Calculus 1

Graphs of Functions, Odd and Even Function, Limits and

Continuity
 Graphs of Function
• In this section we will discuss functions from geometric of graphic
perspective. The graph of a function y = f(x) consist of all points ( x, f(x) ),
where x is the directed distance from the y-axis and f(x) is the directed
distance from the x-axis.
Directed Distance from y-axis

𝑃1 (-2, 5)
x
5
4
Directed Distance from x-axis
3
f(x)
2
1
-2 -1 0 1 2 x-axis

y-axis
 Example(a)
Graph the equation of the parabola y = 𝑥 2 + 1
Solution: y = 𝑥2 + 1
(-2, 5) (-2, 5)
2 Y(Range) X(Domain)
y=𝑥 +1 5
When, x = -2; y = 5 5 -2
4
x = -1; y = 2
x = 0; y = 1 3 2 -1
x = 1; y = 2 2 (1, 2)
1 0
(-1, 2)
x = 2; y = 5 2 1
1 (0, 1)
5 2
-2 -1 0 1 2 x-axis

y-axis
 Example (b)
Express the altitude of a right circular cone as a function of the volume with fixed
radius of 3 inches. Graph the function
Solution
r 1
Graphing the function h = 3𝜋 V.
h(Range) V(Domain)
When,
V= 0; h = 0 0 0
h V= 1; h = 0.106 0.106 1
V=2; h = 0.212
h 1 0.212 2
h = 3𝜋 V

From the formula of the volume of a cone 2

1
V = 3 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ 1

1 1
V = 𝜋(3)2 ℎ = 𝜋(3)2 ℎ = 𝜋(3)ℎ 1 2 v
3 3

1
h = 3𝜋 V, V = 𝜋(3)ℎ
 Example (c)
Express the radius of a circle as a function of its circumference. Graph the function
r
Solution:

r 𝐶
r = 2𝜋
1

0
1 2 C
From the formula C = 2𝜋𝑟
𝐶
r = 2𝜋
𝐶
Graphing the function r = 2𝜋
When, r (Range) C (Domain)
C = 0; r = 0 0 0
C = 1; r = 0.159
C =2; r = 0.318 0.159 1
0.318 2
 Odd and Even Function

The function y = f(x) is even if

f(-x) = f(x)
The function is odd if
f(-x) = -f(x)
 Examples

Determine whether the following functions are even, odd or neither

a. f(x) = 𝑥 2 + 2 c. f(x) = 𝑥 3 − 1
b. g(x) = 𝑥 3 − x d. f(x) = cos 𝑥
Solution:

a. f(x) = 𝑥 2 + 2 , substituting –x for x

Solution:

a. f(x) = 𝑥 2 + 2

The function is even since

f(-x) = (−𝑥)2 +2 = 𝑥 2 + 2 = f(x) f(-x) = f(x)

b. f(x) = 𝑥 3 − x
Solution:

a. f(x) = 𝑥 2 + 2

The function is even since

f(-x) = (−𝑥)2 +2 = 𝑥 2 + 2 = f(x) f(-x) = f(x)

b. f(x) = 𝑥 3 − x from algebra 𝑎3 = a * a * a

The function is odd since (−𝑥)3 = (−𝑥)(−𝑥)(−𝑥)
g(-x) = (-𝑥)3 − (−x) = −𝑥 3 + x
g(-x) = - (𝑥 3 − x ) = -f(x) f(-x) = -f(x)
Solution:

c. f(x) = 𝑥 3 − 1

By substituting –x for x, we have

f(-x) = (−𝑥)3 − 1 = −𝑥 3 − 1 = -(𝑥 3 + 1 )

Thus, f(x) = 𝑥 3 − 1 and –f(x) = -(𝑥 3 − 1), f(-x) ≠ f(x) and f(-x) ≠ -f(x)
therefore the function is neither even nor odd.

d. f(x) = cos x
From Trigonometry, cos (-x) = cos x

The function is even

 Limits

Let f(x) be the function of x, and let “α” be a constant. We say that the limit of f(x) is L
as x approaches α and write this as,

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 or 𝑓 𝑥 → L as x → α
𝑥→α
Can read as. “the limit of f(x) equals L as x approaches α, provided we can make f(x) as
close to L as we want for all x sufficiently close to α from both sides, without actually
letting x be α.
The notation of limit explains the behavior of a function near α, not at α.
 Limits

Consider the Function

𝑥 2 −4
f(x) = 𝑥−2

This function is not defined at x= 2 since at this point, f(x) will be

0
equal to 0 which is undefined and meaningless. However, we can
still know what happens to f(x) as x approaches 2. To know what
happens to f(x) as x approaches 2, we should calculate the values
of f(x) for x near 2.
 Example

Example (a).
𝑥 2 −4
Evaluate the lim 𝑥−2 ,
𝑥→2
Solution:
𝑥 2 −4
lim ,
𝑥→2 𝑥−2
0
Notice that the function is not defined at 2. The result of plugging 2 directly to x is 0
which is undefined.
Examine the table below and notice what will happens to f(x) as x approaches 2
x f(x)
2.000001 4.000001 From the table, we noticed that the limit approaches 4 as x
approaches 2. As x get closer and closer to 2, L also get
2.00001 4.00001
closer and closer to 4
2.0001 4.0001
2.001 4.001
2.01 4.01
2.1 4.1
 Example

Example (a).
𝑥 2 +3𝑥
Evaluate the lim 𝑥 2 +𝑥 ,
𝑥→0
Solution:
0
Notice that the function is not defined at 0. The result of plugging 0 directly to x is 0
which is undefined.
𝑥 2 +3𝑥
Let’s try to evaluate lim 𝑥 2 +𝑥 by assuming value to x that is very close to x.
𝑥→0
Examine the table below,
x f(x) From the table we noticed that the limit approaches 3 as x approaches
0.000001 2.999998000 0. As x get closer and closer to 0, L get also closer and closer to 3
0.00001 2.999980000 𝑥 2 +3𝑥 𝑥(𝑥+3) (𝑥+3)
Also 𝑥 2 +𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑥+1) = (𝑥+1), therefore
0.0001 2.999800020
0.001 2.998001998 (𝑥+3)
lim =3
0.01 2.980198020 𝑥→0 (𝑥+1)

0.1 2.818181818
 Limit Theorems
Theorem 1. Uniqueness of Limits
A function can have at most one limit at α
f(x) → 𝐿1 as x → α and f(x) → 𝐿2 as x → α, then
𝐿1 =𝐿2
Theorem 2. Limit of a Constant
The limit of a constant function c, is equal to that constant
lim c = c
𝑥→α
Theorem 3. Limit of the identity
The limit of identity function f(x) = x at any number α is α
lim x = α
𝑥→α
Theorem 4 Limit of a Sum and Difference.
The limit of a sum and difference of two or more functions is equal to the sum and
difference of their limits.
lim [ f(x) ± g(x) ] = lim f(x) ± lim g(x)
𝑥→α 𝑥→α 𝑥→α
 Limit Theorems
Theorem 5. Limit of a Product
The limit of a product of two or more functions is equal to the product of their limits
lim [ f(x) g(x) ] = lim f(x) ∙ lim g(x)
𝑥→α 𝑥→α 𝑥→α
Theorem 6. Limit of a Quotient
The limit of two functions is equal to the quotient of their limits, provided that the limit
of the denominator is not zero.
𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→α
lim [ ] = lim 𝑔(𝑥), provided that lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0
𝑥→α 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→α
𝑥→α
Theorem 7. Limit of a Polynomial
The limit of a polynomial at any number α is the value of that polynomial at α
lim (𝑓𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + … + 𝑓1 𝑥 + 𝑓0 ) = 𝑓𝑛 𝑎𝑛 +…+𝑓1 𝑎 + 𝑓0
𝑥→α
Theorem 8 Limit of a Root.
The limit of the root of the function is equal to the root of their limits.
lim 𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛 lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→α 𝑥→α
 Example
Example (a)
Evaluate the lim (𝑥 2 +3x)
𝑥→2
Solution:
By Theorem 4,
lim (𝑥 2 +3x) =lim 𝑥 2 + lim 3x
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2

Then, By Theorem 5,
lim 𝑥 2 + lim 3x = (lim x ∗ lim x) + (lim 3 ∗ lim x)
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
= (2)(2) + (3)(2) = 10
 Continuity

a a a
At the first figure, the lim f(x) does not exist. For the second, the lim f(x) exist but
𝑥→a 𝑥→a
the lim f(x) ≠ f(a) and the third figure, the graph exhibits continuity at a,
𝑥→a
therefore, lim f(x) = f(a)
𝑥→a

A function f(x) is said to be continuous at x = a, if the following condition are

satisfied.
Right hand continuity exist when,
lim f(a) exist; lim f(x) = f(a)
𝑥→a 𝑥→a lim+f x = f(a)
𝑥→𝑎
Left hand continuity exist when,
lim f(x) exist;
𝑥→a lim−f x = f(a)
𝑥→𝑎
 Example lim f(x) exist
𝑥→a
lim f(a) exist
𝑥→a
Example (a). lim f(x) = f(a)
𝑥→a
Show that f(x) = 𝑥 2 + 1 is continuous at x = 3
Solution :
At x = 3, f(x) = 𝑥 2 + 1, is continuous because lim ( 𝑥 2 + 1) = 10,
𝑥→3
2
f(3) = (3) +1 = 10 lim f(x) exist
𝑥→a
Example (b). lim f(a) exist
𝑥→a
Show that f(x) = 𝑥 2 + 1 is continuous at x = 2 lim f(x) = f(a)
𝑥→a
Solution:
At x = 2, f(x) = 𝑥 2 + 1 is continuous because lim 𝑥 2 + 1 = 5,
𝑥→2
f(2) = 𝑥 2 + 1 = (2)2 +1 = 5
 Example
Example (c).
What continuity exist in the function f(x) = 𝑥
Solution :
For f(x) = 𝑥 at x = 0, the function has a right hand continuity at x = 0, because the
limit exist when x > 0. For x< 0, f(x) is not defined

If the stated conditions above are not satisfied, the function f(x) is said to be discontinuous at x = a or have
discontinuity at x = a
 Example
Example (d).
𝑥 2 −9
Find the point of discontinuity of the function f(x) = 𝑥−3
Solution :
The function is undefined at x=3, since both the numerator and the denominator is
equal to zero having an undefined value, but,
𝑥 2 −9 (𝑥−3)(𝑥+3)
lim = lim = lim (x+3) = 6
𝑥→3 𝑥−3 𝑥→3 𝑥−3 𝑥→3
Since,
𝑥 2 −9
𝑥−3
= x+3 , x≠ 3
𝑥 2 −9
The graph of the function f(x) = 𝑥−3 , is the line y = x + 3, except for an invisible break at x = 3
 End of Presentation

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