand palm rule, the upper face of the loop acts a S- pole and the lower face act as N- pole.
The magnitude of dipole moment of current loop (m) is
Directly proportional to current (I) through the loop.
Directly proportional to the area of cross –section (A).
m I.A
m = K IA
m = IA

Where K is a proportionality whose value is one

Magnetic Field:
The space surrounding a magnet where magnetic force is experienced is called a magnetic field.
A magnetic field can be represented by drawing lines called “magnetic lines of force”. The lines go from
North to South on the magnet.

Fig: Magnetic field.

Magnetic Flux:
A group of magnetic lines of force is called “magnetic flux”.
The symbol for magnetic flux is Φ (phi).
The SI unit of magnetic flux is the Weber (Wb).
One Weber is equal to 1 x 108 magnetic field lines
Magnetic Flux Density:
Magnetic flux density is the amount of magnetic flux per unit area of a section, perpendicular to the direction
of flux.
Magnetic flux density (B) =

B= Tesla
 Magnetization:
Magnetization in magnetic field is analogues to polarization of dielectric material in electrostatic field.
The process of converting a non-magnetic material into a magnetic material is known as “magnetization” or
the process of producing magnetic dipoles by magnetic field is called magnetization.

Intensity of Magnetization ( I or M)
When a material medium is placed in a magnetic field, it gets magnetized. To magnetize a material medium is
to create magnetic dipole moments.
The magnetic dipole moment per unit volume of the material is called the intensity of magnetization I (or
simply magnetization).
I = Magnetic dipole moment(m) = Length of magnet (2l) X Pole Strength (m)
Volume (V) Length of Magnet (2l) X Area of cross –section (A)
= Pole Strength (m)
Area of Cross Section (A)
The S.I. Unit of magnetization is ampere / meter
Magnetic Field Strength (H):
The ability of magnetic field to magnetize a material medium is called its magnetic intensity or field
strength. It is denoted by H.
The S.I. Unit of magnetic field strength is ampere / meter.
Magnetic Susceptibility (m):
The word Susceptibility comes from the Latin word “susceptible” means the easily affected
The magnetic susceptibility of a material medium indicates how easily a material medium can be
magnetized in the presence of magnetic field..
The intensity of Magnetization is directly related to the applied field strength H.
MH
M= χmH
Magnetic Susceptibility (χm) =

Therefore; the magnetic susceptibility of a material is defined as the ratio of intensity of magnetization
(I) developed in the material to the applied magnetic field (H).
 =

Magnetic Permeability (µ):

In Latin, per means through and meare means to pass.
It is defined as the ability of the material to permit the passage of magnetic lines of force through it.
The Magnetic induction B is proportional to the applied Magnetic field intensity H.
B= µ H
Magnetic Permeability(µ) =

Where “” is the permeability of a medium.

B= 0H
For vacuum,
Where0 is the proportionality constant and is also called permeability of the free space and its value is 4π × 10−7 H
m−1.
Relative permeability (µr):
The ratio of permeability of medium to the permeability of free space is called relative permeability µr of the medium
µr =

It has no units.
 The Relation between Relative Permeability and Magnetic Susceptibility:
When a magnetic material is magnetized by placing it in a magnetic field, the resultant field inside the material is
the sum of the field due to the magnetization of the material and the original magnetizing field. The resultant
field is called magnetic induction or magnetic flux density B.
B =0(H+M)
H = 0(H+M) ( B=H and =0r)
0r H = 0H(1+M/H)
r = (1+m)
Where χm = M/H
This is the relation between Relative Permeability and Magnetic Susceptibility.
Origin of Magnetism:
Magnetism originates from magnetic dipole moment. This magnetic dipole moment arises due to the rotational motion of
charged particles.
According to modern view;
All substances are made of atoms or molecules. An atom which consists of ‘+’ vely charged nucleus at the centre and
negatively charged electrons revolving around the nucleus in different orbits. This motion of electrons is called orbital
motion as shown in fig. The orbiting elections constitute tiny current loops. These loops behave as the magnetic dipoles.
The orbital motion of electrons around the nucleus gives rise to the orbital magnetic dipole moment (orbit).
The electrons also rotate around their own axes. This motion of electrons is called spin motion as shown fig. The spinning
motion of electrons around their axes gives rise to the spin magnetic dipole m oment (spin).
The motion of the protons and neutrons within the nucleus also contributes to the total magnetic moment ((nucleus). But
the magnitude of the nuclear magnetic moment is (about 10 -3 times) very small compared with the magnetic moment of
electron and is usually neglected.
Fig: Motion of electron
Superconductivity
 Introduction :

The origin of electrical resistance

We know that, the opposition offered by substances to flow of charge carriers

through them is called electrical resistance.

This opposition arises due to the collision (scattering) of electrons with positive
ions. The cause for scattering of electrons is the non periodicity of the lattice.
This non periodicity in the lattice arises due to mainly three reasons.

They are i) Lattice vibrations

ii) Imperfections (Crystal defects) and
iii) Impurities present in the materials etc.
Discovery of Superconductivity

Before the discovery of super conductivity, it was thought the electrical resistance of material becomes
zero only at absolute zero temperature.

 But it is found that, in some materials the electrical resistance becomes zero, when they cooled to
very low temperatures.
For example, the electrical resistance of pure mercury suddenly drops to zero, when it is cooled below
4.2 Kelvin and becomes a superconductor. This was first observed by the Dutch physicist, Heike
Kammerlingh Onnes on April 8, 1911. He named the phenomenon as superconductivity.

Further, the theory of super conductivity was developed in 1957 by three American physicists-John
Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Schrieffer, through their Theories of Superconductivity, known as the
BCS Theory.
Therefore; Super conductivity is the phenomenon in which the electrical resistance
of certain materials (like metals, compounds, alloys and ceramics etc) becomes zero
at very low temperatures. The material that exhibit superconductivity and which are
in super conducting state are called super conductors.

Fig: The variation of electrical resistance with temperature.

Super conductors:
Those materials which lose their resistance to flow of electric current throgh them, when they cooled below
certain low temperatures are known as superconductor.
Examples:
Material Type
Tungsten Metal

Zinc Metal

Aluminum Metal
Tin Metal
Mercury Metal
Lead Metal
NbTi Inter metallic compound
Nb3Sn Inter metallic compound
Nb3Ge Inter metallic compound
YBa2Cu3O7 Ceramic
TlBaCaCuO Ceramic
Effect of temperature-Critical temperature:

The temperature at which a normal conductor loses its resistivity and becomes a super conductor is
known as transition temperature or critical temperature (T C) as show in fig.
Normal state

Fig: The variation of electrical resistance with temperature

The value of this critical temperature varies from material to material

Material Type Tc(K)

Tungsten Metal 0.01

Zinc metal 0.88

Aluminum metal 1.19

Tin metal 3.72

Mercury metal 4.15

Lead metal 7.2

NbTi Inter metallic compound 9.5
Nb3Sn Inter metallic compound 21

Nb3Ge Inter metallic compound 23.2

YBa2Cu3O7 ceramic 90
TlBaCaCuO ceramic 125
Effect of magnetic field - Critical magnetic field:
Kammerlingh Onnes observed in 1913 that superconductivity vanishes if a suffiently strong
magnetic field is increased.
When a magnetic field is applied to a super conductor, then particular value of applied field and
below its critical temperature, it loses super conductivity and becomes a normal conductor. This
minimum magnetic field required to destroy the super conducting state is called the critical
magnetic field HC.
The critical magnetic field of a superconductor is a function of temperature.
The variation of Hc with temperature is given by

HC = H0 [1- ( ) 2]
Where
HC = critical magnetic field,
H0= critical magnetic field at T=ok, and
TC= critical temperature.
Figure shows the variation of critical magnetic field HC as a function of temperature.
The material is said to be in the superconducting state within the curve and is non super conducting
(i.e., normal state) in the region the outside the curve.

Normal state

Figure: Effects of temperature and magnetic field on the superconducting state

General Properties of Superconductors
1. Super conductivity is a low – temperature phenomenon.
2. Temperature at which the material undergoes a transition from normal state to super conducting state is
known as Critical Temperature or Transition Temperature Tc
3. Different materials will have different Critical Temperature.
4. The current once set up in a super conductor persists for a long time due to zero resistivity.
5. Super conductors do not allow magnetic field (magnetic lines) through them and behave as a
diamagnetic. This property of expulsion of magnetic field is known as Meissner Effect.
6. The magnetic field at which the super conductor losses its super conductivity and becomes a normal
conductor is known as Critical magnetic field HC.
7. The induced current in a super conductor induces a magnetic field in it. If the
magnetic field is equal to the critical magnetic field then it converts into a normal
conductor. The current in it is known as Critical current (IC). If the ‘r’ is the radius of
the super conductor then IC = 2πrHC
The current density at which it occurs is known as critical current density and is given
by Jc = Ic / A, where A is the area of cross section of the super conductor.
8. Super conductivity occurs in metallic elements in which the number of valence
electrons lies between 2 and 8.
9. Super conducting materials are not good conductors at room temperature.