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Business Communication (BAF 218)

1.1 Objective

Communication is neither transmission of message nor message itself. It is the mutual exchange of

understanding, originating with the receiver. Communication needs to be effective in business.

Communication is essence of management. The basic functions of management (Planning, Organizing,

Staffing, Directing and Controlling) cannot be performed well without effective communication. Business

communication involves constant flow of information. Feedback is integral part of business communication.

Organizations these days are very large. It involves number of people. There are various levels of hierarchy

in an organization. Greater the number of levels, the more difficult is the job of managing the organization.

Communication here plays a very important role in process of directing and controlling the people in the

organization. Immediate feedback can be obtained and misunderstandings if any can be avoided. There

should be effective communication between superiors and subordinated in an organization, between

organization and society at large (for example between management and trade unions). It is essential for

success and growth of an organization. Communication gaps should not occur in any organization.

Business Communication is goal oriented. The rules, regulations and policies of a company have to be

communicated to people within and outside the organization. Business Communication is regulated by certain

rules and norms. In early times, business communication was limited to paper-work, telephone calls etc. But

now with advent of technology, we have cell phones, video conferencing, emails, satellite communication to

support business communication. Effective business communication helps in building goodwill of an

organization.

1.2 Introduction:

Business communication skills are critical to the success of any organization despite its size, geographical

location, and its mission. Business communication is interlinked with internal culture and external image of

any organization. So it is the determining factor to communication inside the organization. Good Business

communication practices assist the organization in achieving its goal of informing, persuading, favorable
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relationship, and organizational goodwill. Organizations can only survive if they accept the rapidly changing

global challenges and the communication processes are structured and delivered. The present workforce is

dynamic in nature so communication is a challenge when executed against the backdrop of culture,

technology and competition. The success of any business to a large extent depends on efficient and

effective communication. It takes place among business entities, in market and market places, within

organizations and between various groups of employees, owners and employees, buyers and sellers, service

providers and customers, sales persons and prospects and also between people within the organization and

the press persons. All such communication impacts business. Done with care, such communication can

promote business interests. Otherwise, it will portray the organization in poor light and may adversely

affect the business interest. Communication is the life blood of any organization and its main purpose is to

effect change to influence action. In any organization the main problem is of maintaining effective

communication process. The management problem generally results in poor communication. Serious mistakes

are made because orders are misunderstood. The basic problem in communication is that the meaning which

is actually understood may not be what the other intended to send. It must be realised that the speaker

and the listener are two separate individuals having their own limitations and number of things may happen

to distort the message that pass between them. When people within the organization communicate with

each other, it is internal communication. They do so to work as a team and realise the common goals. It

could be official or unofficial. Modes of internal communication include face-to-face and written

communication. Memos, reports, office order, circular, fax, video conferencing, meeting etc. are the

examples of internal communication. When people in the organization communicate with anyone outside the

organization it is called external communication. These people may be clients or customers, dealers or

distributors, media, government, general public etc. are the examples of external communication.

1.2 Meaning of communication

The word communication has been derived from the Latin word 'communicare' that means ‘to share’.

Communication may be defined as interchange of thought or information between two or more persons to

bring about mutual understanding and desired action. It is the information exchange by words or symbols.

It is the exchange of facts, ideas and viewpoints which bring about commonness of interest, purpose and
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efforts. According to Keith Davis, ‘The process of passing information and understanding from one person

to another. "Communication is something so simple and difficult that we can never put it in simple words,"

says T.S. Mathews. But we do need a definition to understand the term.

In his book Communication in Business, Peter Little defines communication as follows: “Communication is the

process by which information is transmitted between individuals and / or organizations so that an

understanding response results.” Another very simple definition of 'communication' has been provided by

W.H. Newman and C.F. Summer Jr: “Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions, or emotions by

two or more persons.”

It is essentially a bridge of meaning between the people. By using the bridge a person can safely across the

river of misunderstanding’. It is the ability of mankind to communicate across barriers and beyond

boundaries that has ushered the progress of mankind. It is the ability of fostering speedy and effective

communication around the world that has shrunk the world and made ‘globalization’ a reality. Communication

had a vital role to play in ensuring that people belonging to a particular country or a culture or linguistic

group interact with and relate to people belonging to other countries or culture or linguistic group.

Communication adds meaning to human life. It helps to build relationship and fosters love and

understanding. It enriches our knowledge of the universe and makes living worthwhile.

However, communication incorporates, besides commonality, the concepts of transfer, meaning and

information. It implies that there must be a receiver if communication is to occur. The sender of message

must consider the receiver while structuring his message from a technical standpoint as well as in

delivering it. When the receiver is not considered, there is either no response or there is wrong response.

Sharing of understanding would be possible only when the person, to whom the message is meant,

understands it in the same sense in which the sender of the message wants him to understand. Thus,

communication involves something more than mere transmission of the message or transmission and physical

receipt thereof. The correct interpretation of the message is important from the point of view of

organizational efficiency. As such, the greater the degree of understanding presents in the communication,

the more the likelihood that human action will proceed in the direction of accomplishment of goals.
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1.3 Importance and purpose of communication

Just as communication is vital for our existence in civilizes society, so also it is essential for functioning of

organization. So without communication there would be no organization. Needless to say, communication is

the ingredient that makes organization possible. It is the vehicle through which the basic management

functions are carried out. Managers direct through communication; they coordinate through communication;

and they staff, plan, and control through communication. Virtually all actions taken in an organization are

preceded by communication.

Purpose of Communication

For instruction: The instructive function unvarying and importantly deals with the commanding nature. It is

more or less of directive nature. Under this, the communicator transmits with necessary directives and

guidance to the next level, so as to enable them to accomplish his particular tasks. In this, instructions

basically flow from top to the lower level.

For integration: It is consolidated function under which integration of activities is endeavored. The

integration function of communication mainly involves bringing about inter-relationship among the various

functions of the business organization. It helps in the unification of different management functions.

For information: The purposes or function of communication in an organization is to inform the individual

or group about the particular task or company policies and procedures etc. Top management informs policies

to the lower level through the middle level. In turn, the lower level informs the top level the reaction

through the middle level. Information can flow vertically, horizontally and diagonally across the

organization. Becoming informed or inform others is the main purpose of communication.

For evaluation: Examination of activities to form an idea or judgment of the worth of task is achieved

through communication. Communication is a tool to appraise the individual or team, their contribution to the

organization. Evaluating one’s own inputs or other’s outputs or some ideological scheme demands an

adequate and effective communication process.

For direction: Communication is necessary to issue directions by the top management or manager to the

lower level. Employee can perform better when he is directed by his senior. Directing others may be
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communicated either orally or in writing. An order may be common order, request order or implied order.

For teaching: The importance of personal safety on the job has been greatly recognized. A complete

communication process is required to teach and educate workers about personal safety on the jobs. This

communication helps the workers to avert accidents, risk etc. and avoid cost, procedures etc.

For influencing: A complete communication process is necessary in influencing others or being influenced.

The individual having potential to influence others can easily persuade others. It implies the provision of

feedback which tells the effect of communication.

For image building: A business enterprise cannot isolate from the rest of the society. There is

interrelationship and interdependence between the society and an enterprise operating in the society.

Goodwill and confidence are necessarily created among the public. It can be done by the communication

with the different media, which has to project the image of the firm in the society. Through an effective

external communication system, an enterprise has to inform the society about its goals, activities, progress

and social responsibility.

For employees orientation: When a new employee enter into the organization at that time he or she will be

unknown to the organization programs, policies, culture etc. Communication helps to make people acquainted

with the co-employees, superior and with the policies, objectives, rules and regulations of the organization.

1.4 Dimensions of Communication

In an organization, communication flows in 5 main directions-

1.4.1 Downward

1.4.2 Upward

1.4.3 Horizontal /Lateral

1.4.4 Diagonal

1.4.5 Grapevine Communication

1.4.1 Downward Communication: Communication that flows from a higher level in an organization to a

lower level is a downward communication. In other words, communication from superiors to subordinates in

a chain of command is a downward communication. This communication flow is used by the managers to
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transmit work-related information to the employees at lower levels. Employees require this information for

performing their jobs and for meeting the expectations of their managers. Downward communication is

used by the managers for the following purposes –

 Providing feedback on employees’ performance.

 Giving job instructions.

 Providing a complete understanding of the employees’ job as well as to communicate them how their

job is related to other jobs in the organization.

 Communicating the organizations mission and vision to the employees.

 Highlighting the areas of attention.

Organizational publications, circulars, letter to employees, group meetings etc are all examples of

downward communication. In order to have effective and error-free downward communication, managers

must:

 Ensure that the message is accurate, specific and unambiguous.

 Utilize the best communication technique to convey the message to the receiver in right form

 Specify communication objective.

Upward Flow of Communication: Communication that flows to a higher level in an organization is called

upward communication. It provides feedback on how well the organization is functioning. The subordinates

use upward communication to convey their problems and performances to their superiors.

The subordinates also use upward communication to tell how well they have understood the downward

communication. It can also be used by the employees to share their views and ideas and to participate in

the decision-making process. Upward communication leads to a more committed and loyal workforce in an

organization because the employees are given a chance to raise and speak dissatisfaction issues to the

higher levels. The managers get to know about the employees’ feelings towards their jobs, peers, supervisor

and organization in general. Managers can thus accordingly take actions for improving things.

Grievance Redressal System, Complaint and Suggestion Box, Job Satisfaction surveys etc all help in

improving upward communication. Other examples of Upward Communication are -performance reports
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made by low level management for reviewing by higher level management, employee attitude surveys,

letters from employees, employee-manager discussions etc.

1.4.2 Lateral / Horizontal Communication: Communication that takes place at same levels of hierarchy in

an organization is called lateral communication, i.e., communication between peers, between managers at

same levels or between any horizontally equivalent organizational member. The advantages of horizontal

communication are as follows:

 It is time saving.

 It facilitates co-ordination of the task.

 It facilitates co-operation among team members.

 It provides emotional and social assistance to the organizational members.

 It helps in solving various organizational problems.

 It is a means of information sharing.

 It can also be used for resolving conflicts of a department with other department or conflicts

within a department.

1.4.3 Diagonal Communication or crosswise communication: Communication that takes place between a

manager and employees of other workgroups is called diagonal communication. It generally does not appear

on organizational chart. For instance - To design a training module a training manager interacts with

Operations personnel to enquire about the way they perform their task. The Accounts people of an

organization visiting different employees in various departments for their IT calculation, bonus for

workers etc. fall under diagonal communication.

1.5 Channels of communication

A breakdown in the communication channel leads to an inefficient flow of information. Employees are

unaware of what the company expects of them. They are uninformed of what is going on in the company.

This will cause them to become suspicious of motives and any changes in the company. Also without
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effective communication, employees become department minded rather than company minded, and this

affects their decision making and productivity in the workplace.

Eventually, this harms the overall organizational objectives as well. Hence, in order for an organization to

be run effectively, a good manager should be able to communicate to his/her employees what is expected

of them, make sure they are fully aware of company policies and any upcoming changes.

Therefore, an effective communication channel should be implemented by managers to optimize worker

productivity to ensure the smooth running of the organization.

1.5.1 Formal Channels of Communication

The messages which are circulating on regulated, preset channels, of an organization are creating the

formal communication. The content of the communication is related to the organization’s activity, to the

work and to anything which is related to those. The formal communication can consist in verbal messages,

nonverbal messages, written, under the shape of letters, telephone messages, radio messages, printed,

internal notes. Even some gestures can consist in formal communication. The messages are transmitted by

the authorized ones: on official channels, these arrive to the ones who need to react, to people or machines

which need to know the content of these messages.

Usually, all formal communications are recorded and kept in the organization’s evidence. Are retained copies

of these by the transmitter, by the receiver, by all of the desks from the organization which need to know

and keep the information. Examples of formal communications are given by work commands, reports and

financial evidence, reports over sells / inventory, statements referring to the company’s policies, post

descriptions, etc.

The formal communication network is formed out of formal channels, created by setting a formal system of

responsibilities according to the hierarchical structure of the organization. The perfect network is the one

which contains communication channel from bottom up, downwards and horizontally. Often the direction of

horizontal communication is missing or it is inefficient and in this way the accuracy of the information

decreases. The situation is appearing because of the lack of permanent circulation of the information

between departments, although this is vital for the organization in conditions of existent competition, or

the lack of specialists in organizational communication.

The number of communication channels available to a manager has increased over the last 20 odd years.

Video conferencing, mobile technology, electronic bulletin boards and fax machines are some of the new

possibilities. As organizations grow in size, managers cannot rely on face-to-face communication alone to

get their message across. A challenge the managers are faced with today is to determine what type of

communication channel they should opt for in order to carryout effective communication.

In order to make a manager's task easier, the types of communication channels are grouped into three main

groups: formal, informal and unofficial.

 A formal communication channel transmits information such as the goals, policies and procedures

of an organization. Messages in this type of communication channel follow a chain of command. This means

information flows from a manager to his subordinates and they in turn pass on the information to the next

level of staff.

 An example of a formal communication channel is a company's newsletter, which gives employees as

well as the clients a clear idea of a company's goals and vision. It also includes the transfer of information

with regard to memoranda, reports, directions, and scheduled meetings in the chain of command.

 A business plan, customer satisfaction survey, annual reports, employer's manual, review meetings

are all formal communication channels.

1.5.2 Informal Channels of Communication

Informal communication arises out of all those channels that fall outside the formal channels and it is also

known as grapevine. It is established around the societal affiliation of members of the organization.

Informal communication does not follow authority lines as in the case of formal communication.

Informal communication takes place due to the individual needs of the members of an organization and

subsists in every organization. Normally, such communication is oral and may be expressed even by simple

glance, sign or silence. Informal communication, is implicit, spontaneous multidimensional and diverse. It

often works in group of people, i.e. when one person has some information of interest; he passes it on to his

informal group and so on.

An organization can make efficient use of informal channels to fortify the formal channels of

communication. It acts as a valuable purpose in expressing certain information that cannot be channeled via
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the official channels. It satisfies the people desires to identify what is happening in the organization and

offers an opportunity to express dreads, worries and complaints. Informal communication also facilitates to

ameliorate managerial decisions as more people are involved in the process of decision-making.

Inspite on many advantages, informal communication has certain disadvantages. Informal communication

contains facts, deceptions, rumors and unclear data. The informal channels of communication may transmit

completely imprecise information that may harm rather than help an organization. In addition, it is

impossible to fix the responsibility for its origin or flow of information. However, for the efficient working

of any organization both formal and informal communications are required. An example of an informal

communication channel is lunchtime at the organization's cafeteria/canteen. Here, in a relaxed atmosphere,

discussions among employees are encouraged. Also managers walking around, adopting a hands-on approach

to handling employee queries is an example of an informal communication channel. Quality circles, team

work, different training programs are outside of the chain of command and so, fall under the category of

informal communication channels.

1.5.3 Grapevine Communication (Informal Communication)

Grapevine is an informal channel of business communication. It is called so because it stretches

throughout the organization in all directions irrespective of the authority levels. Man as we know is a

social animal. Despite existence of formal channels in an organization, the informal channels tend to

develop when he interacts with other people in organization. It exists more at lower levels of organization.

Grapevine generally develops due to various reasons. One of them is that when an organization is facing

recession, the employees sense uncertainty. Also, at times employees do not have self-confidence due to

which they form unions. Sometimes the managers show preferential treatment and favour some employees

giving a segregated feeling to other employees. Thus, when employees sense a need to exchange their

views, they go for grapevine network as they cannot use the formal channel of communication in that case.

Generally during breaks in cafeteria, the subordinates talk about their superior’s attitude and behaviour

and exchange views with their peers. They discuss rumours about promotion and transfer of other

employees. Thus, grapevine spreads like fire and it is not easy to trace the cause of such communication at

times.
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Example of Grapevine Network of Communication

1. Suppose the profit amount of a company is known. Rumor is spread that this much profit is there

and on that basis bonus is declared.

2. CEO may be in relation to the Production Manager. They may have friendly relations with each

other.

Advantages of Grapevine Communication

1. Grapevine channels carry information rapidly. As soon as an employee gets to know some

confidential information, he becomes inquisitive and passes the details then to his closest friend who in

turn passes it to other. Thus, it spreads hastily.

2. The managers get to know the reactions of their subordinates on their policies. Thus, the

feedback obtained is quick compared to formal channel of communication.

3. The grapevine creates a sense of unity among the employees who share and discuss their views

with each other. Thus, grapevine helps in developing group cohesiveness.

4. The grapevine serves as an emotional supportive value.

5. The grapevine is a supplement in those cases where formal communication does not work.

Disadvantages of Grapevine Communication

1. The grapevine carries partial information at times as it is more based on rumours. Thus, it does

not clearly depicts the complete state of affairs.

2. The grapevine is not trustworthy always as it does not follows official path of communication and

is spread more by gossips and unconfirmed report.

3. The productivity of employees may be hampered as they spend more time talking rather than

working.

4. The grapevine leads to making hostility against the executives.

5. The grapevine may hamper the goodwill of the organization as it may carry false negative

information about the high level people of the organization.

A smart manager should take care of all the disadvantages of the grapevine and try to minimize them. At
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the same time, he should make best possible use of advantages of grapevine.

1.6 Functions of communication

The most basic functions of communication in an organization are to inform, control, motivate and

emotional expression.

1.6.1. Information

An organization needs a vast amount of information to function and operate a business. The top

management would require timely and accurate information for the various departments to make effective

decisions. Information is dispersed throughout an organization through written or verbal communication. A

human resources representative or business owner may send out a memo explaining a change in the

company's health plan. A business meeting may be used as a way to communicate a new office procedure. A

webinar allows a company to conduct a meeting over the Internet with employees or customers who cannot

attend in person. The idea of informing within an organization is to provide data and information so that

employees can effectively complete their job. Information ensures that an employee is aware of the rules

and procedures of an organization. It also eliminates job uncertainty for workers when they are fully

informed.

1.6.2 Control

The management of any organization will always have plans with long, medium or long termobjectives for

the months and years ahead. To achieve these objectives, the daily & monthly activities must proceed as

planned in order to achieve the objectives for the period.Communication acts to control member behavior

in several ways. Organizations have authority hierarchies and formal guidelines that employees are

required to follow. When employees, for instance for instances are required to first communicate any job

related grievance to their immediate boss, to follow their job description, or to comply with company

policies, communication is performing a control function. But informal communication also controls

behavior. When work groups tease or harass a member who produces too much (and makes the rest of the

group look bad) they are informally communicating with, and controlling the member’s behavior. A company

uses communication as a way to maintain control over employees and their work environment. Written

human resources policies and procedures dictate how employees are permitted to act in the workplace.
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Job descriptions outline the parameters of an employee's job functions. Performance reviews control

whether an employee receives a raise or attains a promotion.

1.6.3 Motivation

Managers use communication to motivate workers to achieve peak performance. By clarifying the

expectations of employees and providing incentives for meeting or exceeding expectations, communication

can help companies reach specific objectives. For example, by communicating to salespeople that they'll

receive a 10 percent bonus if they reach their annual sales goal, it helps the company reach its overall

sales goals. Communication fosters motivation by clarifying to employees what is to be done, how well they

are doing and what can be done to improve performance if it’s subpar. We saw his operating in our review

of goal-setting and reinforcement theories. The formation of specific goals, feedback on progress toward

the goals, and reinforcement of desired behavior all stimulate motivation and require communication.

1.6.4. Emotional Expression and Interdependence

Emotional appeal is when emotions or arguments are used to persuade others instead of facts or logic.

Organizations can use emotional appeals when delivering bad news. Last year, the CEO spoke to the entire

company at an emergency meeting. He explained how devastated he was over the need to have a corporate

downsizing. He used emotion to explain that it was better for the overall security of the company to

eliminate some positions. For many employees, their work group is a primary source for social interaction.

The communication that takes place within the group is a fundamental mechanism by which members show

their frustration and feelings of satisfaction. Communication therefore provides release for the emotional

expression of feelings and for fulfillment of social needs.

1.7 Technology and Business Communication

Technology has changed business in many ways, but its effect on communication is arguably the most

significant. The use of technology in daily business operations is constantly evolving, and one such example

is the use of technology in business communication. Being in touch is very important to businesses, that is

why it is no wonder why a lot of resources is spent in improving the communication procedures of various

businesses. The revolution of the Internet has allowed businesses to have more options as far as business

communication was concerned. It made the technologies of software, hardware, and network converge into
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one cohesive and solid system, which made the optimization of various business procedures faster. Indeed,

the employees and the organizations as a whole greatly benefit from the use of technology in business.

With a feasible business plan, organizations can save a lot of money and raise the level of productivity of

the staff if the use of technology were well-planned and executed. Even medium-scale companies now have

a chance to participate in the fierce competition among larger businesses. This is just one proof that

technology in business communication is capable of increasing worker productivity. If you come to think

about, the advantages do not need an employee to undergo a radical adjustment. On the contrary, tasks

are made simpler and more convenient for the user.

Communication Is Faster

Whether you need to speak with an employee who is traveling in another state or country or you need to

communicate with your supplier half way around the world, technology allows you to do so instantaneously.

In fact, thanks to email and text messages, you can now send messages to people in other time zones

before you forget without worrying that you will wake them up. In fact, the Internet has allowed business

people to communicate easily regardless of time zone and language issues.

Expanded Communication Opportunities

Technology allows individuals to communicate and carry on a business relationship without ever meeting

face to face, so people in all parts of the world now have the chance to interact with a company in a rural

part of India. For example, technology allowed for the emergence of the virtual assistant, a worker who

completes tasks for her client online without having ever met him, in the 20th century.

Cost-Cutting Procedures

In addition to migrating to a digital means of communicating, a business can save a lot with technological

advances in business communication. Business software products that combine voice and data no longer

have the need for multiple lines that can add a bulky amount to communication expenses. In addition,

minimal technical support is needed since most of the installation, operations, and maintenance procedures

can be done with little or no supervision at all.

Network Convenience

The use of modern technology in business communication eradicates the complexity that is involved in
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monitoring network traffic. This is because all the communication data travels at the same stream.

Therefore, there is only one network that needs to be monitored, and this lessens the work of network

administrators, giving them more time to work on other tasks.

The benefits of technology in business communication are almost immeasurable, since its advantages are

long term and ell-encompassing. Businesses can use this to their advantage to increase productivity, to

raise revenues, to build better relationships with customers, and to survive longer in the business arena.

1.8 The Role of the Manager in effective business communication

Business communication is no longer about how to write a letter, email or use effective writing skills. It

has also extended to other areas in the business, for example, excellent relationships within the business.

A manager should not only concentrate on successful communication with its external clients, customers

and stakeholders. The employees of the business actually are internal clients and should also be treated

with care. Many scholars refer to this as internal marketing, a very important feature of good business

communication. Employees’ well-being and work satisfaction play a large role in their productivity and how

loyal they will be towards the business. The role of the manager is to ensure good relationships with and

among employees. A healthy working environment is equally important. Previous research has indicated

that employees also have other career aspirations than only a salary.

Unhappy employees as a result of poor communication processes in the business can negatively affect the

corporate image of the business and make the business less successful. The manager of the business

should also keep track with changes in society, especially the ever changing business environment.

Communication processes in the business should reflect these changes.

Anyone involved in management – whether it’s for a large or small company – knows well the relational

complexities involved. Sometimes you have to give criticisms on an employee’s performance, other times

you get the privilege of praising another employee’s performance. You’re often tasked with overseeing

projects both large and small, while directing a diverse group of individuals and personalities in the

process. Needless to say, communication skills are essential for any management position.

While communication in management is not always easy, you may find yourself having to work with

difficult people, or with unmotivated people. But if you come to the table with the right tools to do the
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job, you will have an effective team of individuals proud of the work they do for you, and you can feel your

own sense of pride in developing these key business relationships in the workplace.

Key Areas of Communication in Management

 Relationship Building

Relationship building is a key discipline to master. It helps you establish trust and friendship with your

employees. They will come to you with problems, and when the time comes that you must give negative

feedback they will actually be able to hear you out. On the flip side of that coin, when it comes time to

give positive feedback, your employees will take it to heart and it will motivate them to do better work. In

any work environment, as a manager is important to build these relationships early on.

 Employee Engagement

One aspect of the manager-employee relationship has to do with including employees in on project

management and development - allowing them to give their input. This doesn’t necessarily mean that you

have to accept every idea that comes across your desk, but the fact that you are sincerely listening to

concerns positions you as a respected and trusted leader within the company. In short, if employees truly

feel like they are a part of the process, they will connect to projects in a more meaningful way, and do

high-quality work.

 Employee Recognition

Every manager should learn how to properly recognize employees in the workplace. However, it’s not

enough to simply recognize and praise an employee in your office, you must make every effort to make

recognition a very public event. Recognizing an employee for their hard work shows that you value their

contributions to the organization. Again, this is another communication strategy that will motivate

employees to do better.

 Employee Coaching

Finally, there is the discipline of employee coaching. Unfortunately, not every employee candidate is going

to walk into the office with a flawless performance record. They may fall down and make a mess a few
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times before really grasping the tools needed to succeed in the workplace. You, as a manager, are an

instrumental part of that success. Successful managers should be having in-depth conversations with

employees about performance about once every quarter at least. It’s important that you keep these

conversations as informal as possible, so you can actually connect with the employee you’re trying to coach.

 Communication is Motivating

Communication is a life force. If employees know where they stand in the work place, and they feel

comfortable in that environment, they will be motivated to do good work. Solid communication skills are

not just good for the life of the company, but they help you understand how everything is going within the

company. It gives you some real-world “data,” so to speak.

1.8.1. Effectiveness in Managerial Communication

It is essential for employees to communicate effectively with each other for better understanding as well

as increased productivity at workplace. Employees doing everything on their own are generally

overburdened and eventually fail to deliver their best. Effective managerial communication enables the

flow of information and knowledge among employees in its desired form. Managers need to interact with

their team members to extract the best out of them. Problems remain unsolved if employees do not

communicate with each other. Discussions go a long way in reducing confusions and also improve the

relations among employees.

There are some tips for effective managerial communication at workplace:

 Remember a manager’s task is not only to sit in closed cabins and shout at subordinates. He needs

to interact with his team members on a regular basis. Speak to your colleagues more often. Find out what

they are upto? Treat all your team members as one. There is absolutely no harm in taking lunch with your

team members. This way you tend to discuss lot many things apart from routine work.

 Promote the concept of morning meetings at workplace. Morning meetings help you interact with

your team members on an open platform where everyone has the liberty to express his/her views.

Communicate with your team members and help them plan their day. Let them come out with their
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problems. Walk up to their workstations once or twice in a day.

 Increase your listening skills. A good listener is always a good communicator. It is really

important to listen to the other person carefully before speaking. Interrupting a conversation breaks the

momentum and the message loses its impact.

 Working in a team leads to effective managerial communication. Employees working in isolation

hardly interact with their fellow workers and superiors. Make sure your team members discuss things

amongst themselves and work together. Instruct them to keep you in the loop as well. The employees must

mark a cc to their immediate reporting managers to keep them updated of the latest developments at the

workplace.

 Master the art of writing emails. Also train your team members how to write an official mail.

There is a huge difference between a personal and official mail. The subject line needs to be relevant for

people to open the mail.

 Do not call your team members one by one for any kind of communication. Address them together.

 Think before you speak. Make sure whatever you communicate is relevant. Avoid using

complicated words and terminologies in your speech. The message has to be clear and precise for

effective managerial communication. Be straightforward and communicate clearly as to what you expect

out of your team members.

 No communication is complete unless the message is understood clearly by the recipients.

There should be absolutely no room for confusion in effective communication. Once you are through with

your speech, give some time to your team members for them to ask whatever they have not understood.

1.9 Barriers in Business Communication

For any kind of communication to be successful, it is essential that the receiver attributes the same

meaning to the message as intended by the sender of the message. But all acts of communication are not

perfect or successful. At times, some meaning is lost as the message encounters various barriers along its

passage between the sender and the receiver. Such barriers may arise at any of the stages through which

a message passes during the process of communication. This is also called miscommunication.
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Some of the common problems that lead to the failure of communication are: noise, cultural differences,

complexity of subject matter, personal biases, semantic problems, socio-psychological barriers, filtering,

information overload, poor retention, poor listening, goal conflicts, slanting, inferring, etc.

Types of barriers

Barriers to communication can be classified into the following broad categories: 1) Physical or

environmental barriers, 2) Physiological or biological barriers, 3) Semantic or language barriers, 4)

Personal barriers, 5) Emotional or perceptional barriers, 6) Socio-psychological barriers, 7) Cultural

barriers, and 8) Organizational barriers.

Physical or Environmental Barriers

Physical barriers are those barriers which are caused due to some technical defects in the media used for

communication and/or due to certain disturbances in the surrounding environment.

Often, the term ‘noise’ is used as a blanket term to refer to the physical barriers in general. But noise, in

its literal sense, is also one of the factors that give rise to the physical barriers during the process of

communication.

Besides noise, wrong selection of medium, lack of acoustics, poor lighting, frequent movements of hands,

fiddling with a pen, or even serving of tea during an important conversation- all of these are also

responsible for creating physical barriers in the communication process.

Noise

Noise is the first major barrier to communication. Communication is distorted by noise that crops up at

the transmission level.

The meaning attributed to the word ‘noise’ in the field of Communication is derived from the realm of

Physics. In Physics, noise refers to “a disturbance, especially a random and persistent disturbance, which

obscures or reduces the clarity of a signal”.

The modern-day connotation of the word ‘noise’ is “irrelevant or meaningless data” as is apparent from its

usage in the field of Computer Science.

For example, the noise of the traffic around a school obstructs the smooth flow of information between

the teacher and the students. It makes oral communication difficult. Similarly, poor signal or static while
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talking over the cell phone or while using the public address system or while watching TV also distorts the

sound signals and disrupts communication. Bad weather conditions may also sometimes interfere with the

transmission of signals and may lead to breakdown of the communication channels.

As discussed above, noise is not only the disruption of sound signals, but it also includes all the barriers

that may arise at any of the various stages of communication. In a broad sense, it denotes semantic

barriers, perceptional barriers as well as psychological barriers.

Time and Distance

Time and distance may also obstruct the smooth flow of information. Today, because of technological

advancements, we have faster means of communication available to us and this in turn has made the world

a smaller place. But at times, these means of communication may not be easily accessible because of

unavailability or due to technical/technological problems. This may lead not only to a physical but also a

communication gap between the transmitter and the receiver.

Time differences between people living in two different countries may affect communication between

them. Even people working in different shifts in the same organization may also face problems in

communicating effectively.

Improper seating arrangement in a classroom or in a conference hall may also act as a barrier to effective

communication as it is difficult to maintain eye contact with one’s audience.

Wrong Choice of Medium

This can also create a barrier to effective communication. For example, if an expert uses charts or graphs

or PowerPoint presentations to orient the illiterate workers or volunteers to a new method of working,

they are bound to be ill-equipped to infer any information or instructions from such sophisticated

presentations.

Surroundings

Adverse weather conditions affect not only the means of communication, but also have an impact on the

sender and the receiver of the message. When two people have to communicate with each other under

extreme weather conditions, whether too hot or too cold, their surroundings does have a direct

repercussion on the effectiveness of the exchange that takes place between them.
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Thus, environmental factors determine people’s mood and also influence their mental agility and thereby

their capacity to communicate effectively. Extreme heat and humidity make people either hyper or listless

and thus cause immense stress which in turn affects clear thinking and the attitude of the communicator;

whereas, extreme cold weather induces laziness and also impedes the ability to think clearly and respond

sharply, thereby causing communication failure.

Physiological Barriers

Physiological barriers are related to a person’s health and fitness. These may arise due to disabilities that

may affect the physical capability of the sender or the receiver. For example, poor eyesight, deafness,

uncontrolled body movements, etc.

Physical defects in one’s body may also disrupt communication. While communicating, a person uses – his

vocal (speech) organs to produce sound/speech, his hand and fingers to write, his ears to take in the

spoken words his eyes to absorb the written words

Flawless functioning of these body organs is inevitable for effective communication to take place. In case

of any defect in any of these organs, the successful completion of communication will be difficult to

accomplish.

Speaking can be adversely affected by stammering, fumbling, utterance of improper sounds due to

defective vocal organ/s, etc.

Semantic or Language Barriers

Semantics is the systematic study of the meaning of words. Thus, the semantic barriers are barriers

related to language. Such barriers are problems that arise during the process of encoding and/or decoding

the message into words and ideas respectively.

Both the oral and the written communication are based on words/symbols which are ambiguous in nature.

Words/symbols may be used in several ways and may have several meanings. Unless the receiver knows the

context, he may interpret the words/symbols according to his own level of understanding and may thus

misinterpret the message.

The most common semantic barriers are listed as under:

a. Misinterpretation of Words

Semantic problems often arise because of the gap between the meaning as intended by the sender and

that as understood by the receiver. This happens when the receiver does not assign the same meaning to

the word/symbol as the transmitter had intended.

Words are capable of expressing a variety of meanings depending upon their usage, i.e. in the context in

which they are used. The association between the word/symbol and the meaning assigned to it is of

arbitrary nature.

For example, the word 'yellow' when used as an adjective can have multiple connotations depending upon

its usage. Words have two levels of meaning- literal (descriptive) and metaphorical (qualitative). ‘Yellow’,

besides being a primary colour, also stands for ‘freshness’, ‘beauty’, ‘sickness’, ‘decay’, etc. Hence, the

receiver is free to interpret it in any of these ways based on his own imagination and experience.

But for communication to be perfect, it is essential that the receiver must assign to it the same meaning

which the sender had in his mind while encoding the message. Therefore, there is always a possibility of

misinterpretation of the messages. Mostly, such problems arise when the sender does not use simple and

clear words that can convey the exact meaning to the receiver.

b. Use of Technical Language

Technical or specialized language which is used by people or professionals who work in the same field is

known as jargon. Such technical language can be a barrier to communication if the receiver of the message

is not familiar with it. For example, in the computer jargon, 'to burn a CD' means 'to copy the data on a

CD'. To a layman, the word 'burn' may have a very different connotation.

c. Ambiguity

Ambiguity arises when the sender and the receiver of the message attribute different meanings to the

same words or use different words to convey the same meaning. Sometimes, wrong and speculative

assumptions also lead to ambiguity. A sender often assumes that his audience would perceive the situation

as he does or have the same opinion about an issue or understand the message as he understands it, and so

on. All such assumptions may turn out to be wrong and cause communication failure.
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Personal Barriers

Communication is interpersonal in nature. Thus, there are certain barriers that are directly linked to the

persons involved in the communication process, i.e. the sender and the receiver, which influence the

accurate transfer of the message. These are called personal barriers.

Personal barriers have to do with the age, education, interests and needs or intentions that differ from

person to person.

In any business organization, the attitude of the superiors and the subordinates play a vital role in

determining the success of communication. If the superiors have a hostile attitude, then there are

chances that they may filter the information or manipulate the message, sometimes intentionally, in order

to achieve certain selfish motives. Many superiors are not open to suggestions and feedback as they

presume that their subordinates are not capable of advising them. Also, they often tend to keep too busy

with work and do not pay much attention to communication. Due to this, the downward flow of information

within the organization is badly affected and this in turn leads to poor performance.

Emotional or Perceptional Barriers

Emotional or perceptional barriers are closely associated with personal barriers. Personal barriers arise

from motives and attitudes whereas emotional or perceptional barriers have an added dimension that

includes sentiments and emotions as well.

If the receiver does not evaluate the information with an open mind, i.e. objectively, his

judgment/evaluation would be colored with his biases and/or his emotions, thus inducing him to read too

much into a message. This would interfere with the exact transfer of information and cause

misinterpretation.

Such a barrier may also emerge at the time of encoding the message. Over enthusiasm on the part of the

sender may lead him to invest his message with meaning/s which he may actually not have intended to.
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Indolence, apathy, or the tendency to procrastinate, either on the part of the sender or the receiver, also

lead to withholding of important information thus creating a barrier. Extreme emotions like euphoria,

excitement, anger, stress, depression, etc. also get in the way of effective communication. All these

factors may create biases in the mind of the sender or the receiver.

Socio-Psychological Barriers

Socio-psychological barriers can also be considered as one of the offshoots of the personal barriers, akin

to the perceptional barriers. We need to study it as a subcategory of personal barriers because a person’s

attitude is shaped not only by his instincts and emotions, but also by his approach towards and his

interaction with the people around him, and hence the need for this fine distinction between the personal,

the perceptional and the socio-psychological barriers.

b. Difference in Perception

Moreover, in a communication situation, the communicators have to deal with two aspects of the reality-

the one as they see it and the other as they perceive it. The mind filters the message i.e. the

words/symbols/ signs and attributes meaning to them, according to individual perception.

Each individual has his own distinctive filter, formed by his/her experiences, emotional makeup,

knowledge, and mindset which s/he has attained over a period of time. Because of this difference in

perceptions, different individuals respond to the same word/symbol/sign based on their own

understanding of the situation and ascribe meaning to it on the basis of their unique filter.

At times, this difference in perception causes communication gap, i.e. distortion, in the message. In face-

to-face communication, this gap can be easily eliminated as there is immediate feedback. But in written

communication, the semantic gap between the intended meaning and the interpreted meaning remains

unidentified, as the feedback is delayed or sometimes there is no feedback at all.

c. Prejudices

Besides, a person with deeply ingrained prejudices is very difficult to communicate with. He is not

responsive to discussion or to new ideas, information, viewpoints and opinions. He has a closed mind and

tends to react antagonistically, thus ruling out all possibilities of communication. An unreceptive mind can,

hence, be a great barrier in communication. To overcome this barrier, people should be receptive of new
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ideas and must learn to listen considerately with an open mind.

e. Information Overload

Furthermore, information overload leads to poor retention and causes information loss. So, whenever

there is some important information to be conveyed, the communicators must use the written channel of

communication. On the basis of the above discussion, we may thus conclude that the socio-psychological

factors do have a profound impact on the effectiveness of communication.

Cultural Barriers

Cultural differences give rise to a great deal of complexity in the encoding and the decoding of messages

not only because of the difference in languages, but also because of plenty of culture-specific assumptions

at work in the mind of the sender as well as the receiver.People belonging to different cultures may

attach different meanings to words, symbols, gestures, and behaviour or they may perceive each others’

social values, body language, attitude to space distancing and time, social behaviour and manners, etc., i.e.

the entire culture in general, very differently depending upon their own standards, attitudes, customs,

prejudices, opinions, behavioral norms, etc., i.e. their own distinct culture.

Thus, cultural barriers arise when people belonging to different cultures insist on preserving their cultural

identities and at times, judge the other cultures as inferior to their own.

Organizational Barriers

Organizational structure greatly influences the flow of information within an organization. Some major

organizational barriers are as follows:

a. Goal Conflicts

There may be goal conflicts within the organization between the superiors and the subordinates, among

people working in the different departments, among the colleagues, etc. This may create a hostile

atmosphere within the organization and can lead to serious communication breakdown.

b. Organizational Policies

These are also to a great extent responsible for determining the kind of rapport that people working in

the same organization share with each other. If the organizational policy is such that it restricts the free

flow of information in all directions then communication would not be successful. In some organizations,
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there may be rules to restrict the flow of certain messages and this may deter employees from conveying

those messages, however important they may be.

If an organization favors the open door policy, the subordinates would not feel shy or reluctant to

approach their superiors directly. But in the organizations where the formal channels of communication

have to be strictly adhered to, the superiors and the subordinates share an awkward relationship. They

experience a lot of discomfiture while interacting with each other. Because of this, the objective of

communication may never be accomplished.

c. Organizational Hierarchy

The hierarchical structure of the organization may also impede the flow of information and this can cause

delay in taking decisions. When the message passes along the chain of command in an organization, there

are chances of filtering and distortion of the message at almost every level before it reaches the

intended receiver. Thus, the hierarchical structure of the organization is also one of the important

factors that may create a barrier to effective communication.

1.9.1 Filters in Business Communication

What is Filtering?

Filtering is altering the interpretation of the message by applying certain influences or biases. The

receiver will filter the message according to their experience and as a result the interpretation of the

message can be very different from what was intended. The consequence of filtering is that there can be

misunderstanding which can lead to an unexpected response.

For example, the project manager may ask a team member if the document has been completed. The team

member may interpret this as asking whether it has been written, and not whether it has also been

reviewed and signed off.

Causes of Filtering

Some of the common areas that cause filtering are:

• Language: the receiver interprets the message based on their translation of the language to

thoughts and ideas.

• Culture: of the recipient and their understanding of the culture of the environment they are in
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(the workplace, the organisation, the industry, the local area and country).

• Semantics: the receiver interprets the message based on their understanding of the meaning of

the words used.

• Knowledge base: the receiver utilises a different knowledge base on which to interpret the

message.

• Implication: the interpretation of the message may be based on assumptions. An extreme example

of implication is sarcasm, where the opposite of what is meant to be interpreted is said

5 types of filters:

1. Distractions.

2. Emotional states.

3. Beliefs and expectations.

4. Differences in style.

5. Self-protection.

Distractions:

 When you say something to your partner do you have his/her attention?

 External things like noisy kids, a hearing problem, or background noise can be a problem.

 Internal factors are such things as preoccupation, feeling tired, planning what else is to be done

that day, etc.

 Make it easier to pay attention to your partner. Ask for their attention.

Emotional states:

 Moods greatly affect communication.

 Studies have shown that we tend to give people more benefit of the doubt when we’re in a good

mood and less when we’re in a bad mood.

 When we’re in a bad mood we are more likely to perceive whatever our partner says or does more

negatively no matter how positive he/she is trying to be.

 Don’t use a filter such as a bad mood as a reason to treat your partner badly.

 Talking about how you feel may be the best first step in starting a conversation, especially if is

about important matters.

Beliefs and expectations:

 Many studies have shown that we tend to see what we expect to see in others and in situations.

 It takes humility to recognize and admit that you do this.

 It has been shown that expectations not only affect what we perceive but can influence the actual

behavior of those around us. For example, if you believe that someone is an extrovert, he is more likely to

sound like an extrovert when talking with you, even if that person is normally introverted. We “pull”

behavior from others consistent with what we expect.

 This is one reason why old habits and feelings and patterns of communication come back with full

force during holidays when we are with the family we grew up in.

 We can easily get into “mind reading”, thinking that we know what someone else means or wants.

Differences in style:

 One person may be more expressive and one more reserved.

 Styles are determined by many influences including culture, gender, and upbringing. For example, in one f

may be very normal to raise one’s voice when making a point and in another raising one’s voice was never done

people from these two varied backgrounds marry, for one to raise his/her voice may be perceived by the ot

threatening.

 In other families there may have been many conversations going on at once around the dinner table while i

families to talk while someone else is talking is considered rude.

 All families develop spoken as well as unspoken rules for conversing, caring, making decisions, and oth

relating to each other. The key is to become aware of the unspoken and therefore assumed rules that you have gr
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with and learn to adapt them to living in your current family.

Self-protection:

 This filter comes from the fear of rejection we struggle with in marriage.

 Fear is the big enemy of secure and warm attachment. It will stop us from saying what we truly feel or wan

simple statements such as, “Would you like to go see that new movie?” can reflect a fear of rejection. Instead of s

directly, “I want to go see that new movie; want to go?” we often hide our desire because speaking of it reveals m

who we are and increases the risk of rejection.

 Movies may not matter so much as do feelings, desires, expectations.

Listening Skills

A good listener will listen not only to what is being said, but also to what is left unsaid

or only partially said. Effective listening involves observing body language and noticing

inconsistencies between verbal and non-verbal messages. For example, if someone

tells you that they are happy with their life but through gritted teeth or with tears

filling their eyes, you should consider that the verbal and non-verbal messages are in

conflict, they maybe don't mean what they say.

Listening is the ability to accurately receive and interpret messages in the

communication process. Listening is key to all effective communication, without the

ability to listen effectively messages are easily misunderstood – communication breaks

down and the sender of the message can easily become frustrated or irritated.

Listening is so important that many top employers provide listening skills training for

their employees. This is not surprising when you consider that good listening skills can

lead to: better customer satisfaction, greater productivity with fewer mistakes,

increased sharing of information that in turn can lead to more creative and innovative

work. Many successful leaders and entrepreneurs credit their success to effective

listening skills. Richard Branson frequently quotes listening as one of the main factors

behind the success of Virgin. Effective listening is a skill that underpins all positive

human relationships, spend some time thinking about and developing your listening skills

– they are the building blocks of success.

Listening is Not the Same as Hearing

Hearing refers to the sounds that you hear, whereas listening requires more than that:

it requires focus. Listening means paying attention not only to the story, but how it is

told, the use of language and voice, and how the other person uses his or her body. In

other words, it means being aware of both verbal and non-verbal messages. Your ability

to listen effectively depends on the degree to which you perceive and understand

these messages.

Types of Listening

2.1 Active Listening

Active listening is a skill that can be acquired and developed with practice. However,

active listening can be difficult to master and will, therefore, take time and patience.

'Active listening' means, as its name suggests, actively listening. That is fully

concentrating on what is being said rather than just passively ‘hearing’ the message of

the speaker. Active listening involves listening with all senses. As well as giving full

attention to the speaker, it is important that the ‘active listener’ is also ‘seen’ to be

listening - otherwise the speaker may conclude that what they are talking about is

uninteresting to the listener.

Interest can be conveyed to the speaker by using both verbal and non-verbal

messages such as maintaining eye contact, nodding your head and smiling, agreeing by

saying ‘Yes’ or simply ‘Mmm hmm’ to encourage them to continue. By providing this

'feedback' the person speaking will usually feel more at ease and therefore

communicate more easily, openly and honestly.

 Listening is the most fundamental component of interpersonal communication

skills. Listening is not something that just happens (that is hearing), listening is

an active process in which a conscious decision is made to listen to and

understand the messages of the speaker. Listeners should remain neutral and

non-judgmental, this means trying not to take sides or form opinions, especially

early in the conversation. Active listening is also about patience - pauses and

short periods of silence should be accepted. Listeners should not be tempted to

jump in with questions or comments every time there are a few seconds of
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silence. Active listening involves giving the other person time to explore their

thoughts and feelings, they should, therefore, be given adequate time for that.

 Active listening not only means focusing fully on the speaker but also

actively showing verbal and non-verbal signs of listening. Generally speakers want

listeners to demonstrate ‘active listening’ by responding appropriately to what they are

saying. Appropriate responses to listening can be both verbal and non-verbal:

2.2 Passive Listening

Passive Listening occurs when a listener doesnot verbally respond to the speaker. The

listener may deliberately or unintentionally send non-verbal messages through eye

contact, smiles, yawns or nods. Sometimes passive listening is appropriate. If the

speaker wants to vent frustration or express an opinion he may listen passively. Passive

listening is mechanical and effortless. It does not require any special effort. You hear

what your teacher says and you might be able to tell the difference between major

and minor points of the lecture, but that is about it. Lack of enthusiasm and a

"careless" attitude during class characterize a student who is a passive listener. Active

listeners on the other hand really concentrate on the content of the lecture and not on

the lecturer or any random distractions in the room or their mind. They do more than

focus on facts, figures, and ideas and actively associate the material presented with

their own experiences. The content heard at every lecture is converted to something

useful and meaningful for the student. You must pay special attention in class because,

unlike when reading a textbook, you only get one chance to hear and understand the
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information presented to you.

2.3 Barriers to Listening

There are many things that get in the way of listening and you should be aware of

these barriers, many of which are bad habits, in order to become a more

effective listener. Barriers and bad habits to effective listening can include:

Excessive Talking

Good conversational skills are an asset, and a person with this skill is more likely

to achieve professional success. However, talking more than is necessary is a

barrier to effective communication. People hesitate to interact with a person who

talks excessively without listening to them. They may also get bored, and

excessive talking may be perceived as aggression.

Prejudice

Prejudice is a preconceived opinion of feeling, which is usually irrational. Prejudice

is very dangerous and has the potential to bring animosity into the team and to

break team spirit. The reason for a prejudice may be the speaker's race, religion,

age or appearance. A prejudiced person will not make any effort to listen and

understand.

Distractions

The four main types of distractions are physical, mental, auditory and visual.

Here's how to avoid this common barrier:

It is fine to have personal beliefs and values, but an excessive attachment to

them will have a negative impact on your ability to communicate effectively with

others. Learn to appreciate the fact that each and every person has his or her

own set of beliefs and values.

Misunderstanding

Inability to hear correctly is one of the many reasons for misunderstanding of

what the speaker is trying to communicate. This inability to hear is often the

result of prejudice. To avoid misunderstanding, always clarify with the speaker to

ensure that you have understood correctly.

Interrupting

Interrupting a conversation with improper body language or inappropriate words

will have a negative impact in effective communication.

Bringing in Emotions

Emotions erect barriers to effective communication. A listener's senses are not

likely to be functioning at their optimum level when he or she is angry. Likewise, it

is not possible to understand or appreciate what the speaker is saying if the

listener is excessively sad.

Noise

Noise is "any unwanted sound. It is a great impediment to clear communication. It

is impossible to listen in a noisy environment. It becomes a frustrating experience

for both the speaker and the listener.

Previous experiences

We are all influenced by previous experiences in life. We respond to people based on pe

appearances, how initial introductions or welcomes were received and/or previous interpe

encounters. If we stereotype a person we become less objective and therefore less likely to

effectively.

Having a Closed Mind

We all have ideals and values that we believe to be correct and it can be difficult to listen t

views of others that contradict our own opinions. The key to effective listening and interpe

skills more generally is the ability to have a truly open mind - to understand why others think

things differently to you and use this information to gain a better understanding of the speaker

2.4 Traits of a good Listener

The following attributes of good listening are suggestive of the skills needed.

Concentration: Good listening is normally hard work. At every moment we are receiving lit

millions of sensory messages. Our ears are hearing the buzzing of the computer fan, street so

music in the background and dozens of other sounds and thousands more signals are knocking

doors of our senses. We have to repress almost all of these and concentrate on the verbal s

(and visual clues) from one source - the speaker. And this concentration, if something that most

have not been thoroughly trained in how to do. You should focus your attention on the words,
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and feeling related to the subject. Concentrate on the main ideas or points. Don't let examp

fringe comments detract you. All of this takes a conscious effort.

Attention. Attention may be defined as the visual portion of concentration on the speaker. Th

eye contact and other body language, we communicate to the speaker that we are paying

attention to his/her messages. All the time we are reading the verbal and nonverbal cues fro

speaker, the speaker is reading ours. What messages are we sending out? If we lean forward a

and focus our eyes on the person, the message is we are paying close attention.

Eye contact. Good eye contact is essential for several reasons: First, by maintaining eye co

some of the competing visual inputs are eliminated. You are not as likely to be distracted fro

person talking to you. Second, most of us have learned to read lips, often unconsciously, and t

reading helps us to understand verbal messages. Third, much of many messages are in non-

form and by watching the eyes and face of a person we pick up clues as to the content. A squint

the eyes may indicate close attention. A slight nod indicates understanding or agreement.

English language messages can have several meanings depending upon voice inflection,

modulation, facial expression, etc. Finally, our eye contact with the speaker is feedback conc

the message.

Receptive Body Language. Certain body postures and movements are culturally interpreted

specific meanings. The crossing of arms and legs is perceived to mean a closing of the min

attention. The nodding of the head vertically is interpreted as agreement or assent. If seate
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leaning forward with the upper body communicates attention. Standing or seated, the maintena

an appropriate distance is important. Too close and we appear to be pushy or aggressive and to

and we are seen as cold.

Objective: We should be open to the message the other person is sending. It is very difficult

completely open because each of us is strongly biased by the weight of our past experiences. W

meaning to the messages based upon what we have been taught the words and symbols mean b

parents, our peers and our teachers. Talk to someone from a different culture and watch how

give meaning to words. Or another listening challenge is to listen open and objectively to a p

with very different political or religious beliefs. Relatively a few people can listen, understan

appreciate such messages which are very different from their own.

Questioning/Clarifying. Questions can serve the same purpose as restating the message. If yo

unclear about the intent of the message, ask for more information after allowing sufficient tim

explanations. Don't ask questions that will hurt, embarrass or show up the other person. Only p

the responsibility is with the speaker. You have an important and active role to play also. I

message does not get through, two people have failed the speaker and you as an active listener.

Leave the Channel Open. A good listener always leaves open the possibility of additional messa

brief question or a nod will often encourage additional communications.

3.1 Speaking Skills

Your voice can reveal as much about your personal history as your appearance. The sound

of a voice and the content of speech can provide clues to an individual's emotional state

and a dialect can indicate their geographic roots. The voice is unique to the person to

whom it belongs. For instance, if self-esteem is low, it may be reflected by hesitancy in

the voice, a shy person may have a quiet voice, but someone who is confident in

themselves will be more likely to have command of their voice and clarity of speech.

Effective speaking is being able to speak in a public context with confidence and clarity,

whilst at the same time reflecting on your own personality.

3.2 Confidence

Confidence is not something that can be learned like a set of rules; confidence is a state

of mind. Positive thinking, practice, training, knowledge and talking to other people are all

useful ways to help improve or boost your confidence levels. Confidence comes from

feelings of well-being, acceptance of your body, mind and belief in your own ability, skills

and experience. Low-confidence can be a result of many factors including: fear of the

unknown, criticism, being unhappy with personal appearance, feeling unprepared, poor

time-management, lack of knowledge and previous failures. Confidence is not a static

measure, our confidence to perform roles and tasks can increase and decrease.

3.3 Paralinguistic Features Rate

Rate refers to the number of words we utter per minute. Speaking too fast is

related to lack of comfort. Recall those speeches of your friends which they

rapidly delivered in the class; remember how some of them just wanted to finish

their speech and rush back to their seats of safety! A speaker who does not feel

sure of himself/herself generally feels intimidated by the challenge of speaking in

professional situations. This leads to a feeling of nervousness, and the best

solution seems to speak as fast as one can and be finished with the frightening
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prospect of standing in front of the audience as the breakneck speed of delivery

not only reveals the speaker’s lack of confidence but also makes it difficult for

the audience to comprehend, assimilate, and digest what is being said by the

speaker.

Just as too fast a pace causes inconvenience to the audience, so does a pace far too slow.

In fact, too slow a pace of your speech is likely to cause monotony and boredom to such

an extent that the audience start feeling sleepy and lose interest in the speech.

Moreover, too slow a rate suggests lack of preparedness on the part of the speaker.

Pauses

Pauses are an essential part of all human interactions. We pause between different

thought units in our day-to-day interactions with others. Therefore, if we do not pause

while we speak in professional situations, it only makes our speech appear unnatural and

hasty. Pauses lend credibility to the text of the speech. The speakers who pause suggest

that they are quite accomplished, poised, and composed, and are not really worried about

not being able to locate an idea once they have paused. Thus, if we pause, we display a

sense of security and feeling of assurance that we know how to go further in our speech

after a pause. On the contrary, those who do not pause seem to be in a hurry. Moreover,

those who rush through their speeches and presentations are nervous about using pauses,

as once they stop, they feel they would not know how to resume or reconnect. But then,

such speakers are far from being impressive and accomplished. By all means, we must use

pause while speaking in professional situations. They make our speech sound natural.

Moreover, pauses are also required for the audiences to comprehend what you say, relate
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it to your earlier statement, and critically participate in the act of communication.

The most crucial thing about pause is their timing. A rightly timed pause is as important

as a rightly placed word. Since a pause has to indicate either the emphasis or the

conclusion of a thought unit, it is important not to put them at wrong places. Therefore,

whenever you pause, pause at the conclusion of a certain thought unit and not in between.

Remember, a timed pause adds to the value of what you say and makes it adequately

natural and emphatic. A wrongly placed pause, however, distracts the audience. Also

remember that though a pause is always a natural breather, both to the speaker and the

listeners, silence—a longer pause— makes the audience fell impatient.

Volume

A speaker’s volume often decides how he/she is likely to be received by the audience. The

speaker who speaks at a low volume is likely to be seen as someone who lacks his/her lack

of conviction of ideas. Such a speaker can never appear or emerge to be the master of

the situation. Low volume is essentially associated with diffidence, and once you reveal

that you lack confidence, you cannot gain control of your audience or command their

respect as a speaker. At the other extreme is the speaker who speaks so loudly that the

people in the front rows start dreading him/her. A speaker of this type is also likely to

be rejected by the audience, simply because it suggests his/her arrogance.

Pitch/Intonation/Voice Modulation

Pitch refers to the rise and fall in human voice. Just like the other aspects of voice, pitch
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too plays a crucial role in communicating your ideas to others. In fact, it is the pitch—the

rise and fall—in your voice which can express all the emotions that are to be conveyed. So

that do not confuse volume and pitch, let us understand the difference between the two.

Since pitch can express and convey all our moods, emotions, and sentiments, it becomes

really important for us to carefully employ the desired pitch patterns. Quite often, we

find the speech of a person quite boring because he/she does not use the variety of pitch

patterns as per the requirement of the situation. In order to understand this, listen

carefully to those songs in which the singer keeps singing in a solemn way until he/she

reaches the climax. The change in the initial note and the later part is the change in the

pitch patterns. The changes and varieties of pitch patterns can be observed even while

we continue to listen to the song at the same volume. It is, therefore, suggested that you

employ the variegated pitch patterns quite judiciously in order to keep your listeners

engaged and interested in your expression.

Pronunciation and Articulation

Pronunciation plays an important role in expressing our ideas. As discussed earlier, English

is not our native language and hence the pronunciation of Indian speakers of English is

different from that of the native speaker. An effort should constantly be made to make

our speech as close to standard English as possible. In terms of pronunciation, we should

stick to RP (Received Pronunciation) English as it is recognized as the standard

pronunciation of English worldwide. The chapter on phonetics discusses the different RP

sounds of English and also gives you sufficient information regarding word stress, weak

forms, and intonation patterns following which you can make your spoken English
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intelligible to a native listener. Articulation refers to our ability to speak different

sounds distinctly. If we are able to speak and enunciate different sounds in a distinct and

crisp manner, our articulation is considered appropriate and impressive. On the other

hand, if we mix or mumble words, it is regarded as sloppy and inelegant.

3.4 Persuasive speaking

A persuasive speech is a specific type of speech in which the speaker has a goal of

convincing the audience to accept his or her point of view. The speech is arranged in such

a way as to hopefully cause the audience to accept all or part of the expressed view.

Though the overarching goal of a persuasive speech is to convince the audience to accept

a perspective, not all audiences can be convinced by a single speech and not all

perspectives can persuade the audience.

An example of a persuasive speech is a sales pitch. During a sales pitch, the speaker is

trying to convince the audience to buy his or her product or service. If the salesperson is

successful, the audience (the person being sold to) will choose to purchase the product or

service. However, salespeople understand that just because someone does not make a

purchase after the first sales pitch does not mean the pitch failed. Persuasion is often a

process. People may need multiple persuasive pitches and a lot of outside information

before they are ready to accept a new view.

Persuasive speeches are composed of both logical and emotional appeal. Logic appeals are
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arguments that present a set of information and show why a conclusion must rationally be

true. For example, arguments heard in court are logical arguments. Emotional appeals are

appeals that seek to make the audience feel a certain way so that they will accept a

conclusion. Negative political ads, for example, often incorporate emotional appeals by

juxtaposing an opponent with a negative emotion such as fear.

3.5 Public Speaking

Public speaking is speaking to a group of people in a structured, deliberate manner

intended to inform, influence, or entertain the listeners. The purpose of public speaking

can range from simply transmitting information, to motivating people to act, to simply

telling a story. A good orator should be able to change the emotions of their listener, not

just inform them. In public speaking, as in any form of communication, there are five

basic elements, often expressed as " who is saying what to whom utilizing what medium

with what effects?

Feeling some nervousness before giving a speech is natural and even beneficial, but too

much nervousness can be detrimental. Here are some proven tips on how to control your

butterflies and give better presentations during public speaking:

1. Know your material. Pick a topic you are interested in. Know more about it than

you include in your speech. Use humor, personal stories and conversational language

– that way you won’t easily forget wh to say.

2. Practice. Practice. Practice! Rehearse out loud with all equipment you plan on

using. Revise as necessary. Work to control filler words; Practice, pause and breathe.

Practice with a timer and allow tim for the unexpected.

3. Know the audience. Greet some of the audience members as they arrive. It’s

easier to speak to a gro of friends than to strangers.

4. Know the room. Arrive early, walk around the speaking area and practice using

the microphone and any visual aids.

5. Relax. Begin by addressing the audience. It buys you time and calms your nerves.

Pause, smile and count to three before saying anything. ("One one-thousand, two one-

thousand, three one-thousand. Pause & Begin.) Transform nervous energy into enthusiasm.

6. Visualize yourself giving your speech. Imagine yourself speaking, your voice
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loud, clear and confident. Visualize the audience clapping – it will boost your confidence.

7. Realize that people want you to succeed. Audiences want you to be

interesting, stimulating, informative and entertaining. They’re rooting for you.

8. Don’t apologize for any nervousness or problem – the audience probably never

noticed it.

9. Concentrate on the message – not the medium. Focus your attention away

from your own anxieties and concentrate on your message and your audience.

10. Gain experience. Mainly, your speech should represent you — as an authority

and as a person. Experience builds confidence, which is the key to effective speaking.
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4.1 Reading Skills

4.2 Purpose of Reading

Reading is purposeful. The way you read something will depend on your purpose. You read

different texts in different ways. In everyday life, you usually know why you are reading,

you have a question and you read to find the answer. You usually know your way around

your favorite newspaper, so if you want to know the sports results, you go straight to the

correct page, or if you want to know what is on television tonight, you go straight to the

television page. You do not start on the first page. When you read a novel, it is different.

You start at the beginning and slowly move towards the end. In academic reading, you

need to be flexible when you read - you may need to read quickly to find relevant

sections, then read carefully when you have found what you want. General efficient

reading strategies such as scanning to find the book or chapter, skimming to get the gist

and careful reading of important passages are necessary as well as learning about how

texts are structured in your subject.

4.3 Techniques for good comprehension

4.3.1 Skimming and Scanning

Skimming is used to quickly identify the main ideas of a text. When you read the

newspaper, you're probably not reading it word-by-word; instead you're scanning the

text. Skimming is done at a speed three to four times faster than normal reading. People

often skim when they have lots of material to read in a limited amount of time. Use

skimming when you want to see if an article may be of interest in your research.
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There are many strategies that can be used when skimming. Some people read the first

and last paragraphs using headings, summarizes and other organizers as they move down

the page or screen. You might read the title, subtitles, subheading, and illustrations.

Consider reading the first sentence of each paragraph. This technique is useful when

you're seeking specific information rather than reading for comprehension. Skimming

works well to find dates, names, and places. It might be used to review graphs, tables,

and charts.

Scanning is a technique you often use when looking up a word in the telephone book or

dictionary. You search for key words or ideas. In most cases, you know what you're

looking for, so you're concentrating on finding a particular answer. Scanning involves

moving your eyes quickly down the page seeking specific words and phrases. Scanning is

also used when you first find a resource to determine whether it will answer your

questions. Once you've scanned the document, you might go back and skim it.

When scanning, look for the author's use of organizers such as numbers, letters, steps,

or the words, first, second, or next. Look for words that are bold faced, italics, or in a

different font size, style, or color. Sometimes the author will put key ideas in the margin.

4.3.2 Structure of Text

The term “text structure” refers to how information is organized in a passage. The

structure of a text can change multiple times in a work and even within a paragraph.

Readers are often required to identify text structures on state reading tests.
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Therefore, it is important that they are given exposure to the various patterns of

organization. There are seven commonly used patterns of organization involved in the

structure of text. They are Cause and Effect, Chronological, Compare and Contrast,

Order of Importance, Problem and Solution, Sequence and Process and Descriptive.

4.3.3 Structure of Paragraph

A paragraph consists of several sentences that are grouped together. This group of

sentences together discusses one main subject. Paragraphs have three principal parts.

These three parts are the topic sentence, body sentences, and the concluding

sentence. We will also talk briefly about details in paragraphs.

A topic sentence usually comes at the beginning of a paragraph. It is usually the first

sentence in a formal academic paragraph. Not only is a topic sentence the first

sentence of a paragraph, but, more importantly, it is the most general sentence in a

paragraph. What does "most general" mean? It means that there are not many details

in the sentence, but that the sentence introduces an overall idea that you want to discuss

later in the paragraph. The second and third sentences are called supporting

sentences. They are called "supporting" because they "support," or explain, the idea

expressed in the topic sentence. Of course, paragraphs often have more than two

supporting ideas. In formal paragraphs you will sometimes see a sentence at the end of

the paragraph which summarizes the information that has been presented. This is the

concluding sentence. You can think of a concluding sentence as a sort of topic sentence in

reverse.
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 Topic Sentence: states the topic and your view about the topic

 Supporting Sentences: provide support for your topic sentences

 Concluding Sentence: brings the paragraph to a close

Benefits of
Exercise

Topic Sentence

Contrary to what many out of shape people may think, exercise is not a waste of
time.

Supporting Point 1

First of all, exercise conditions and strengthens the body's most important
muscle, the heart. A stronger heart provides increased energy and stamina.

Supporting Point 2

Exercise also changes the way people look. Muscle tone develops and posture
improves as the body becomes stronger.

Supporting Point 3

When people look better and feel better, their self-esteem increases and they
feel more confident.

Supporting Point 4

Finally, the fitness gained through exercise helps fight off illness and disease.

Concluding Sentence

Exercise is not just for kids and athletes. Following a regular exercise routine
pays off, both physically and mentally.
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4.3.4 Essentials of effective Reading

Reading is an astoundingly complex cognitive process. While we often think of reading as

one singular act, our brains are actually engaging in a number of tasks simultaneously each

time we sit down with a book. There are five aspects to the process of reading: phonics,

phonemic awareness, vocabulary, reading comprehension and fluency. These five aspects

work together to create the reading experience.

Phonics

Phonics is the connection between sounds and letter symbols. It is also the combination

of these sound-symbol connections to create words. If you think about it, letters are

arbitrary. There is nothing innately bed-like about the written word “bed”. It is simply

the collection of letters and corresponding sounds that we agree constitute the word

“bed”.

Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic awareness is closely related to phonics because both involve the connection

between sounds and words. While phonics is the connection between sounds and letters,

phonemic awareness is the understanding that words are created from phonemes (small

units of sound in language). These may seem like the same thing, but there is a subtle

difference in the two. Phonics is used only in written language because it involves letters.

Phonemes are sounds only. While they can be represented using letters, they can also be

simply the auditory sounds of words. Phonemes are most often learned before a child
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begins to read because they are centered on the sounds of language rather than written

words.

Vocabulary

In order to read words we must first know them. Imagine how frustrating and fruitless it

would be to read this article if all of the words were unfamiliar to you. Vocabulary

development is an ongoing process that continues throughout one’s “reading life”. Knowing

the exact meaning of the word in a text always helps to understand the entire paragraph

easily. Context clues provide another method for discovering new words. Context clues

are the “hints” contained in a text that help a reader figure out the meaning of an

unfamiliar word. Context clues are basically any item in the text that points to the

definition of a new word.

Fluency

Fluency is a reader’s ability to read with speed, accuracy and expression. Thus it requires

the reader to combine and use multiple reading skills at the same time. While fluency is

most often measured through oral readings, good readers also exhibit this skill when they

are reading silently. Fluency is intimately tied to comprehension. A reader must be able to

move quickly enough through a text to develop meaning. If he is bogged down reading

each individual word, he is not able to create an overall picture in his mind of what the

text is saying. Even if the reader is able to move rapidly through a text, if he cannot

master the expression associated with the words, the meaning of it will be lost.
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Reading Comprehension

Comprehension is what most people think reading is. This is because comprehension is the

main reason why we read. It is the aspect of reading that all of the others serve to

create. Reading comprehension refers to understanding what a text is all about. It is

more than just understanding words in isolation. It is putting them together and using

prior knowledge to develop meaning. Reading comprehension is the most complex aspect

of reading. It not only involves all of the other four aspects of reading, it also requires

the reader to draw upon general thinking skills. When a reader is actively engaged with a

text, he is asking and answering questions about the story and summarizing what he has

read.
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5.1 Writing Skills

Writing skills are an important part of communication. Good writing skills allow you to

communicate your message with clarity and ease to a far larger audience than through

face- to-face or telephone conversations. You might be called upon to write a report, plan

or strategy at work; write a grant application or press release within a volunteering role;

or you may fancy communicating your ideas online via a blog. And, of course, a well written

CV with no spelling or grammatical mistakes is essential if you want a new job.

5.2 Types of Writing

There are four types of writing or four writing styles that are generally used. Knowing all

these four different types of writing and their usages are important for any writer. A

writer’s style is a reflection of his personality, his unique style, his voice and his way to

approach his audience and readers.

5.2.1 Expository Writing:

Expository writing is a subject-oriented writing style, in which the main focus of the

author is to tell you about a given topic or subject, and leave out his personal opinions. He

furnishes you with relevant facts and figures and does not include his opinions. This is

one of the most common type of writing styles, which you always see in text books and

usually “How – to” articles, in which the author tells you about a given subject, as how to

do something. Examples of expository writing include encyclopedia entries, news reports,

instruction manuals, informative essays, and research papers.

5.2.2 Descriptive writing:

Descriptive writing is a style of writing which focuses on describing a character, an event

or a place in great details. It is sometimes poetic in nature in which the author is

specifying the details of the event rather than just the information of that event

happened. It is often poetic in nature and it describes places, people, events, situations

or locations in a highly-detailed manner.

5.2.3 Persuasive Writing:

Persuasive writing, unlike ‘Expository Writing’, contains the opinions, biasness and

justification of the author. Persuasive writing is a type of writing which contains

justifications and reasons to make someone believe on the point the writer is talking

about. Persuasive writing is for persuading and convincing on your point of view. It is

often used in complain letters, when you provide reasons and justifications for your

complaint; other copywriting texts, T.V commercials, affiliate marketing pitches etc. are

all different types of persuasive writing, where author is persuading and convincing you

on something he wants you to do and/or believe. Persuasive writing is equipped with

reasons, arguments and justifications. Here the author takes a stand and asks you to

believe his point of view. It often asks for a call or an action from the readers.

5.2.4 Narrative Writing:

Narrative writing is a type of writing in which the author places himself as the character

and narrates you to the story. Novels, short stories, novellas, poetry, biographies can all

fall in the narrative writing style. Simply, narrative writing is an art to describe a story.
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In narrative writing, a person, being a narrative, tells a story or event. It has characters

and dialogues in it and based on definite and logical beginnings, intervals and endings.

Narrative writing often has situations like disputes, conflicts, actions, motivational

events, problems and their solutions. Narratives usually progress chronologically, and

must have a clear beginning, middle and end. Short stories, novels, personal narratives,

anecdotes, and biographies are all examples of narrative writing.

5.2 Importance of writing

Writing is the primary basis upon which your work, learning and intellect will be judged—

in college, in the workplace, and in the community. It expresses who you are as a person.

Writing is portable and permanent. It makes your thinking visible. This skill helps you

move easily among facts, inferences, and opinions without getting confused and without

confusing your reader. It also fosters your ability to explain a complex position to

readers, and to yourself. Writing helps you refine your ideas when you give others

feedback. Writing requires that you anticipate your readers’ needs and also demonstrates

your intellectual flexibility and maturity. You can evaluate the adequacy of your argument

through this. It stimulates you to extend a line of thought beyond your first impressions

or gut responses. Writing equips you with the communication and thinking skills you need

to participate effectively in democracy. Finally it is an essential job skill.

5.3 Style of Writing

There are many characteristics of good writing. Five of the most important are parallel

structure, conciseness, sentence variety, correct spelling and grammar, and effective
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paragraphing.

 Parallel Structure

Use parallel or consistent structure when writing sentences and paragraphs. For example,

avoid mixing forms of verbs in the same sentence. If you use the -ing form of a verb in a

list, use the -ing form for all verbs in the list. Similarly, avoid switching from active to

passive voice in a series of clauses. When you read your sentences out loud, you should

hear a rhythm being repeated--if something breaks the rhythm, check to see if you need

to improve the sentence's parallel structure. The following sentences illustrate this

concept:

Poor example: Mrs. Jones is trustworthy, dependable, and she pays close attention to

details.

Improved: Mrs. Jones is trustworthy, dependable, and detail-oriented.

Poor example: Please keep track of your hours, turn in your timesheet, and keeping a copy

for your records is also important.

Improved: Please keep track of your hours, turn in your timesheet, and keep a copy for

your records.

 Conciseness

Sentences should be written concisely, since needless words and fillers distract readers

from your message.

1. Eliminate opening fillers such as there are, I would like to bring to your

attention, and this is to inform you that.

Too wordy sentence: This is to inform you that health insurance rates will increase

effective next month.

Improved: Health insurance rates will increase effective next month.

2. Eliminate wordy phrases from your writing.

Wordy Phrases Concise Substitutes

due to the fact that because

regardless of the fact that although

in regard to about

in the near future soon

3. Don't turn verbs into wordy phrases.

Wordy Phrases Concise Verbs

give consideration to consider

give a recommendation recommend

conduct a discussion discuss

4. Eliminate redundancies. The two words in the left column have the same

meaning, so only one word is needed.

Redundancies Concise Substitutes

perfectly clear clear

exactly identical identical

dollar amount amount

 Sentence Variety

Effective writers add interest to their writing by using all four types of sentences-

simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex.A sentence is classified according to

the number of independent and/or dependent clauses it contains. An independent clause

is a group of words with a subject and verb that could stand alone as a complete

sentence. Dependent clauses can't stand on their own as complete sentences, because

their meaning depends upon the independent clause in the sentence.

A simple sentence such as John loaded the software contains just one independent

clause. A compound sentence contains two independent clauses: John loaded the

software, and Mary installed the hard drive. A complex sentence contains both an
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independent clause and a dependent clause. For example, After the installation was

complete, the computer was rebooted is an example of a compound sentence. Finally, a

compound-complex sentence contains at least two independent clauses and one

dependent clause. Because they are so long, compound-complex sentences should be used

sparingly. After the installation was complete, the computer was rebooted, and the IT

department successfully completed the upgrade is an example of a compound-complex

sentence.

John loaded the software, and Mary installed the hard drive. John went to lunch after

finishing the job, but Mary skipped lunch to keep working. John started a new project

after lunch, and Mary finished installing the hard drive later that afternoon.

Notice how much more interesting the paragraph becomes when we vary the sentence

types:

John loaded the software, while Mary installed the hard drive. John finished and went to

lunch, but Mary kept working, finally finishing the hard drive installation later that

afternoon. John started a new project after lunch.

 Correct Spelling and Grammar

Strong grammatical skills lend credibility to your writing. They also enhance the

readability of your documents, since misspelled words and grammatical errors distract

readers from your message.

Run-On Sentences are independent clauses joined together without punctuation or a

coordinating conjunction. The manager hired Rahul for the position Ashok was

transferred to the main office is an example of a run-on sentence.

Sentence Fragments are incomplete sentences. To be complete, a sentence must have a

subject and a verb, and it must make sense. Because Human Resources hired twenty

people is an example of a sentence fragment. Although it contains a subject and a verb,

the sentence doesn't make sense since the word because indicates the sentence is

dependent on another clause to complete its meaning. The following sentence would be

considered complete: Because Human Resources hired twenty people, new office

furniture had to be ordered.

Read your document twice-once for grammar, and once for word meanings,

comprehension, and flow. Reading the document out loud can also help you to identify

errors and evaluate the tone of your document.

 Effective Paragraphing

1. Cover one subject per paragraph, and begin each paragraph with a topic sentence

stating what the subject is about. Focusing on just one clearly stated subject in each

paragraph helps readers understand your message.

2. Link ideas together by repeating words in sentences. For example, look at both of

these paragraphs, and see how repeating the words campaign and cost in the second
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paragraph makes the paragraph more coherent by linking ideas together.

Example:

Without repeating words: John suggested an aggressive marketing campaign for the new

product. Direct mailings will be sent to all households in the target market, and this will

be very costly. Additional funds were set aside for marketing this year by the corporate

office.

With repeating words: John suggested an aggressive marketing campaign for the new

product. The campaign will involve direct mailings to all households in the target market,

and will be very costly. The high cost will be partially offset by the additional funds set

aside for marketing this year by the corporate office.

5.4 Writing Process

Writing is a process that is made up of several different elements: Pre-Writing,

Organization, Writing, Revising, and Editing. However, these different elements overlap

with one another; they aren’t separate stages. Successful writers are constantly going

through these different elements. Skillful writers continually remind themselves of this

process, and they constantly monitor their writing, re-engaging themselves with their

work. Every writer follows his or her own writing process. Often the process is a routine

that comes naturally and is not a step-by- step guide to which writers refer. Being

conscious of your own writing process is especially helpful when you find yourself

struggling with a particularly tricky piece. Here are five steps towards creating or

identifying your personal writing process.

 Prewriting

Find Your Idea

Ideas are all around you. You might draw inspiration from a routine, an everyday situation

or a childhood memory. Alternatively, keep a notebook specifically devoted to catching

your ideas as they come to you. Your own imagination is the only limit to finding your

source of inspiration.

Build on Your Idea

Two of the most popular methods of fleshing out your idea are free writing and

brainstorming. Free writing means writing every idea that comes into your head. Do not

stop to edit your mistakes, just let the ideas flow. Or, try brainstorming. If you're on a

computer, try a manual process first to help you visualize your narrative: write your idea

in the center of the page and work outwards in all of the different directions you can

take your story.

Plan and Structure

Piecing the puzzle together comes next. It's time to sort through your ideas and choose

which ones you will use to form your story. Make sure you keep your notes even after your

book is published – there may be the seeds for your next story as well.

 Writing

Now you have your plan and you’re ready to start writing. Remember, this is your first
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rough draft. Forget about word count and grammar. Don’t worry if you stray off topic in

places; even the greatest writers produce multiple drafts before they produce their

finished manuscript. Think of this stage as a free writing exercise, just with more

direction. Identify the best time and location to write and eliminate potential

distractions. Make writing a regular part of your day.

 Revision

Your story can change a great deal during this stage. When revising their work, many

writers naturally adopt the A.R.R.R. approach:

Add: Have you given your readers all the information they need to make sense of your

topic? If not, go back to your draft that you kept for additional information and any

additional details.

Rearrange: Consider the flow, pacing and sequencing of your topic. Would the sequence

be better served if some of the events occur in a different order?

Remove: After making additions to your topic, how is your word count now? Are your

readers experiencing information overload? You may need to eliminate passages that

don’t quite fit.

Replace: The most effective way to revise your work is to ask for a second opinion. Do

you need more vivid details to help clarify your work? Is one scene contradicting
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another? Ask friends or fellow writers to take a look and give you feedback, and if

something isn’t working rewrite it and replace it.

 Editing

It’s time to fine tune your manuscript line by line. Check for repetition,

clarity, grammar, spelling and punctuation. Editing is an extremely detailed

process and its best when performed by a professional.