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QUANTUM SERIES
For
B.Tech Students of Fourth Year
of All Engineering Colleges Affiliated to
Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University,
Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow
(Formerly Uttar Pradesh Technical University)
CAD/CAM
By
Hareesh Kumar Shubham Tyagi
TM
QUANTUM PAGE PVT. LTD.
Ghaziabad New Delhi
2
PUBLISHED BY : Apram Singh
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arising out of use of this information.
CAD/CAM (ME : Sem-7)
1st Edition : 2019-20
2nd Edition : 2020-21
Price: Rs. 85/- only
Printed Version : e-Book.
3
RME 701 : CAD/CAM
UNIT-1 : COMPUTER GRAPHICS (1–1 A to 1–67 A)
Principles of Computer Graphics: Point plotting, drawing of lines, Bresenham’s circle
algorithm. Transformation in Graphics: Co-ordinate system used in Graphics and
windowing, view port, views. 2D transformations – rotation, scaling, translation, mirror,
reflection, shear - homogeneous transformations – concatenation. 3D Transformation –
Perspective Projection – Technique (Description of techniques only). Geometric Modelling:
Classification of Geometric Modelling – Wire frame, Surface and Solid Modelling,
applications – representation of curves and surfaces – Parametric form. Design of curved
shapes- Cubic spline – Bezier curve – B-spline – Design of Surfaces - features of Surface
Modelling Package – Solid Primitives, CSG. B-rep and description of other modelling
techniques like Pure primitive instancing, cell decomposition, spatial occupancy
enumeration, Boolean Operations (join, cut, intersection), Creating 3D objects from 2D
profiles (extrusion, revolving etc).
UNIT-2 : GRAPHICS STANDARD & DATA STORAGE (2–1 A to 2–21 A)
Graphics standard & Data storage: Standards for computer graphics GKS,
PHIGS. Data exchange standards – IGES, STEP - Manipulation of the model -
Model storage. Finite Element Modelling: Introduction, Mesh Generation –
mesh requirements. Semi-Automatic Methods - Node-based approach, Region
based approach, Solid-modelling-based methods. Fully Automatic Methods-
Element-based approach, Application, Mesh Refinements using Isoperimetric
Finite Elements, Meshing in high gradient areas, Transition Regions. Sub
modelling Concept. An overview of modelling software’s like PRO-E, CATIA,
IDEAS, SOLID EDGE etc.
UNIT-3 : CAM (3–1 A to 3–24 A)
CAM: Scope and applications – NC in CAM – Principal types of CNC machine
tools and their construction features – tooling for CNC – ISO designation for
tooling – CNC operating system – FANUC, SINUMERIK – LINUMERIK.
Programming for CNC machining – coordinate systems – manual part
programming – computer assisted part programming – CNC part programming
with CAD system. Material handling in CAM environment: Types – AGVS –
AS/RS – Swarf handling and disposal of wastes – single and mixed mode
assembly lines – quantitative analysis of assembly systems.
UNIT-4 : ROBOTICS (4–1 A to 4–39 A)
Robotics: Classification and specification – drive and controls – sensors - end
effectors - grippers- tool handling and work handling – machine vision – robot
programming concepts – case studies in assembly. Quality Function
Deployment: Process Planning – CAPP – Variant and Generative systems -
Concurrent Engineering and Design for Manufacturing. Advanced
manufacturing Planning Computer Aided Production Planning and Control –
Aggregate production planning and master production schedule – MRP –
MRP II – ERP - Capacity planning.
UNIT-5 : RAPID PROTOTYPING (5–1 A to 5–21 A)
Rapid prototyping: Need for rapid prototyping, Basic principles and advantages
of RP, General features and classifications of different RP techniques with
examples. Introduction to three representative RP techniques: Fusion Deposition
Modelling, Laminated Object Manufacturing and Stereo-lithography. Flexible
manufacturing cells: Systems – characteristics – economics and technological
justification – planning, installation, operation and evaluation issues – role of
group technology and JIT in FMS – typical case studies future prospects.
SHORT QUESTIONS (SQ–1 A to SQ–17 A)
SOLVED PAPERS (2019-20) (SP–1 A to SP–12 A)
CAD/CAM 1–1 A (ME-Sem-7)
1 Computer Graphics and
Geometric Modeling
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Point Plotting, Drawing of Lines .............. 1–3A to 1–6A
Part-2 : Bresenham’s Circle Algorithm .................. 1–7A to 1–9A
Part-3 : Coordinate System used in Graphics .... 1–9A to 1–11A
Part-4 : Windowing, View Port and Views ........ 1–11A to 1–13A
Part-5 : 2D Transformations : Rotation ............. 1–13A to 1–20A
Scaling, Translation, Mirror,
Reflection, Shear
Part-6 : Ho mo geneo us ........................................... 1–20A to 1–24A
Transformations, Concatenation
Part-7 : 3D Transformation, Perspective ........... 1–24A to 1–30A
Projection, Technique
(Description of Techniques only)
Part-8 : Classification of Geometric .................... 1–30A to 1–33A
Modeling, Wire Frame, Surface
and Solid Modeling, Applications
Part-9 : Representation of Curves and .............. 1–34A to 1–42A
Surfaces, Parametric Form
Part-10 : Design of Curved Shapes : ..................... 1–42A to 1–53A
Cubic Spline, Bezier Curve
B-Spline, Design of Surfaces
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–2 A (ME-Sem-7)
Part-11 : Features of Surface Modeling ............... 1–53A to 1–62A
Package, Solid Primitives, CSG
Part-12 : B-rep and Description of other ............. 1–62A to 1–66A
Modeling Techniques like Pure
Primitive Instancing, Cell
Decomposition, Spatial
Occupancy Enumeration
Boolean Operations
(Join, Cut, Intersection)
Part-13 : Creating 3D objects from 2D ................ 1–66A to 1–67A
Profiles (Extrusion, Revolving etc)
CAD/CAM 1–3 A (ME-Sem-7)
PART-1
Point Plotting, Drawing of Lines.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 1.1. Write a short note on point plotting.
Answer
1. Point plotting is an elementary mathematical skill required in analytical
geometry.
2. Using point plotting, one associates an ordered pair of real numbers
(x, y) with a point in the plane in a one-to-one manner. As a result we
get the 2-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system.
3. Point plotting techniques are based on the Cartesian coordinate system.
Each point is denoted by 2 points (x, y) which indicate the distance of the
point with reference to the origin.
4. The frame buffer display is an example of a point plotting device.
Que 1.2. Write an algorithm for drawing line using slope method.
Answer
Following are the steps for drawing line using slope method.
Step 1 : Assuming the equation for line,
y = mx + a
Step 2 : Calculate dx by the equation,
dx = x2 – x1
Step 3 : Calculate dy by the equation,
dy = y2 – y1
Step 4 : Calculate slope (m) by the equation,
dy
m=
dx
Step 5 : Calculate a by the equation,
a = y1 – mx1
Step 6 : Set (x, y) according to following conditions,
If dx < 0 then x = x2, y = y2 and xend = x1
If dx > 0 then x = x1, y = y1 and xend = x2
Step 7 : Now examine whether the entire line has been drawn,
If x = xend then stop.
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–4 A (ME-Sem-7)
Step 8 : Now plot the point at the current (x, y) coordinates,
Step 9 : Now increment x = x + 1
Step 10 : Now calculating the nearest integer value of y by the equation,
y = mx + b
Step 11 : Go to step 7.
Que 1.3. Explain Bresenham’s line algorithm and write the steps
for line gaining points (20, 10) and (30, 18).
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
Answer
A. Bresenham’s Line Drawing Algorithm :
1. Input the two lines endpoints and store the left endpoint (x0, y0).
2. Load (x0, y0) into frame buffer, i.e., plot the first point.
3. Calculate constants x, y, 2y and 2y – 2x, and obtain the starting
value for decision parameter as :
p0 = 2y – x
4. At each xk along the line, starting at k = 0, perform the following test :
a. If pk < 0, the next point to plot is (xk + 1, yk) and
pk + 1 = pk + 2y
b. If pk > 0, the next point to plot is (xk + 1, yk + 1) and
pk+1 = pk + 2y – 2x
5. Repeat step 4 x times.
B. Numerical :
y2 y1
1. We known Slope (m) =
x2 x1
18 10
= = 0.8 > 0
30 20
Step 1 : Input the two line end points as (20, 10) and (30, 18)
Step 2 : Calculate the initial values by
dx = x2 – x1 = 30 – 20 = 10
dy = y2 – y1 = 18 – 10 = 8
and P0 = 2 dy – dx = 2 × 8 – 10 = 6 > 0
Step 3 : Since ; P0 > 0,
2. First Pixel :
P1 = P0 + 2(dy – dx) = 6 + 2(– 2) = 2 > 0
x1 = x0 + 1 ; y1 = y0 + 1
= 20 +1 ; = 10 + 1
x1 = 21 ; y1 = 11
CAD/CAM 1–5 A (ME-Sem-7)
3. Second Pixel :
P2 = P1 + 2(dy – dx) = 2 + 2 (– 2) = – 2 < 0
x2 = x1 + 1 ; y2 = y1 + 1
= 22 ; y2 = 12
4. Third Pixel :
P3 = P2 + 2dy = – 2 + 16 = 14 > 0
x3 = x2 + 1 ; y3 = y2
x3 = 23 ; y3 = 12
5. Fourth Pixel :
P4 = P3 + 2(dy – dx)
= 14 + 2 (– 2) = 10 > 0
x4 = x3 + 1 ; y4 = y3 + 1
x4 = 24 ; y4 = 13
6. Fifth Pixel :
P5 = P4 + 2(dy – dx)
= 10 + 2 (–2) = 6 > 0
x5 = x4 + 1 ; y5 = y4 + 1
x5 = 25 ; y5 = 14
7. Sixth Pixel :
P6 = P5 + 2(dy – dx) = 6 + 2 (–2) = 2 > 0
x6 = x5 + 1 ; y6 = y5 + 1
x6 = 26 ; y6 = 15
8. Seventh Pixel :
P7 = P6 + 2(dy – dx)
= 2 + 2 (–2) = – 2 < 0
x7 = 27 ; y7 = 16
9. Eighth Pixel :
P8 = P7 + 2dy
= – 2 + 16 = 14 > 0
x8 = 28 ; y8 = 16
10. Ninth Pixel :
P9 = P8 + 2(dy – dx)
= 14 + 2 (–2) = 10 > 0
x9 = 29 ; y9 = 17
11. Tenth Pixel :
P10 = P9 + 2(dy – dx)
= 10 + 2(–2) = 6 > 0
x10 = 30 ; y10 = 18
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–6 A (ME-Sem-7)
Que 1.4. Determine the raster scan locations selected by
Bresenham’s algorithm while generating a line from (1, 0) to (10, 3).
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10
Answer
1. Let the starting point, (x1, y1) = (1, 0)
and the end point,(x2, y2) = (10, 3)
Dy y2 y1 30 3
2. Slope = = = = 0.333 > 0
Dx x2 x1 10 1 9
m<1
3. The points on line can be calculated using Bresenham’s algorithm as
shown in Table 1.4.1.
Table 1.4.1.
x y P
1 0 P0 = 2 Dy – Dx = – 3 P0 < 0
2 0 P1 = P0 + 2 Dy = – 3 + 2 × 3 = 3 P1 > 0
3 1 P2 = P1 + 2 (Dy – Dx) = 3 + (– 12) = –9 P2 < 0
4 1 P3 = P2 + 2 Dy = – 9 + 6 = – 3 P3 < 0
5 1 P4 = P3 + 2 Dy = – 3 + 6 = 3 P4 > 0
6 2 P5 = P4 + 2 (Dy – Dx) = 3 + (– 12) = – 9 P5 < 0
7 2 P6 = P5 + 2 Dy = – 9 + 6 = – 3 P6 < 0
8 2 P7 = P6 + 2 Dy = – 3 + 6 = 3 P7 > 0
9 3 P8 = P7 + 2 (Dy – Dx) = 3 – 12 = – 9 P8 < 0
10 3 P9 = P8 + 2 Dy = – 9 + 6 = – 3 P9 < 0
y
(9, 3) (10, 3)
3
(6, 2)
(8, 2)
(7, 2)
2
(3, 1)
(4, 1)
(5, 1)
1
(2, 0)
(1, 0)
x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Fig. 1.4.1.
CAD/CAM 1–7 A (ME-Sem-7)
PART-2
Bresenham’s Circle Algorithm.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 1.5. Explain Bresenham’s circle algorithm.
OR
Draw a circle using Bresenham’s midpoint circle algorithm with
centre (– 3, 8) and radius is 12 units. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
Answer
A. Bresenham’s Circle Algorithm : Steps of Bresenham’s circle
algorithm are given below :
Step 1 :
1. Set the initial value of variables.
2. Assuming the coordinates the circle centre = (h, k) and shift centre
to origin.
3. Now start by plotting top most point on circle by setting
x=0
and y = r (circle radius)
4. We keep plotting till we reach 45° in clockwise direction from
y-axis.
Initial decision variable :
P = 3 – (2 × r)
Step 2 :
1. Test to determine whether the entire circle has been scan converted.
2. If x > y then stop.
Step 3 :
1. Now calculate the location of next pixel.
2. If P < 0 then
xi+1 = xi + 1
yi + 1 = y i
and Pi + 1 = Pi + 4x + 6
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–8 A (ME-Sem-7)
If P > 0 then
xi+1 = xi + 1
yi+1 = yi – 1
and Pi + 1 = Pi + 4(x – y) + 10
Step 4 :
1. Now plot the remaining points by taking mirror image about x = y,
y = 0 and x = 0 axis and also shift centre back to its original position
by adding h to the x-coordinate and k to the y-coordinate.
2. Like, [x + h, y + k]
[x + h, –y + k]
[–x + h, y + k]
[–x + h, y + k]
[y + h, x + k]
[–y + h, x + k]
[y + h, –x + k]
and [–y + h, –x + k]
Step 5 : Go to step 2.
(– x, y) (x , y ) x=y
(y , – x ) (y , x )
45°
y=0
(0,0)
(–y, – x) (y , – x )
(– x, – y) (x , – y )
x=0
Fig. 1.5.1.
B. Numerical :
1. Let the centre of the circle is shifted to (0, 0). Then the starting point of
the circle is (0, 12).
2. The points on the circle, i.e., (x, y) can be calculated using Bresenham’s
circle algorithm as shown in Table 1.5.1 :
CAD/CAM 1–9 A (ME-Sem-7)
Table 1.5.1.
x y Pixel, P Circle coordinate
X=x–3 Y=y+8
0 12 P0 = 3 – 2 × r = 3 – 2 × 12 = – 21(P < 0) –3 20
1 12 P1 = Po + 4x + 6
= – 21 + 4 × 1 + 6 = – 11 (P < 0) –2 20
2 12 P2 = – 11 + 4 × 2 + 6 = 3 (P > 0) –1 20
3 11 P3 = P2 + 4(x – y) + 10
= 3 + 4(3 – 11) + 10 = – 19 (P < 0) 0 19
4 11 P4 = – 19 + 4 × 4 + 6 = 3 (P > 0) 1 19
5 10 P5 = 3 + 4(5 – 10) + 10 = – 7 (P < 0) 2 18
6 10 P6 = – 7 + 4 × 6 + 6 = 23 (P > 0) 3 18
7 9 P7 = 23 + 4(7 – 9) + 10 = 25 (P > 0) 4 17
8 8 5 16
3. Remaining point can be calculated by taking mirror image of these
points about x = y, x-axis and y-axis.
PART-3
Coordinate System used in Graphics.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 1.6. Discuss various coordinate systems used in CAD system.
OR
Write about the different coordinate systems for representation of
a picture. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05
Answer
Various coordinate systems used in CAD system as follows :
a. Model Coordinate System (MCS) :
1. It is also known as world coordinate system.
2. It is defined as the reference space of the model with respect to which all
the model geometrical data is stored.
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–10 A (ME-Sem-7)
3. It is a cartesian system which forms the default coordinate system used
by a particular software.
4. The x, y and z-axes of the MCS can be displayed on the graphics display
by using the proper software command.
5. The origin of the MCS can be arbitrarily chosen by the user while its
orientation is established by the software.
b. Working Coordinate System :
1. It is often convenient in the development of geometric models and the
input of geometrical data to refer to an auxiliary coordinate system
instead of the MCS.
2. The user can define a cartesian coordinate system whose xy plane is
coincident with the desired plane of construction.
3. The definition of WCS requires three non-collinear points. The first
defines the origin and the first with the second define the x-axis. The
third point is used to define the xy plane of the WCS.
4. The z-axis is determined as cross-product of the two unit vectors in the
directions defined by the lines connecting the first and the second
(the x-axis) and the first and the third points. The y-axis is determined
as the cross-product of the z and x unit vectors.
5. There is only one active WCS at any one time. If the user defines few
WCS in one session during a model construction, the software recognizes
only the last one.
c. Screen Coordinate System (Device Coordinate System) :
1. The SCS is defined as a two-dimensional device dependent coordinate
system whose origin is usually located at the lower left corner of the
graphics display.
2. The physical dimensions of a device screen and the type of device
determine the range and the measurement unit of the SCS.
3. The SCS is used by the CAD/CAM software to display relevant graphics
by converting directly from MCS coordinates to SCS coordinates.
4. For software packages that must drive multiple display units, it is
convenient to define a normalized coordinate system that can be utilized
to represent an image.
5. The transformation operation from MCS coordinates to SCS coordinates
is performed by the software before displaying the model views and
graphics.
d. Homogeneous Coordinate System :
1. Homogeneous coordinates have been used in computer graphics and
geometric modeling.
2. Homogeneous coordinates are useful to obtain perspective views of
geometric models.
CAD/CAM 1–11 A (ME-Sem-7)
3. Homogeneous coordinates remove many anomalous situations
encountered in cartesian geometry such as representing points at infinity
and the non-intersection of parallel lines. Also, they greatly simplify
expressions defining rational parametric curves and surfaces.
4. In homogeneous coordinates an n-dimensional space is mapped into
(n + 1) dimensional space, i.e., a point (or a position vector) in
n-dimensional space is represented by (n + 1) coordinates (or
components).
5. The transformation from one coordinate system to another is shown in
Fig. 1.6.1.
Local
coordinate
World Working Device
system
coordinate coordinate coordinate
(cartesian,
system system system
polar,
cylindrical)
Fig. 1.6.1. The transformation sequences from local
coordinate system to device coordinate system.
PART-4
Windowing, View Port and Views.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 1.7. What do you understand by the term windowing and
clipping during the viewing transformations of images in computer
graphics ? Explain with suitable examples.
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10
Answer
A. Windowing :
1. A word coordinate selected for display is called a window.
2. A window defines what is to be viewed, the viewpoint defines where is
to be displayed.
3. The concept of windowing is used when one has to analyse the small
part of a complex drawing.
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–12 A (ME-Sem-7)
4. Most often windows and viewport are rectangles in standard position,
with the rectangle edges parallel to coordinate axes.
5. The window is created by giving the input as coordinates of diagonally
opposite vertices of the rectangle.
Example :
yw(max) Window yv(max) View port
yw(min) yv(min)
xw(min) xw(max) xv(min) xv(max)
World coordinates Device coordinates
Fig. 1.7.1.
B. Clipping :
1. The procedure that identifies those portions of a picture that are either
inside or outside of a specified region of space is referred as a clipping
algorithm, or simply clipping.
2. The region against which an object is to be clipped is called a clip window.
3. It is necessary to clip the graphical entity inside the window from the
whole drawing. This is carried out by using clipping algorithm. Thus,
windowing is always assisted by clipping.
Example :
STRING 1 RING 1
STRING 2 STRING 2
STRING 3 TRING 3
Before clipping After clipping
Fig. 1.7.2.
Que 1.8. Briefly explain views and view port.
Answer
1. Views are defined by the various angles from which a model can be
observed.
2. A portion of the screen where the contents of the window are displayed
is called a view port.
CAD/CAM 1–13 A (ME-Sem-7)
3. The display screen is two-dimensional. Sometimes, it is necessary to
organize the information when presented on the screen in two
dimensions using the orthogonal projection.
4. The screen is therefore divided into a number of view ports wherein
the various views are presented.
5. Fig. 1.8.2 shows four views of a component displayed using view port
commands.
130, 100
65, 50
Fig. 1.8.1. View port.
View port 1 View port 2
View port 4 View port 3
Fig. 1.8.2. Use of multiple view ports.
PART-5
2D Transformations : Rotation, Scaling, Translation,
Mirror, Reflection, Shear.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 1.9. What do you mean by geometric transformations ? What
are the types of transformation used in graphic software ?
OR
Explain and derive matrix for the following 2D transformations :
a. Reflection,
b. Shear,
c. Scaling, and
d. Rotation. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–14 A (ME-Sem-7)
Answer
A. Geometric Transformations :
1. Any graphical entity or drawing which is generated on the computer
can be manipulated using transformations. It includes change in size
and shape.
B. Types of Transformation : Various types of transformation used in
graphic software are as follows :
a. Translation :
1. It involves moving the element in x or y direction.
2. If (x, y) is coordinate of original position then basic equations of translation
are :
x = x + tx
and y = y + ty
3. The equations can be written in matrix form as
1 0 0
[x y 1] = x y 1 0 1 0
t ty 1
x
Where,
1 0 0
0 1 0 = Translation matrix
t ty 1
x
x and y = New coordinates after translation.
x and y = Old coordinates before translation.
tx and ty= Distance to be translated in x and y direction
respectively.
b. Scaling :
1. Scaling of an element is used to either reduce or enlarge the size of
object.
2. The basic equations for scaling are,
x = xsx
y = ysy
Where sx and sy = Scaling factor in x and y direction respectively.
3. The equation can be written in matrix form as,
sx 0 0
[x y 1] = x y 1 0 s y 0
0 0 1
CAD/CAM 1–15 A (ME-Sem-7)
Where,
sx 0 0
0 s y 0 = Scaling matrix
0 0 1
c. Rotation :
1. In rotation transformation the points of an object are rotated about the
origin by an angle .
2. We assume anticlockwise rotation as positive and clockwise rotation as
negative.
y P (x , y )
r
P (x , y)
r
x
Fig. 1.9.1. Rotation of a point P to P about z-axis.
3. According to Fig. 1.9.1,
x = r cos
y = r sin
x = r cos ( + )
or x = r[cos cos – sin sin ]
or x = (r cos ) cos – (r sin ) sin
x = x cos – y sin ...(1.9.1)
4. Also y = r sin ( + )
or y = r[sin cos + cos sin ]
y = x sin + y cos ...(1.9.2)
5. Eq. (1.9.1) and eq. (1.9.2) can be written in matrix as :
cos sin 0
[x y 1] = sin cos 0
0 0 1
(Rotation of a point about z-axis)
d. Reflection : Reflection is a transformation which produces a mirror
image of an object and always carried with respect to axis of reflection.
i. Reflection about x-Axis : Reflection of point P about x-axis is P as
shown in Fig. 1.9.2.
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–16 A (ME-Sem-7)
y
P (x , y )
P ( x, – y)
Fig. 1.9.2. Reflection about x-axis.
To find the coordinates of point P about x-axis,
1 0 0
[x y 1] = [x y 1] 0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
Where, = Reflection matrix (R )
0 1 0 x
0 0 1
ii. Reflection about y-Axis : Reflection of point P about y-axis is P as
shown in Fig. 1.9.3.
y
(– x, y) (x , y )
P P
x
Fig. 1.11.3. Reflection about y-axis.
To find the coordinates of point P about y-axis,
1 0 0
[x y 1] = [x y 1] 0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
Where, = Reflection matrix (R )
0 1 0 y
0 0 1
iii. Reflection matrix when the axis of reflection is the line passing
through origin :
The equation of the line passing through origin is
y = mx,
CAD/CAM 1–17 A (ME-Sem-7)
x
m
=
y
x
Fig. 1.9.4.
The steps should taken to find reflection matrix are :
Step 1 : Rotate the line (i.e., axis of rotation) y = mx, in clockwise
direction by angle = tan–1m to align it with x-axis. Rotation matrix is
given by,
cos ( ) sin ( ) 0
A1 = sin ( ) cos ( ) 0
0 0 1
Step 2 : Reflection about x-axis is obtained. Assuming A2 be the reflection
matrix. Then
1 0 0
A2 = 0 1 0
0 0 1
Step 3 : Now the line is rotated by angle in counter clockwise direction
so that original position of line is restored.
cos sin 0
A3 = sin cos 0
0 0 1
The resultant reflection matrix [R] is obtained by concatenating [A1],
[A2], [A3] as
[R] = [A1] × [A2] × [A3]
e. Shear :
1. A transformation which distorts the shape of an object such that the
transformed shape appears as if the object is composed of internal layers
that have been caused to slide over each other is known as shear.
2. There are two types of shear :
i. x-direction shear, and
ii. y-direction shear.
3. In x direction shear, the x-coordinate will change while the y-coordinate
will remain same or vice-versa.
4. If shx is the shearing factor in x direction then,
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–18 A (ME-Sem-7)
y y
x x
x-direction shear y-direction shear
Fig. 1.9.5.
x1 = x + (shx + y)
and y1 = y
5. If shy is the shearing factor in y direction then,
y1 = y + (x + shy)
and x1 = x
6. Transformation matrix for x-direction is,
1 0 0
shx 1 0
0 0 1
7. Transformation matrix for y-direction is,
1 sh y
0
0 1 0
0 0 1
8. When shearing is applied both in x and y direction, it is referred as
simultaneously shearing and is represented by the following
homogeneous matrix,
1 shy 0
sh x 1 0
0 0 1
Que 1.10. A point P(6, –4, – 8) is rotated at 45° about x-axis
a nd t he n it ro t a te d at 60 ° ab o u t z - a xi s . Fi n d th e f in a l
coordinate of the point P. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
Answer
Given : P (6, – 4, – 8), Rotation in x direction = 45°, Rotation in z
direction = 60°
To Find : Final coordinate of P.
CAD/CAM 1–19 A (ME-Sem-7)
1. Rotate the point P(6, – 4, – 8) at 45° about x-axis
1 0 0 0
0 cos 45 sin 45 0
[Rx] =
0 sin 45 cos 45 0
0 0 0 1
2. Again it is rotated at 60° about z-axis,
cos 60 sin60 0 0
sin60 cos 60 0 0
[Rz] =
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
3. Final rotation matrix,
[R] = [Rx] × [Rz]
1 0 0 0 0.5 0.866 0 0
0 0.707 0.707 0 0.866 0.5 0 0
= ×
0 0.707 0.707 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
0.5 0.866 0 0
0.612 0.3535 0.707 0
=
0.612 0.3535 0.707 0
0 0 0 1
4. Final co-ordinates of point P,
0.5 0.866 0 0
0.612 0.3535 0.707 0
= 6 4 8 1
0.612 0.3535 0.707 0
0 0 0 1
= [0.552 6.61 –8.484 1]
5. Hence, the final co-ordinates corresponding to point (6, –4, –8) are
(0.552, 6.61, – 8.484)
Que 1.11. Prove the differential scaling and rotation are not
commutative, but uniform scaling and rotation are commutative.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10
Answer
A. For Differential Scaling and Rotation :
1. We need to prove
S(sx, sy) R = RS(sx, sy)
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–20 A (ME-Sem-7)
sx 0 0 cos sin 0
2. Taking LHS = 0 sy 0 sin cos 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
sx cos sx sin 0
= s y sin s y cos 0
0 0 1
cos sin 0 sx 0 0
3. Taking RHS = sin cos 0 0 sy 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
sx cos s y sin 0
= sx sin s y cos 0
0 0 1
LHS RHS, hence it is proved that differential scaling and rotation
are not commutative.
B. For Uniform Scaling and Rotation :
1. We need to prove
S(sx, sx) R = R S(sx, sx)
2. In uniform scaling, sx = sy,
sx 0 0 cos sin 0
3. Taking LHS = 0 sx 0 sin cos 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
sx cos sx sin 0
= sx sin sx cos 0
0 0 1
cos sin 0 sx 0 0
4. Taking RHS = sin cos 0 0 sx 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
sx cos sx sin 0
= sx sin sx cos 0
0 0 1
LHS = RHS, hence it is prove that uniform scaling and rotation are
commutative.
Homogeneous Transformations, Concatenation.
CAD/CAM 1–21 A (ME-Sem-7)
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 1.12. What do you mean by homogeneous transformation ?
Answer
1. The conversion of a two-dimensional coordinate pair (x, y) into a
3-dimensional vector can be achieved by representing the point as
[x y 1].
2. After multiplying this vector by a 3 × 3 matrix, another homogeneous
row vector is obtained [x1 y1 1].
3. The first two terms in this vector are the coordinate pair which is the
transform of (x, y).
4. This three dimensional representation of a two dimensional plane is
called homogeneous coordinates and the transformation using the
homogeneous coordinates is called homogeneous transformation.
Que 1.13. What is concatenation transformation ?
Answer
1. When number of transformations, are to be carried out then concept of
concatenation is used.
2. If point having the coordinate (x, y) is to be translated first and then
scaled, the process could have been
[x y 1] = [x y 1] [Translation Matrix]
and [x y 1] = [x y 1] [Scaling Matrix]
3. This process is carried out in one step by concatenation transformation
matrix.
[x y 1] = [x y 1] [Translation Matrix] [Scaling Matrix]
and = [x y 1] [Resultant Matrix]
4. If three-transformation matrix is multiplied, following rule is used,
ABC = (AB)C = A(BC)
Where A, B, C are transformation matrix.
5. The process is known as concatenation process.
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–22 A (ME-Sem-7)
Que 1.14. Find the transformation matrix and transformed
coordinates of a square ABCD converted to half its size with centre
remains at the same position. The coordinates of vertices are A (2,
2), B (4, 2), C (4, 4) and D (2, 4) with centre at (3, 3).
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10
Answer
Given : A(2, 2), B(4, 2), C(4, 4), D(2, 4), centre (3, 3), scaling factor = 0.5
To Find : i. Transformation matrix,
ii. Transformed coordinates of a square ABCD.
1. Since, the point (3, 3) is fixed, it is first translated to origin, then scaling
is performed and the point (3, 3) is translated back to its original form.
2. Translation of point (3, 3) to origin,
1 0 0
[T1] = 0 1 0
3 3 1
3. Scaling matrix when square is scaled by 1/2 of its size,
1 / 2 0 0
[S] = 0 1 / 2 0
0 0 1
4. Translation of point (3, 3) back to its original position,
1 0 0
[T2] = 0 1 0
3 3 1
5. The resultant transformation matrix is given by [T],
[T] = [T1] [S] [T2]
1 0 0 1 / 2 0 0 1 0 0
= 0 1 0 0 1 / 2 0 0 1 0
3 3 1 0 0 1 3 3 1
1 / 2 0 0
[T] = 0 1 / 2 0
3 / 2 3 / 2 1
CAD/CAM 1–23 A (ME-Sem-7)
6. The new coordinates of point A are given by,
[A] = [A] [T]
1 / 2 0 0
[xA yA 1] = 2 2 1 0 1 / 2 0
3 / 2 3 / 2 1
= [5/2 5/2 1]
7. Similarly new coordinates for point B are given by,
[B] = [B] [T]
1 / 2 0 0
[xB yB 1] = 4 2 1 0 1 / 2 0
3 / 2 3 / 2 1
= [7/2 5/2 1]
8. Similarly new coordinates for point C are given by,
[C] = [C] [T]
1 / 2 0 0
[xC yC 1] = 4 4 1 0 1 / 2 0
3 / 2 3 / 2 1
= [7/2 7/2 1]
9. Similarly new coordinates for point D are,
[D] = [D] [T]
1 / 2 0 0
[xD yD 1] = 2 4 1 0 1 / 2 0
= [5/2 5/2 1]
3 / 2 3 / 2 1
Que 1.15. A triangle ABC with vertices A(30, 20), B(90, 20), and
C(30, 80) is to be s caled by a factor of 0.5 about a point
X(50, 40). Determine :
i. The composite transformation matrix, and
ii. The coordinates for the vertices for a scaled triangle.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
Given : A(30, 20), B(90, 20), C(30, 80), Scaling factor = 0.5 about
point X(50, 40)
To Find : i. The composite transformation matrix, and
ii. The coordinates for the vertices for a scaled triangle.
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–24 A (ME-Sem-7)
1 0 0
1. Translation of point x to origin, [T1] = 0 1 0
–50 –40 1
0.5 0 0
2. Scaling by a factor 0.5, [S] = 0 0.5 0
0 0 1
3. Translation of point X back to its original position,
1 0 0
[T2] = 0 1 0
50 40 1
4. The coordinates of original triangle in matrix form,
30 20 1
[A B C] = 90 20 1
30 80 1
5. The composite transformation matrix is obtained as follows,
1 0 0 0.5 0 0 1 0 0
[T] = [T1] [S] [T2] = 0 1 0 0 0.5 0 0 1 0
–50 –40 1 0 0 1 50 40 1
6. The coordinates for the vertices of a scaled triangle obtained as below,
30 20 1 1 0 0 0.5 0 0 1 0 0
90 20 1 0 1 0 0 0.5 0 0 1 0
[A B C] =
30 80 1 –50 –40 1 0 0 1 50 40 1
40 30 1
= 70 30 1
40 60 1
7. So, the ne w co ordinates for ve rtices o f scale d triangle are
A(40, 30), B(70, 30) and C(40, 60).
PART-7
3D Transformation, Perspective Projection, Technique
(Description of Techniques only).
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
CAD/CAM 1–25 A (ME-Sem-7)
Que 1.16. Explain and derive matrix for the following 3D
transformations :
a. Scaling,
b. Rotation,
c. Translation, and
d. Reflection.
Answer
a. Scaling :
1. The matrix expression for the scaling transformation of position
P = (x, y, z) relative to the coordinate origin can be written as,
sx 0 0 0
0 sy 0 0
[x y z 1] = [ x y z 1]
0 0 sz 0
0 0 0 1
2. When the scaling is carried out with respect to fixed point (xf, yf, zf),
sx 0 0 0
0 sy 0 0
[x y z 1] = [ x y z 1]
0 0 sz 0
(1 sx ) x f (1 s y ) yf (1 sz ) zf 1
b. Rotation :
1. In case of 3D rotation, rotation of object is always with respect to its axis.
2. The two dimensional rotation equations are easily extended to three
dimensional rotation.
3. Equations for 3D rotation about z-axis are,
x = x cos – y sin
y = x sin + y cos
z = z
4. Above equations in matrix form is written as,
cos sin 0 0
sin cos 0 0
[x y z 1] = [ x y z 1]
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
5. Equations for 3D rotation about x-axis are,
y = y cos – z sin
z = y cos + z sin
x = x
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–26 A (ME-Sem-7)
6. Above equation in matrix form is written as,
1 0 0 0
0 cos sin 0
[x y z 1] = [ x y z 1]
0 sin cos 0
0 0 0 1
7. Equations for 3D rotation about y-axis are,
z = z cos – z sin
x = z cos + z sin
y = y
8. Above equation in matrix form is written as,
cos 0 sin 0
0 1 0 0
[x y z 1] = x y z 1
sin 0 cos 0
0 0 0 1
c. Translation :
1. The translation matrix, when the point is translated by tx, ty, tz in x, y
and z directions respectively,
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
[x y z 1] = [ x y z 1]
0 0 1 0
t x ty tz 1
d. Reflection :
1. In case of 3D transformation the reflection of a point is always affected
with respect to plane of reflection. The plane of reflection about x-y
plane will be
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
2. The reflection about other plane can be obtained as a combination of
rotation and coordinate plane reflection.
Que 1.17. A sphere having centre (10, 10, 10) and radius 8 unit is
translated by 3 units in x-direction and 5 units in z-direction. Then
it rotated by 45° in anticlockwise direction about y-axis. Find the
new centre of the sphere.
CAD/CAM 1–27 A (ME-Sem-7)
Answer
Given : Centre of sphere (10, 10,10), radius = 8 units, translation in x
direction = 3 units, translation in z direction = 5 units, rotation in y
direction = 45°
To Find : New centre of sphere.
1. Translation matrix in x and z direction,
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0
[T1] =
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
t
x ty tz 1 3 0 5 1
2. Rotation matrix about y-axis,
cos 0 sin 0 cos45 0 sin45 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
[R1] =
sin 0 cos 0 sin45 0 cos45 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
0.707 0 0.707 0
0 1 0 0
= 0.707 0 0.707 0
0 0 0 1
3. The final transformation matrix is obtained as,
[T] = [T1] × [R1]
1 0 0 0 0.707 0 0.707 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
=
0 0 1 0 0.707 0 0.707 0
3 0 5 1 0 0 0 1
0.707 0 0.707 0
0 1 0 0
=
0.707 0 0.707 0
1.414 0 1.414 1
4. The new centre of the sphere can be obtained as,
0.707 1 0.707 0
0 1 0 0
[x1 y1 z1 1] = 10 10 10 1
0.707 0 0.707 0
1.414 0 1.414 0
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–28 A (ME-Sem-7)
= [12.726 20 1.414 1]
5. Hence, the new centre is (12.726, 20, 1.414).
Que 1.18. What is perspective projection ? Also write down
objectives of perspective projection.
Answer
A. Perspective Projection :
1. This is such type of pictorial projection in which the shape of an object
looks same as its construction.
2. The picture obtained in perspective projection resembles the picture
taken by a camera.
3. In perspective projection, the actual shape of the object looks like the
true one, therefore, even a common man can understand it easily.
4. Perspective projection is constructed for a building so that the concerned
persons like the owner of the house, officer-in-charge of the department
could understand it easily, generally who are not expert technically.
5. The actual dimensions are not given in perspective projection.
B. Objectives of Perspective Projection : Following are the objectives
of perspective projection :
1. To represent the actual construction of buildings and other objects.
2. To prepare other models.
3. To illustrate different parts of the assembly drawing.
4. To represent positions of moving things.
5. The artists construct such drawings to illustrate the actual view.
Que 1.19. Explain terminologies related to perspective projection.
Answer
Following are terms related to perspective projection :
a. Station Point : It is the point from where the observer looks object.
b. Picture Plane : It is the plane in which picture of the object forms.
c. Horizontal Plane : This plane is parallel to the earth and in line with
the eye of the observer.
d. Ground Plane : If some plane is taken on the surface of the earth.
This is called a ground plane.
e. Ground Line : This is the line of intersection of the ground plane and
the picture plane.
f. Horizontal Line : This is such a line which starts from observer’s eye
and meets the picture plane after passing through the horizontal plane.
CAD/CAM 1–29 A (ME-Sem-7)
g. Center of Vision : This is the point on the picture plane which is the
point of intersection of the horizontal line emerging from station point.
h. Piercing Point : This is the point on the picture plane which is formed
by the intersection of the picture plane and the projection line.
i. Vanishing Point : This is the point at infinity where the length,
breadth, and height of an object vanish.
j. Axis of Vision : This is the horizontal line which starts from the
observer’s eye and makes an angle of 90° with the picture plane.
Picture plane
Horizon line
PP VP
HL
Ground line
GL Spectator
Fig. 1.19.1.
Que 1.20. What are the techniques of perspective projection ?
Answer
Following are the two techniques of perspective projection :
a. Angular Perspective Projection : This type of perspective projection
is also called two-point perspective drawing. This method involves the
following steps :
1. The line of the picture plane is drawn at some suitable place in the
drawing sheet.
2. The top view of the object is drawn making an angle of 30 to 60 degrees
with the horizontal line on the picture plane.
3. The station point is shown at some suitable place below the picture
plane. All the points of the top view are joined with the station point.
4. The lines joining the top view with the station point will intersect the
picture plane. In this way, the points produced on the picture plane are
called piercing points.
5. Lines are drawn parallel to the sides of the top view to intersect the
picture plane. Perpendicular lines will be drawn from these intersecting
points in the downward direction.
6. A horizontal line is drawn at some suitable position below the station
point.
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–30 A (ME-Sem-7)
7. The front view of the object is drawn at some place below the horizontal
line.
8. Horizontal lines are drawn from the different points of the front view.
These will intersect the vertical lines drawn from the top view.
9. In this way, the points produced by lines coming from a single point of
top view and the front view will be the points of the perspective
projection.
10. The perspective projection will be completed by joining these points to
the right and left vanishing points.
b. Parallel Perspective Projection : In this method, only one vanishing
point is selected. This type of perspective projection is also called one
point perspective drawing. This method involves the following steps:
1. The top view is drawn at a suitable place and front view under it.
2. The picture plane is shown under the top view and ground level under
the front view.
3. A station point is shown by one side of both the views at some suitable
angle, and all the points of the top view are joined with it.
4. The points arising from the intersection of the picture plane and the
visual rays joining the point of top view to the station point will be
piercing points.
5. The horizontal line is drawn between the picture plane and ground
level. The vanishing point is put on the station point on the horizontal
line. All the points of the front view are joined with it.
6. The vertical line under the top view and the line going from front view
toward the vanishing point will intersect each other.
7. The point arising from the intersection of lines emerging from the
same point of the two views will be the point of the perspective projection.
8. By joining all such points, the perspective projection will be completed.
PART-8
Classification of Geometric Modeling, Wire
Frame, Surface and Solid Modeling, Applications.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Geometric Modeling : It is branch of computational geometry that
studies methods and algorithms for the mathematical description of
shapes.
Classification of Geometric Modeling :
i. Wireframe modeling,
ii. Surface modeling, and
iii. Solid modeling.
CAD/CAM 1–31 A (ME-Sem-7)
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 1.21. What do you mean by wire frame modeling ?
Answer
1. A wireframe model represents the shape of a solid object with its
characteristic lines and points.
2. The word wireframe is related to the fact that one may imagine a wire
that is bent to follow the object edges to generate a model.
3. A wire frame model is an edge or skeletal representation of a
real-world 3D object using lines and curves.
4. Model consists entirely of points, lines, arcs and circles, conics, and
curves.
5. In 3D wireframe model, an object is not recorded as a solid. Instead the
vertices that define the boundary of the object or the intersections of
the edges of the object boundary are recorded as a collection of points
and their connectivity.
Que 1.22. Sketch the wireframe model defined by the set of points :
{(x, y, z) : x + y 3, x + y + 3 0, x – y 3, y – x 3, z – 2, and
z 2}. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
1. Given linear equation are :
x + y3 ...(1.22.1)
x + y+30 ...(1.22.2)
x– y3 ...(1.22.3)
y– x3 ...(1.22.4)
z –2 ...(1.22.5)
z 2 ...(1.22.6)
2. To draw wireframe model we have to calculate points on coordinate,
Solving eq. (1.22.1) and eq. (1.22.4), we get
x=0 y3
Solving eq. (1.22.2) and eq. (1.22.3), we get
x=0 y–3
Solving eq. (1.22.5) and eq. (1.22.6), we get – 2 y 2
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–32 A (ME-Sem-7)
3. Following coordinate points are obtained on solving the above
equations,
x y z
0 0 0
0 1 1
0 2 2
0 –1 –1
0 –2 –2
0 –3 0
0 3 0
4. Wireframe model obtained by plotting the above coordinate points can
be represented as shown in Fig. 1.22.1.
y
2
3
1 2
1
–1
–2 –1
–3
–2
x
–3
z
Fig. 1.22.1.
Que 1.23. What do you mean by solid modeling ? Also write down
various applications of solid modeling.
Answer
A. Solid Modeling :
1. It is an efficient tool for the real 3D representation of an object.
2. This method enables the designer to visualize and object in terms of its
basic geometrical primitives joined together by boolean operations.
3. A solid model is an unambiguous and informationally complete
mathematical representation of the shape of a physical object.
CAD/CAM 1–33 A (ME-Sem-7)
4. A 3D model shows the dimensions of part in all directions. Basically it
gives information about geometry and topology of part and special address
ability is achieved by it.
5. The geometry of any part indicates dimensions while topology indicate
connectivity of geometrical entities i.e., how the lines are connected
with each other or what is the orientation of arc etc.
B. Applications of Solid Modeling :
1. Solid model based assembly design.
2. Solid model based drafting.
3. Solid model based mechanism design.
4. Generative CNC machining.
Que 1.24. What do you mean by surface modeling ? Also write
down its advantages, disadvantages and applications.
Answer
A. Surface Modeling :
1. Surface models are used to represent surface entities which are difficult
to represent in wire frame modeling and they are also used to define the
part geometry more precisely.
2. The surface modeling involves representing the model by specifying
some or all of the surfaces on the component and it also involve a series
of geometric entities, with each surface forming a single entity.
B. Characteristics of Surface Models :
1. The surface is generated either to pass through or to interpolate the points.
2. These surfaces may be considered to form a skin on top of wire frame
selection.
3. Surfaces could be defined to interpolate between other surfaces.
C. Advantages :
1. The analysis of models become easy as it gives actual scaled picture of
the workpiece.
2. By using these models, strengths and weaknesses of products can be
obtained.
3. Visual inspection of model can be done easily.
D. Disadvantages :
1. More calculations are required.
2. More skill is required.
3. Products having complex shapes may be difficult to represent.
E. Applications :
1. It is used in ship building and aircraft manufacturing industries.
2. It is also used in automobile and die manufacturing.
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–34 A (ME-Sem-7)
PART-9
Representation of Curves and Surfaces, Parametric Form.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 1.25. What are various forms of representations of curves
and surfaces ?
Answer
Various form of representation of curves and surfaces are as follows :
a. Intrinsic Form : In the intrinsic form the equation for a curve is
represented by the equation :
b. Explicit Form : The standard explicit equation for a curve is y = f (x).
c. Implicit Form :
1. In the implicit form any generic point (x, y, z) satisfies a relationship in
x, y, and z i.e., f(x, y, z) = 0.
2. A single such constraint generally describes a surface while two
constraints considered together can be thought of as a curve which is
the intersection of two surfaces.
3. This may be expressed in an explicit form in the following manner :
x = g1(y, z)
y = g2(x, z)
z = g3(x, y)
4. Both implicit and explicit forms of representation are axis dependant.
d. Parametric Form :
1. A parametric curve is one whose defining equations are in terms of a
simple, common independent variable known as parametric variable.
2. In the parametric form, the representation is done by a set of functions.
3. A curve may be represented by,
x = x (u)
y = y (u)
z = z (u)
Where x, y, z are coordinates of the points on the curve which are
functions of some parameter u and the parametric variable is constrained
in the interval.
Que 1.26. Explain properties of curve design and representation.
CAD/CAM 1–35 A (ME-Sem-7)
Answer
Following are the some of the important properties for curve designing
and representation :
a. Control Points : These are the points which control the shape of the
curve in a predictable way.
Fig. 1.26.1. Control points (shown by dots) govern the shape of curve.
b. Axis Independence : The shape of the curve should not be changed,
when the control points are measured in different coordinate systems.
c. Local Control or Global Control : If a control point changes, the
curve may change shape only in the region near the control point or it
may change shape throughout.
Original control point
Altered control point
Local control Global control
Fig. 1.26.2. Local and global control action.
d. Variation Diminishing Property : These curves have a tendency to
pass through the control points smoothly (i.e., without oscillations).
Such curves are said to possess variation diminishing property.
Fig. 1.26.3. Curve with variation diminishing property.
e. Versatility : The mathematical model for curve representation should
be such that it allows the designer to control versatility of a curve, often
by adding or removing control points.
f. Order of Continuity : A complex shape generally consists of several
curves which are joined together end to end. The order of continuity at
the joint decides the final shape at a joint.
For example :
i. Zero Order Continuity : It indicates that the two curves simply
meet.
ii. First Order Continuity : It indicates that the curves are tangent
at the point of intersection.
iii. Second Order Continuity : It indicates the curvature will be same.
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–36 A (ME-Sem-7)
i. ii. iii.
Fig. 1.26.4. Order of continuity at joints.
Que 1.27. Discuss the parametric equations of the following :
a. Circle,
b. Parabola,
c. Ellipse,
d. Hyperbola, and
e. Straight line.
Answer
a. Circle :
1. It is the locus of a point moving in a plane such that its distance from a
centre is constant.
2. The equation are given by,
x = r cos
and y = r sin
y
r
x
Fig. 1.27.1.
3. If the coordinates of centre are (xc, yc, zc), then the parametric equations
of circle are given by,
x = xc + r cos
y = yc + r sin
and z = zc where 0 360°
b. Parabola :
1. It is the locus of a point that moves such that its distance from focus is
equal to its distance from directrix.
2. The equations are given by,
x = at2
and y = 2at
CAD/CAM 1–37 A (ME-Sem-7)
(a, 0)
(0, 0)
Fig. 1.27.2.
3. If the coordinates of parabolic vertex are (xv, yv, zv) then the parametric
equations of parabola are given by,
x = xv + at2
y = yv + 2at
and z = zv
c. Ellipse :
1. It is the locus of a point moving in space such that at any position, sum
of its distance from two fixed points (called focii) is constant and equal to
the major diameter.
2. The equations of ellipse are given by,
x = a cos
and y = b sin
B
b
A O A
a
B
Fig. 1.27.3.
3. If the coordinates of centre are (xc, yc, zc) then the parametric equations
of ellipse are given by,
x = xc + a cos
y = yc + b sin ,
and z = zc
d. Hyperbola :
1. It is the locus of a point moving such that at any position, the difference
of its distance from the fixed points (called focii) is constant and equal to
the transverse axis of the hyperbola.
2. The equation of hyperbola are given by,
x = a cosh
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–38 A (ME-Sem-7)
y = b sinh
(0, b)
(– a, 0) (a, 0)
(0, – b)
Fig. 1.27.4.
3. If the axis of hyperbola intersect at (xv, yv, zv) then the parametric
equations of hyperbola are given by,
x = xv + a cosh
y = yv + b sinh ,
and z = zv
e. Straight Line : The equations of straight line in the parametric form
are given by,
x = x0 + (x1 – x0) t
y = y0 + (y1 – y0) t
and z = z0 + (z1 – z0) t
(x1, y1, z1)
(x0, y0, z0)
Fig. 1.27.5.
Que 1.28. Explain parametric continuity condition and geometric
continuity condition.
Answer
A. Parametric Continuity Condition :
1. To ensure a smooth transition from one section of a piecewise parametric
curve to the next, we can impose various continuity conditions at the
connection points.
2. If each section of a spline is described with a set of parametric coordinate
function of the form :
x = x(u), y = y(u), z = z(u)
u1 u u2
CAD/CAM 1–39 A (ME-Sem-7)
We set parametric continuity by matching the parametric derivatives of
adjoining curve section at their common boundary.
3. Following are the types of parametric continuity :
a. Zero Order Parametric Continuity :
i. Zero order parametric continuity, described as C0 continuity, means
simply that the curves meet.
ii. The values of x, y and z evaluated at uz for the first curve section
are equal, respectively to the values of x, y and z evaluated u1 for
the next curve section.
b. First Order Parametric Continuity : It referred as C1 continuity,
means that the first parametric derivatives (tangent lines) of the
coordinate functions for two successive curve sections are equal at their
joining point.
c. Second Order Parametric Continuity : C2 continuity means that
both the first and second parametric derivatives of the two curve section
are at the same curves at the intersection.
Zero order continuity First order continuity Second order continuity
Fig. 1.28.1.
B. Geometric Continuity Condition :
1. An alternate method for joining two successive curve sections is to
specify condition for geometric continuity.
2. Following are the types of geometric continuity :
a. Zero Order Geometric Continuity :
i. It is described as G0 continuity, and is same as zero order parametric
continuity.
ii. The two curve sections must have the same coordinate position at
the boundary point.
b. First Order Geometric Continuity : G1 continuity means that the
first derivatives are proportional at the intersection of two successive
sections.
c. Second Order Geometric Continuity :
i. G2 continuity means that both first and second parametric derivatives
of the two curve section are proportional at their boundary.
ii. Under G2 continuity, curvatures of two curve section will match at
the joining position.
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–40 A (ME-Sem-7)
Que 1.29. Determine the parametric representation of the line
segment between the position vectors P1 [1 1] and P2 [4 5]. What are
the slope and tangent vector for this line ?
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
Answer
Given : P1 = [1, 1], P2 = [4 5]
To Find : i. Parametric representation of the line segment.
ii. Slope and tangent vector.
^ ^
1. P1 = i + j
^ ^
P2 = 4 i + 5 j
^ ^
P= xi + y j
2. A line connecting two points P1 and P2,
P – P1 = u (P2 – P1)
3. Thus, the equation of the line becomes,
P = P1 + u (P2 – P1), 0u1
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
x i + y j = i + j + u (4 i + 5 j – i – j )
^ ^ ^ ^
= i + j + u (3 i + 4 j )
^ ^ ^ ^
(x – 1) i + (y – 1) j = u (2 i + 4 j )
Where, u is the slope of the line.
4. The tangent vector of the line is given by,
P = P2 – P1
= 3i + 4j
Que 1.30. An ellipse has major axis of 10 units and minor axis of
8 units. If the center of ellipse is (5, 6, 3), write the parametric
equation of an ellipse. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
Given : Major axis, a = 10 units, Minor axis, b = 8 units,
Center (xc, yc, zc) = (5, 6, 3)
To Find : Parametric equation of an ellipse.
1. We know that the parametric equation of an ellipse is given as,
x = xc + a cos
y = yc + b sin
CAD/CAM 1–41 A (ME-Sem-7)
z = zc
Where, 0 < < 360°
2. Now parametric equation of given ellipse are,
x = 5 + 10 cos
y = 6 + 8 sin
Que 1.31. Line L1 has end points (1, 2, 7) and (5, 6, 1), while line L2
has end points (7, 3, 4) and (3, 9, 10)
i. Find the parametric equations of the lines.
ii. Find the tangent vectors of the lines.
iii. Are the two lines parallel or perpendicular ?
iv. Are the two lines intersecting ? If yes, find the point of
intersection. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
Given : Line L1 has end points (1, 2, 7) and (5, 6, 1), Line L2 has end
points (7, 3, 4) and (3, 9, 10)
To Find : i. Find the parametric equations of the lines.
ii. Find the tangent vectors of the lines.
iii. Are the two lines parallel or perpendicular ?
iv. Are the two lines intersecting ? If yes, find the point
of intersection.
1. Parametric equation of Line L1, is
X1(u) = x1 + (x2 – x1) u = 1 + (5 – 1) u = 1 + 4u
Y1(u) = y1 + (y2 – y1) u = 2 + (6 – 2) u = 2 + 4u
Z1(u) = z1 + (z2 – z1) u = 7 + (1 – 7) u = 7 – 6u
2. Parametric equation of Line L2 is,
X2(u) = x1 + (x2 – x1)u = 7 + (3 – 7)u = 7 – 4u
Y2(u) = y1 + (y2 – y1)u = 3 + (9 – 3)u = 3 + 6u
Z2(u) = z1 + (z2 – z1)u = u + (10 – 4)u = u + 6u
3. Tangent vector of Line L1, P1(u) = [ X1(u), Y1 (u), Z1 (u)]
P1(u) = [4, 4, –6]
The tangent vector is, Vt1 = 4 iˆ 4 jˆ 6 kˆ
4. Tangent vector of Line L2, P2(u) = [ X 2 (u), Y2 (u), Z2 (u)]
P2(u) = [ – 4, 6, 6]
The tangent vector is, Vt 2 = 4iˆ 6 jˆ 6 kˆ
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–42 A (ME-Sem-7)
5. The direction vector for L1 and L2 are [4, 4, – 6] and [–4, 6, 6] respectively.
The lines are not parallel because their vectors are not proportional.
6. Direction vector for line L1 = 4 iˆ 4 jˆ 6 kˆ
Direction vector for line L2 = 4iˆ 6 jˆ 6 kˆ
For perpendicularity the dot product of two direction vectors should be
zero i.e.,
= (4 iˆ 4 ˆj 6 kˆ ) · ( 4 iˆ 6 ˆj 6 kˆ )
= – 16 + 24 – 36 = – 28 0
This shows that lines are not perpendicular.
7. If the two lines were to intersect we would have three equations in two
unknown s and t :
1 + 4 t = 7 – 4s ...(1.31.1)
2 + 4 t = 3 + 6s ...(1.31.2)
7 – 6 t = 4 + 6s ...(1.31.3)
From eq. (1.31.1) and eq. (1.31.2), we get s = 1/2 and t = 1
From eq. (1.31.2) and eq. (1.31.3), we get, s =1/10 and t = 2/5
8. Thus the lines do not intersect because different values of t and s are
obtained for solving the first two and last two equations.
z=3
PART-10
Design of Curved Shape : Cubic Spline, Bezier Curve,
B-Spline, Design of Surfaces.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 1.32. What are the various requirement of designed curved
shape ?
Answer
Design of curved shapes should satisfy the following requirements :
1. It should be possible to represent the shape mathematically.
2. The modeling should involve minimum computation.
3. It should be possible to generate a CNC program to machine the surfaces.
CAD/CAM 1–43 A (ME-Sem-7)
Que 1.33. Write various approaches to designers to model curve
and surfaces.
OR
Write the differences between interpolation and approximation.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
Answer
1. To develop a spline curve, there is a need to specify coordinates of
control point which will define the shape of the spline curve and these
control points are traced with continuous polynomial functions either
using interpolation method or approximation method.
2. The interpolation and approximation methods are given as follow :
a. Interpolation Method : In this method, the polynomial spline curve
sections are traced such that the curve passes through each specified
control points. This method is used for animation paths.
a. A set of 5 control points b. A set of 5 points
interpolated by piece wise approximation by piece
continuous polynomials wise continuous polynomials
Fig. 1.33.1.
b. Approximation Method : In this method the curve is traced without
passing through the specified control points. This method in used for
structuring object surfaces.
Que 1.34. Explain about the various cubic spline interpolation
methods. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
Answer
1. Cubic splines are used in drawings for making objects or to specify paths
for object motion.
2. Cubic polynomials used to specify cubic splines offer optimal flexibility
and speed at computation.
3. As compared to higher polynomials, cubic splines require less calculations
and memory and are more stable.
4. When compared to lower order polynomials, cubic splines are more
flexible for modeling arbitrary curve shapes.
5. For cubic splines, the set of equations in parametric form can be given
as,
x(t) = ax + bx t + cx t2 + dx t3
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–44 A (ME-Sem-7)
y(t) = ay + by t + cy t2 + dy t3
z(t) = az + bz t + cz t2 + dz t3
Where, 0 t1
6. To solve these equations, we need to have the value of four coefficients
a, b, c and d for each of the n section between n + 1 control points.
7. This is accomplished by setting boundary conditions at the joints so as to
obtain numeric value of all the coefficients.
Que 1.35. Describe Hermite spline curve and its blending function.
OR
Write parametric equation of Hermite cubic spline curve and derive
the basic function matrix for it. Also find the mid-point of a Hermite
cubic spline with the two points as (1, 1) (6, 5) and tangent vectors as
(0, 4) and (4, 0). AKTU 2015-16, Marks 15
Answer
A. Hermite Spline Curve :
1. A Hermite spline is an interpolating piecewise cubic polynomial with a
specified tangent at each control point.
2. Hermite splines can be adjusted locally because each curve section is
only dependent on its end point constraints.
3. If P(u) represents a parametric cubic point function for the curve section
between control points Pk and Pk + 1 as shown in Fig. 1.35.1.
Pk
P(u) = { x(u), y(u), z( u)}
Pk + 1
Fig. 1.35.1. Parametric point function P(u) for a Hermite curve section
between control point P k and P k + 1.
4. Then, the boundary condition that defines this Hermite curves sections
are :
P(0) = Pk
P(1) = Pk + 1
P(0) = DPk
P(1) = DPk + 1
Where DPk and DPk + 1 specifying the values for the parametric derivation
at control points Pk and Pk + 1 respectively.
CAD/CAM 1–45 A (ME-Sem-7)
5. The parametric cubic polynomial that is filled between each pair of
control points with the following set of equations,
x(u) = axu3 + bxu2 + cxu + dx 0u1
y(u) = ayu3 + byu2 + cyu + dy
z(u) = azu3 + bzu2 + czu + dz
6. We can write the vector equivalent of above equation for this Hermite
curve section as,
P(u) = au3 + bu2 + cu + d 0u1 ...(1.35.1)
7. The matrix equivalent of above equation
a
b
P(u) = [u3 u2 u 1] ...(1.35.2)
c
d
and the derivative of the point function can be expressed as,
a
b
P(u) = [3u2 2u 1 0] ...(1.35.3)
c
d
8. We can express the Hermite boundary condition of eq. (1.35.1) in the
matrix form :
Pk 0 0 0 1 a
1 1 1 1 b
P
k1
DP = 0 0 1 0 c
k
DPk 1 3 2 1 0 d
1
a 0 0 0 1 Pk
1
b 1 1 1 Pk 1
=
c 0 0 1 0 DP
k
d
3 2 1 0 DPk 1
2 2 1 1 Pk
3
3 2 1 Pk 1
=
0 0 1 0 DPk
1 0 0 0 DPk 1
a Pk
b
=M Pk 1
c H DP
k
d DPk 1
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–46 A (ME-Sem-7)
Where MH, the hermite matrix is the inverse of the boundary constraint
matrix.
9. Eq. (1.35.2) can be written as :
Pk
Pk 1
P(u) = [u3 u2 u 1] · MH ...(1.35.4)
DPk
DPk 1
10. Finally we can determine expressions for the Hermite blending functions
by carrying out the matrix multiplication in eq. (1.35.4) and collecting
coefficients for the boundary constraints to obtain the polynomial form.
P(u) = Pk (2u3 – 3u2 + 1) + Pk + 1 (– 2u3 + 3u2) + DPk (u3 – 2u2 + u)
+ DPk + 1 (u3 – u2)
P(u) = Pk H0(u) + Pk + 1 H1(u) + DPk H2(u) + DPk + 1 H3(u)
11. The polynomial Hk(u) for K = 0, 1, 2, 3 are referred as blending function
because they blend the boundary constraint values to obtain each
coordinate position along the curve.
B. Numerical :
Given : Two points (1, 1) (6, 5), tangent vectors (0, 4) (4, 0).
To Find : Midpoint of hermite cubic spline curve.
1. Hermite curve is given by
P(u) = au3 + bu2 + cu + d ...(1.35.5)
Therefore, P(u) = 3au2 + 2bu + c
Now P(0) = d
P(1) = a + b + c + d
P(0) = c
P(1) = 3a + 2b + c
2. On solving for a, b, c and d and substituting and value in eq. (1.35.5),
P(u) = (2u3 – 3u2 + 1) P(0) + (–2u3 + 3u2) P(1)
+ (u3 – u2) P(1) + (u3 – 2u2 + u) P(0)
...(1.35.6)
3. For the given problem,
P(0) = (1 ,1), P(1) = (6 , 5)
P(0) = (0 , 4) , P(1) = (4 , 0)
4. Putting these values in eq. (1.35.6)
x(u) 6u3 11u2 1
P(u) = 3 2
y(u) 4u 4u 4u 1
5. The midpoint of the curve is
x(0.5) 3
P(0.5) = = 3.5
y(0.5)
P(0.5) = (3, 3.5)
CAD/CAM 1–47 A (ME-Sem-7)
Que 1.36. What are Bezier curves ? Discuss about the properties
of such curves.
Answer
A. Bezier Curve :
1. A Bezier curve is a parametric curve frequently used in computer graphics
and related fields. It is a mathematically defined curve used in two
dimensional graphic applications.
2. It is used in computer graphics to produce curves which appear smooth
at all scales.
B. Properties of Bezier Curve :
1. It always passes through the first and last control points. If the first and
last control points coincide, the curve is closed.
Fig. 1.36.1. A closed Bezier curve with first
and last control point coinciding.
2. The curve is tangent to the corresponding edge of control points at the
end points.
3. It will remain in the convex of the polygon and this property of Bezier
curve is known as convex hull property.
4. It cannot oscillate and this property of Bezier curve is known as variation
diminishing property.
5. It is independent of the coordinate system.
6. It cannot provide local or global control i.e., moving any control point
changes the shape of every part of the curve.
7. The sum of all Bezier blending function is equal to 1.
Que 1.37. Draw and explain the two dimensional Bezier curves
generated from three, four and five control points.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
Answer
A. For Three and Four Control Points :
1. The Bezier curve is represented mathematically as,
n
P(t) = BJ
i 0
i n , i(t)
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–48 A (ME-Sem-7)
Where, Jn i(t) = Blending function
Jni = nCiti (1 – t)n–i
The blending function Jni(t) is the Bernstein polynomial.
P1 P1 P2
P0 P2 P3
P0
P1
P2
P3
P0
P0
P2 P1 P3
Fig.1.37.2. Examples of Bezier curves generated from
two, three, four control points.
and Ci = Binomial coefficient
n!
=
i !(n i)!
2. If the three-dimensional location of control Bi is (xi, yi, zi) then the
equation can be written as,
n
x(t) = x J
i 0
i n i(t)
n
y(t) = yJ
i 0
i n i(t)
n
and z(t) = z J
i 0
i n i(t)
B. For Five Control Points :
1. The polynomial equation for a Bezier curve for five control points is
given by,
C(t) = (1 – t)4 P0 + 3t(1 – t)3 P1 + 3t2(1 – t)2 P2 + 3t3(1 – t) P3 + t4 P4
2. Blending functions are : b0(t) = (1 – t)4
b1(t) = 3t(1 – t)3
b2(t) = 3t2(1– t)2
b3(t) = 3t3(1 – t)
b4(t) = t4
4
C(t) = b (t ) P
i 0
i i
CAD/CAM 1–49 A (ME-Sem-7)
3. Bezier curve for blending functions :
1.0
0.9
0.8 t) P1
b 0( P3
0.7 )
b 1(
t) t) b 4(t
0.6 b 3(
0.5
0.4 t)
b 2( P0 P4
0.3
0.2
0.1 P2
0
Fig. 1.37.2.
Que 1.38. Generate the Bezier curve for the following control
points :
A(1, 1), B(4, 3), C(5, 2) and D(3, 1) AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
Given : Control points : A(1, 1), B(4, 3), C(5, 2) and D(3, 1)
To Find : Bezier curve.
1. A[1, 1], B[4, 3], C [5, 2], and D [3, 1]
n=3
3
3 i 3 i
2. x(t) = x C t (1 t)
i 0
i i
= x0(1 – t)3 + 3x1t(1 – t)2 + 3x2t2(1 – t) + x3t3
3. On substituting the given values,
x(t) = (1 – t)3 + 12t(1 – t)2 + 15t2 (1 – t) + 3t3
3
3 i 3 i
y(t)= y C t (1 t)
i 0
i i
= y0(1 – t)3 + 3y1t(1 – t)2 + 3y2t2(1 – t) + y3t3
4. On substituting the given values, we get
y(t) = (1 – t)3 + 9t(1 – t)2 + 6t(1 – t) + t3
Que 1.39. Generate a Bezier curve using the control points :
(2, 0), (4, 3), (5, 2), (4, –2), (5, –3) and (6, – 2).
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 05
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–50 A (ME-Sem-7)
Answer
Given : Control points : (2, 0), (4, 3), (5, 2), (4, –2), (5, –3) and (6, – 2).
To Find : Bezier curve.
1. There are six control point, hence n = 5
5
x(t) = xi 5Ci t i (1 t)5i
i 0
x(t) = x0 5C0 t0 (1 – t)5 + x1 5C1 t1 (1 – t)4 + x2 5C2 t2 (1 – t)3
+ x3 5C3t3 (1 – t)2 + x4 5C4 t4 (1 – t) + x5 5C5 t5
(1 – t)0
= x0 (1 – t)5 + 5x1 + (1 – t)4 + 10x2 t2 (1 – t)3 +
10x3 t3 (1 – t)2 + 5x4 t4 (1 – t) + x5 t5
2. Substituting the values of x0, x1, x2, x3, x4 and x5 as 2, 4, 5, 4, 5 and 6
respectively.
x(t) = 2 (1 – t)5 + 20 t (1 – t)4 + 50 t2 (1 – t)3 + 40 t3
(1 – t)2 + 25 t4 (1 – t) + 6 t5
5
y(t) = yi 5Ci t i (1 t)5i
i 0
y(t) = y0(1 – t)5 + 5y1 t (1 – t)4 + 10y2 t2 (1 – t)3 + 10y3
t3 (1 – t)2 + 5y4 t4 (1 – t) + y5 t5
3. Substituting the values of y0, y1, y2, y3, y4 and y5 as 0, 3, 2, – 2, – 3
and – 2 respectively.
y(t) =15 (1 – t)4 + 20 t2 (1 – t)3 + 20 t3 (1 – t)2 – 15 t4 (1 – t) – 2 t5.
4. Let step size be 0.2, using the equations of x(t) and y(t) points on the
Bezier curve for various values of t are tabulated below.
t x(t) y(t)
0 2 0
0.2 3.556 1.516
0.4 4.287 0.757
0.6 4.624 – 0.933
0.8 5.115 – 2.172
1 6 2
Que 1.40. Derive parametric equation of Bezier curve using
Bernstein polynomial. Also find the equation of Bezier curve and its
mid-point using four control points (20, 20), (60, 80), (120, 100) and
(150, 30). AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
CAD/CAM 1–51 A (ME-Sem-7)
Answer
A. Parametric Equation of Bezier Curve : Refer Q. 1.37, Page 1–47A,
Unit-1.
B. Numerical :
Given : P0 = [20 20 0]T, P1 = [60 80 0]T, P2 = [120 100 0]T, P3 = [150 30 0]T
To Find : Equation of Bezier curve.
1. P(u) = P0 B0,3 + P1 B1,3 + P2 B2,3 + P3 B3,3 0 u 1
P(u) = P0(1 – u)3 + 3P1 u(1 – u)2 + 3P2u2(1 – u) + P3u3
...(1.40.1)
0u1
2. Substituting values of u in eq. (1.40.1), we get
P(0) = P0 = [20 20 0]T
27 27 9 1
P(1/4) = P0 P1 P2 P3
64 64 64 64
= [52.9687 56.7187 0]T
1 3 3 1
P(1/2) = P0 P1 P2 P3
8 8 8 8
= [88.75 73.75 0]T
1 9 27 27
P(3/4) = P0 P1 P2 P3
64 64 64 64
= [122. 6525 66.40625 0]T
Que 1.41. Generate parametric equation of a planer Bezier curve
defined by the four control points P 0 (1, 2), P 1 (3, 4),
P2 (6, –6) and P3 (9, 7) and plot them. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10
Answer
Given : P0 = (1, 2), P1 (3, 4), P2 (6, – 6) and P3 (9, 7).
To Find : Parametric equation of Bezier curve and plot them.
1. There are four control points, hence n = 3.
2. Parametric form of equations for x and y coordinates for the Bezier
curve are given by,
3
3 i 3 i
x(t) = x C t (1 t)
i 0
i i
= x0(1 – t)3 + 3x1 t(1 – t)2 + 3x2 t2(1 – t) + x3t3
3. Substituting the values of x0, x1, x2 and x3 as 1, 3, 6 and 9 respectively,
x(t) = (1 – t)3 + 9t(1 – t)2 + 18t2 (1 – t) + 9t3
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–52 A (ME-Sem-7)
3
3 i 3i
4. y(t) = y C t (1 t)
i0
i i
= y0(1 – t)3 + 3y1 t(1 – t)2 + 3y2 t2(1 – t) + y3t3
5. Substituting the values of y0, y1, y2 and y3 as 2, 4, –6 and 7 respectively,
y(t) = 2(1 – t)3 + 12t(1 – t)2 – 18t2 (1 – t) + 8t3
6. Let step size be 0.2, using the equations of x(t) and y(t) points on the
Bezier curve for various values of t are tabulated below :
t x(t) y(t)
0 1 2
0.2 2.32 2.046
0.4 3.86 0.88
0.6 5.464 0.2
0.8 7.208 1.68
1.0 9 7
7. To draw the Bezier curve, plot the points on the graph paper.
y
10
9
8
(9, 7)
7
6
5
4 (3, 4)
3
2
1 (1, 2)
(0, 0) x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
(6,–6)
Fig. 1.41.1.
Que 1.42. Write a short note on design of surfaces.
CAD/CAM 1–53 A (ME-Sem-7)
Answer
1. The design of surfaces may be based on quadrics like ellipsoid,
hyperboloid, cone, hyperbolic cylinder, parabolic cylinder, elliptic
cylinder and elliptic paraboloid.
2. A surface may be generated by sweeping a pattern curve along a spline
curve.
3. The swept surface may also be linear, conical linear or circular swept
surface.
PART-11
Features of Surface Modeling Package, Solid Primitives, CSG.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 1.43. Write down various features of surface modeling
packages.
Answer
Various features of surface modeling packages are :
a. Surface Modeling Commands :
i. 3D Face : The different faces of an object can be modeled using this
command.
ii. P Face : The P face command produces a general polygon mesh of a
arbitrary topology.
iii. Ruled surf : This command creates a polygon representing the ruled
surface between two curves.
iv. Tubsurf : A polygon mesh representing general tabulated mesh
defined by a path curve and a direction vector is created by this
command.
v. Revsurf : A surface of revolution is created by rotating a path curve or
profile about an axis.
vi. Edgesurf : This command constructs a coon’s surface patch using four
adjoining curved edges.
b. Surface Modeling Facilities Available in an Advanced Modeler :
i. Model Creation Features for Curves and Surfaces :
a. Accurate fitting of unevenly spaced points.
b. Control over tangency, curvature and inflection.
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–54 A (ME-Sem-7)
c. Capability of one surface on to another.
d. Projection of one surface on to another.
e. Offset curves.
ii. Shape Control of Surfaces : Advanced surface modeling software
make it easy to effect changes in design and shape.
iii. Visualization : Surface models have visualization tools for shading,
hidden line elimination, creation of perspective views and evaluated
surface displays.
Que 1.44. What are solid primitives ?
Answer
1. Most commercially available solid modeling packages have a
CSG compatible user input and therefore provide user with a certain set
of building blocks, often called primitives.
2. Primitives are simple basic shapes and are considered the solid modeling
entities which can be combined by a mathematical set of boolean
operations to create the solid.
3. Primitive themselves are considered valid off the self solids.
4. There are wide varieties of primitives available commercially to users.
However, the four most commonly used are block, cylinder, cone and
sphere.
5. These are based on the four natural quadrics : planes, cylinders, cones
and spheres.
6. Following are the descriptions of the most commonly used primitives :
a. Block : This is a box whose geometrical data is its width, height and
depth. Its local coordinate system xL yL zL is shown in Fig. 1.44.1.
b. Cylinder : This primitive is a right circular cylinder whose geometry is
defined by its radius (or diameter) R and length H.
c. Cone : This is a right circular cone or frustum of a right circular cone
whose base radius R, top radius and height H are user defined.
d. Sphere : This is defined by its radius or diameter and is centred about
the origin of its local coordinate system.
e. Wedge : This is a right angled wedge whose height H, width W and base
depth D form its geometric data.
f. Torus : This primitive is generated by revolution of a circle about an
axis lying in its plane (zL axis in Fig. 1.44.1).
CAD/CAM 1–55 A (ME-Sem-7)
yL yL
H
R
xL
P
H P
zL xL
W D
zL
Block Cylinder
yL yL
xL
P R
xL
R P
H zL
zL
Cone Sphere
zL
yL R2 yL
H P P R1 xL
zL
W R0 R1
D xL
Wedge Torus
Fig. 1.44.1. Most common primitives.
Que 1.45. Write short note on constructive solid geometry (CSG).
Answer
A. Constructive Solid Geometry :
1. In constructive solid geometry, a solid object is created by combining the
volumes occupied by overlapping three dimensional objects called
primitives using boolean operations.
2. The boolean operations used are union, intersection or difference.
3. The primitives used by CSG are simple 3D objects such as cones,
pyramids, cylinders, blocks, spheres, torus, wedges etc.
4. In the Fig. 1.45.1(a) a cone and a hemisphere are placed adjacent to each
other. On applying the union operation, a combined object is obtained as
shown in Fig. 1.45.1(b).
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–56 A (ME-Sem-7)
(a) (b )
Fig. 1.45.1. Combining two primitives, a cone and a hemisphere using
union operation produces a new object.
5. Readymade primitives are provided in most of the packages which can
be given suitable dimensions.
6. To create a new three dimensional solid using CSG method, two
primitives are dragged into a region of space and given a suitable
orientation with respect to each other.
7. Then a suitable boolean operation is used to combine the volumes of two
primitives.
8. Now more primitives can be added one by one to this new solid to get the
final shape.
9. An object designed using this method can be represented by binary
trees.
CSG
object
oper 1 oper 2
obj 1 obj 2 obj 3 obj 4
Fig. 1.45.2. Binary tree.
Que 1.46. Sketch the solid model defined by the set of points :
{(x, y, z) : x2 + y2 z2/4, and 2 z 9} AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
Given : {(x, y, z) : x2 + y2 z2/4 and 2 z 9}
To Find : Sketch the solid model.
CAD/CAM 1–57 A (ME-Sem-7)
1. It is given that, {(x, y, z) : x2 + y2 z2/4 and 2 z 9} ...(1.46.1)
2. Mathematically, each primitive is defined as a regular point set of
ordered triplets (x, y, z).
For the cone, these point are given as,
2
2 2 R
(x, y, z) = x y z and 0 z H. ...(1.46.2)
H
3. Comparing eq. (1.46.1) with eq. (1.46.2), we get
2
R 1
=
H 4
R 1
= ...(1.46.3)
H 2
4. From eq. (1.46.1), we know,
2 z9
So, H= 9–2
H = 7 units
5. Putting value of H in eq. (1.46.3),
R 1 R 1
=
H 2 7 2
R = 3.5 units
6. Now, plotting the values of R and H, the solid model so obtained is
shown in Fig. 1.46.1.
(0, 0, 0)
(0, 0, 2) x
3.5
z 7
Fig. 1.46.1.
Que 1.47. Construct the following model using CSG primitives
and also to develop the history tree. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–58 A (ME-Sem-7)
20 Drill
R20
15
25
20
ep
l De
D ril re 10 55 30
15 C b o
25 20 40
25
25
25
40
10 15
20
50
15 70
100
Fig. 1.47.1.
Answer
A. Steps to Construct Model by using CSG Primitives :
Step 1: Subtract and cut the hole and cuboid portion on the block.
Extrude and
Extrude
cut
cut
Extrude
cut
Extruded part
Fig. 1.47.2.
Step 2 : Extrude the draw sketch
Extrude
Fig. 1.47.3.
Step 3 : Draw the cuboid block and create the hole and taper feature in
cuboid.
CAD/CAM 1–59 A (ME-Sem-7)
Taper Taper head
Taper and hole
Fig. 1.47.4.
Draw the cuboid from the top of the block and subtract till the half of the
hole and cuboid block 3.
Subtract
Fig. 1.47.5.
Step 4 : Draw the triangular sketch and extrude the sheet.
Extrude sheet
Fig. 1.47.6.
Step 5 : After assembling the step 1, 2, 3 and 4 we get
Fig. 1.47.7.
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–60 A (ME-Sem-7)
B. History tree :
CSG
objective
Extrude Cut Taper
Oper 1 Oper 2 Oper 3
Object 1 Object 2 Object 3 Object 4 Object 5 Object 6
Block 2 Triangle Hole in Semicircle Block 3 Unite triangle
sheet block 1 and cuboid sheet
block 3
Fig. 1.47.8.
Que 1.48. Construct the following model using CSG standard
primitives and also develop the history tree.
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10
60
8
90
30
50
24
20
40
50 x
Fig. 1.48.1.
CAD/CAM 1–61 A (ME-Sem-7)
Answer
A. Steps to Construct Model by using CSG Primitives :
Step 1 : Subtract a semi cylinder b of diameter 50 mm from the
rectangular block A.
b
a a
20 20
50 90 50 60
Block A Block A
Step 2 : Subtract a semi cylinder c of diamete r 24 mm and
length 40 mm from the block A.
b
a 24
20 c
40
50 60
Block A
Step 3 : Subtract a cylinde r e o f diame te r 30 mm and
length 50 mm from a cylinder B.
60 60
30
50 50 e d
d
Cylinder B Cylinder B
Step 4 : Subtract a portion f of width 8 mm and height 50 mm from a
cylinder B.
60
8
f
30
50 e d
Cylinder B
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–62 A (ME-Sem-7)
Step 5 : After assembling block A and cylinder B, we get
60
8
30
50
24
20
40
50
B. History Tree :
s
(a – b – c) (d – e – f)
a–b–c d–e–f
a d
PART-12
B-rep and Description of other Modeling Techniques like Pure
Primitive Instancing, Cell Decomposition, Spatial Occupancy
Enumeration, Boolean Operations (Join, Cut. Intersection).
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
CAD/CAM 1–63 A (ME-Sem-7)
Que 1.49. Write a short note on boundary representation (B-rep.).
Answer
1. A B-rep. model or boundary model is based on the topological notion
that a physical object is bounded by a set of faces. These faces are
regions or subsets of closed and orientable surfaces.
2. A closed surface is one that is continuous without breaks.
3. An orientable surface is one in which it is possible to distinguish two
sides by using the direction of the surface normal to point to the inside
or outside of the solid model under construction.
4. Each face is bounded by edges and each edge is bounded by vertices.
5. Thus, topologically, boundary model of an object is comprised of faces,
edges and vertices of the object linked together in such a way as to
ensure the topological consistency of the model.
6. The database of a boundary model contains both its topology and
geometry. Topology is created by performing Euler operations and
geometry is created by performing euclidean calculations.
7. Euler operations are used to create, manipulate and edit the faces,
edges and vertices of a boundary model as the set (boolean) operations
create, manipulate and edit primitives of CSG models.
8. Euler operators, as boolean operators, ensure the integrity of boundary
models.
9. Geometry includes coordinates of vertices, rigid mo tion and
transformation and metric information such as distances angles, areas,
volumes and inertia tensors.
10. It should be noted that topology and geometry are interrelated and
cannot be separated entirely.
Boundary hole
(a) Simple polyhedra ( b) Polyhedra with not (c) Polyhedra with
through holes handles (through holes)
Fig. 1.49.1.
Que 1.50. Briefly explain the following modeling techniques.
a. Primitive instancing,
b. Cell decomposition, and
c. Spatial Enumeration.
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–64 A (ME-Sem-7)
Answer
a. Primitive Instancing :
1. It is based on the notion of families of objects or family of parts.
2. All objects that have the same topology but different geometry can be
grouped into a family called generic primitive.
3. Each individual object within a family is called a primitive instance.
4. Primitive instancing is similar in philosophy to group technology used in
manufacturing. It promotes standardization.
5. It is also an unambiguous, unique and easy to use and validate scheme.
6. Its main drawbacks are its limited domain of modeling unless we use an
enormous number of generic primitives and the lack of generality to
develop any algorithms to compute properties of represented solids.
b. Cell Decomposition :
1. In this scheme an object can be represented as the sum of cells into
which it can be decomposed.
2. Each cell in the decomposition can always be represented.
3. Thus, cell decomposition may enable us to model objects, which may not
otherwise be representable by their cells.
4. It can be decomposed into two cells : a body and a handle.
5. The body and/or handle can be decomposed further if needed.
6. Cell de co mpositio ns are unambiguo us, no nunique and are
computationally expensive to validate.
7. They have been historically used in structural analysis.
8. ASM and finite element modeling are forms of cell decomposition.
c. Spatial Enumeration :
1. In this, a solid is represented by the sum of spatial cells that it occupies.
2. These cells are cubes of a fixed size that lie in a fixed spatial grid.
3. Each cell can be represented by its centroid coordinates in the grid.
4. The smaller the size of the cube, the more accurate the scheme in
representing curved objects.
5. It is exact for boxlike objects.
6. The scheme is unambiguous, unique and easy to validate, but it is verbose
when describing an object, especially curved ones.
CAD/CAM 1–65 A (ME-Sem-7)
Que 1.51. Explain different Boolean operation. Also write down
the role of primitives in CSG.
Answer
A. Different Boolean Operation :
a. Union : When two or more solids are combined with UNION, the result
is the single solid shape incorporating all the space occupied by any of
the individual components together.
b. Difference : When two or more solids are combined with the boolean
operator difference, the result is the single solid incorporating the space
which is occupied by the first component, but is outside of the remaining
components.
c. Intersection : When two or more solids are combined with intersection,
the result is a single solid shape incorporating the space which is occupied
in common by each of the components.
(a) (b ) ( c)
Fig. 1.51.1.
B. Role of Primitives in CSG :
1. In constructive solid geometry, a solid object is created by a combination
of simpler objects called primitives which are often combination of simple
entities called half space. This is also known as unevaluated, implicit,
direct, procedural or algorithmic solid modeling.
2. The primitives may be represented either by simple functions which
define a volume in space or an extension of the CSG tree in which
boolean operations are applied to half spaces.
3. A half space is a surface which divides a 3D space into solid and void
regions. Several such half spaces can be combined to produce solid
primitives.
Computer Graphics & Geometric Modeling 1–66 A (ME-Sem-7)
z
z
x y x y
(a) (b ) (c )
Fig. 1.51.2. Different primitives used in solid modeling box.
PART-13
Creating 3D Objects From 2D Profile (Extrusion, Revolving etc).
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 1.52. Explain the following 3D auto CAD commands.
a. Extrude, and
b. Revolve.
Answer
a. Extrude :
1. This command enables you to draw solids by extruding a 2D object along
a specified path.You can extrude closed object such as circles, ellipse,
polygons and closed splines etc.
2. Format :
Command : Extrude
Select object : (Select the object to extrude)
Specify height of extrusion or (path) (Enter value for height or enter P
at the prompt if path options chosen, select an object that describes the
path) :
Specify angle of taper for extrusion <0> : (Enter a value for tapering the
extruded object if required)
b. Revolve :
1. Closed objects such as circle, ellipse, polygons and splines can be revolved
about an axis to generate a solid.
CAD/CAM 1–67 A (ME-Sem-7)
2. Format :
Command : Revolve
Select objects : (Pick the object to revolve)
Specify start point for axis of revolution or define axis by [object x-axis/
y-axis] :
(Enter a value of start point and end point of the axis; type x or y-axis to
specify x or y-axis, or type O to select on object as the axis of
revolution)
Specify angle of revolution <360°> : (Specify the required angle of
revolution)
CAD/CAM 2–1 A (ME-Sem-7)
Graphics Standard,
2 Data Storage and
Finite Element
Modeling
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Standards for Computer ............................ 2–2A to 2–4A
Graphics GKS, PHIGS
Part-2 : Data Exchange ............................................. 2–4A to 2–6A
Standards IGES, STEP
Part-3 : Manipulation of the Model, ........................ 2–6A to 2–8A
Model Storage
Part-4 : Introduction, Mesh Generation, ............ 2–8A to 2–10A
Mesh Requirements
Part-5 : Semi Automatic Methods : ..................... 2–10A to 2–11A
Node-Based Approach,
Region Based Approach, Solid
Modeling Based Methods
Part-6 : Fully Automatic Methods : Element .... 2–11A to 2–14A
Based Approach, Application
Part-7 : Mesh Refinements using ....................... 2–14A to 2–15A
Isoperimetric Finite Elements
Part-8 : Meshing in High Gradient Areas ......... 2–15A to 2–17A
Transition Regions
Sub Modeling Concept
Part-9 : An Overview of Modeling ...................... 2–17A to 2–21A
Software’s like Pro-E, CATIA,
I-DEAS, SOLID EDGE etc
Graphics Standard & Data Storage 2–2 A (ME-Sem-7)
PART-1
Standard for Computer Graphics GKS, PHIGS.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 2.1. List the various graphics standards used in CAD.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05
Answer
Various graphics standards used in CAD are as follows :
i. GKS (Graphical Kernel System) : It is an ANSI and ISO standard. It
is device independent, host system independent and application
independent. It supports both two- dimensional and three-dimensional
data and viewing.
ii. PHIGS (Programmer’s Hierarchical Interactive Graphics
System) : It is intended to support high function workstations and their
related CAD/CAM applications.
iii. VDM (Virtual Device Metafile) : It defines the functions needed to
describe a picture. Such description can be stored or transmitted from
one graphics device to another. VDM is now called CGM (Computer
Graphics Metafile).
iv. VDI (Virtual Device Interface) : It lies between GKS or PHIGS and
the device handler/driver code. Thus VDI is the lowest device
independent interface in a graphics system.
v. IGES (Initial Graphics Exchange Specification) : It enables
exchange of model data bases among CAD/CAM systems. IGES functions
at the level of the object database or application data structure.
vi. NAPLPS (North American Presentation-Level Protocol Syntax) :
It describes text and graphics in the form of sequences of bytes in ASCII
code.
Que 2.2. Explain the Graphical Kernel System (GKS) in detail.
Answer
1. GKS is defined in terms of a number of levels describing the level of
support in terms of facilities.
CAD/CAM 2–3 A (ME-Sem-7)
2. A number of implementations are available for GKS on all types of
computers starting from the micros to the main frame computers.
3. The main objectives of GKS are as follows :
i. To provide the complete range of graphical facilities in 2D, including
the interacting capabilities.
ii. To control all types of graphic devices such as plotters and display
devices in a consistent manner.
iii. To be small enough for a variety of programs.
4. The major contribution of GKS for the graphics programming is in
terms of the layer model, as shown in Fig. 2.2.1.
Application program
Application oriented layer
Language independent layer
Graphic Kernel System
Operating system
Other resources Graphic resources
Fig. 2.2.1. Layer model of Graphics Kernel System.
5. An environment for user to work is termed workstation in GKS. This
could be VDU, plotter or printers.
6. For a programmer, all workstations are identical. The characteristics of
these workstations are built into GKS. It is also possible to work
simultaneously on more than one workstation.
7. The coordinate frames available to the user are of the following three
types :
i. World Coordinates (WC) which are the user oriented drawing
coordinates.
ii. Normalised Device Coordinates (NDC) which is a uniform system
for all workstations.
iii. Device Coordinates (DC) are the actual coordinate system for the
particular workstation.
8. In essence, the GKS is essentially a set of procedures that can be called
by user programs for carrying out certain generalised functions.
9. In the interest of interchangeability, ISO has identified certain calling
conventions for all these functions in various languages in order to take
care of the variability of the programming languages.
Que 2.3. Explain the PHIGS in detail.
Graphics Standard & Data Storage 2–4 A (ME-Sem-7)
Answer
1. PHIGS (Programmer’s Hierarchical Interactive Graphics System) is
basically a library of functions that allow the user to display and interact
with 2-D and 3-D graphics.
2. It is an international standard being created by ISO.
3. PHIGS hides hardware dependent details from the user.
4. PHIGS provides a set of familiar graphics objects called primitives, each
with attributes that control its location, orientation, color, and appearance.
5. PHIGS includes in its functionality three dimensional output primitives
and transformations.
6. It has dynamic control over the visual appearance of attributes of
primitives in a segment.
7. The PHIGS standard defines a set of device independent logical concepts.
8. Application programmers can use these concepts within a set of PHIGS
rules.
9. The major concepts are the logical input device, PHIGS structure,
structure networks, structure manipulation, search and inquiry,
structure traversal and display, the name set mechanism, the viewing
pipeline, and the PHIGS workstation.
PART-2
Data Exchange Standards IGES, STEP.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 2.4. Describe the Initial Graphics Exchange Specification
(IGES) methodology.
Answer
1. The IGES is the most comprehensive standard and is designed to transmit
the entire product definition including that of manufacturing and any
other associated information.
2. In IGES, the records are present with 80 column fields, with columns 1
to 72 providing the data and columns 73 to 80 providing a sequence
number for the record with identification as to the location of the
sub-section. This sequence number is utilised as a pointer for the data.
3. The IGES file consists of the following 6 sub-sections :
CAD/CAM 2–5 A (ME-Sem-7)
a. Flag Section :
1. This is optional and is used to indicate the form in which the data is
specified. Originally, the initial versions contained the data in ASCII
format with a very detailed structure.
2. Now onwards, the format has been standardised in the following three
modes :
i. ASCII mode - default option,
ii. Binary form, and
iii. Compressed ASCII form.
b. Start Section :
1. This section contains a man readable prologue to the file.
2. The information contained in this section is essentially for the person
who would be postprocessing this for any other application.
3. Any number of lines can be contained in this section.
c. Global Section : This contains information about details of the product,
the person originating the product, name of the company originating it,
date, the details of the system which generated it, drafting standard
used and some information required for its postprocessing on the host
computer.
d. Directory Entry Section :
1. For each entity present in the drawing is fixed in size and contains 20
fields of 8 characters each.
2. It also contains the pointer to the parameter data section entry which
actually contains the requisite parameter data.
e. Parameter Data Section :
1. This contains the data associated with the entities. A free format is
allowed for maximum convenience.
2. It may contain any number of records.
f. Terminate Section : This contains the sub-totals of the records present
in each of the earlier sections. This always contains a single record.
Que 2.5. Describe the STEP methodology in detail.
Answer
1. Standard for the Exchange of Product Model Data (STEP), officially the
ISO standard 10303, Product Data Representation and Exchange, is a
series of international standards with the goal of defining data across
the full engineering and manufacturing life cycle.
2. The ability to share data across applications, across vendor platforms
and between contractors, suppliers and customers is the main goal of
this standard.
Graphics Standard & Data Storage 2–6 A (ME-Sem-7)
3. The broad scope of STEP is as follows :
i. The standard method of representing the information necessary
for completely defining a product throughout its entire life, i.e.,
from the product conception to the end of useful life.
ii. Standard methods for exchanging the data electronically between
two different systems.
4. The STEP documentation is split into following eight major areas :
a. Overview : It gives the general introduction and overview of the standard
and forms of the ISO standard 10303.
b. Description Methods : The application protocols planned in STEP are
far reaching compared to any other existing standard or models. Hence,
a new descriptive formal information modeling language called express
is developed so that the protocols can be properly defined.
c. Implementation Methods : This provides specifications as to how the
STEP information be physically represented for the exchange
environment. This, therefore, refers to the actual implementation levels.
d. Conformance and Tools : This part provides the specifications for
conformance testing of the processors used for STEP information. They
provide information on methods for testing of software product
conformance to the STEP standard, guidance for creating abstract-test
suites and the responsibilities of testing laboratories.
e. Integrated Generic Resources : These contain the specifications of
the information models that support various application areas that form
part of STEP. The topics that form part of this specification are: geometric
and topological representation, product structure organisation,
materials, visual presentation, tolerances, form features and process
structure and properties.
f. Application Information Models : These specify the information
models to be used for specific application areas such as draughting,
finite element analysis, kinematics, building core model and engineering
core analysis.
g. Application Protocols : These are the main protocols to be used as
subsets of STEP information model for exchange of data between specific
application systems.
h. Application Interpreted Constructs : These relate to the specific
resources for defining the generic structures useful for application.
PART-3
Manipulation of the Model, Model Storage.
CAD/CAM 2–7 A (ME-Sem-7)
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 2.6. What are the different techniques of manipulating a
model ?
Answer
Various techniques of manipulating a model are as follows :
i. Wire Frame Modeling : Refer Q. 1.21, Page 1–31A, Unit-1.
ii. Solid Modeling : Refer Q. 1.23, Page 1–32A, Unit-1.
iii. Surface Modeling : Refer Q. 1.24, Page 1–33A, Unit-1.
Que 2.7. What do you understand by model storage ? What are
the types of model storage ?
Answer
A. Model Storage : It describes the layout of a data structure in physical
storage. The physical storage can be a local disk, a removable media, or
storage accessible via the network.
B. Types of Model Storage : Following are the two types of model storage :
a. Cell Storage :
1. It assumes that the storage consists of cells of the same size and that
each object fits exactly in one cell.
2. This model reflects the physical organization of several storage media;
the primary memory of a computer is organized as an array of memory
cells and a secondary storage device, e.g., a disk, is organized in sectors
or blocks read and written as a unit.
3. Read/write coherence and before-or-after atomicity are two highly
desirable properties of any storage model, and in particular of cell storage.
b. Journal Storage :
1. It is a fairly elaborate organization for storing composite objects such as
records consisting of multiple fields.
2. Journal storage consists of a manager and a cell storage where the
entire history of a variable is maintained, rather than just the current
value.
3. The user does not have direct access to the cell storage, instead it can
request the journal manager to :
i. Start a new action,
ii. Read the value of a cell,
Graphics Standard & Data Storage 2–8 A (ME-Sem-7)
iii. Write the value of a cell,
iv. Commit an action, and
v. Abort an action.
4. The journal manager translates user requests to commands sent to the
cell storage.
PART-4
Introduction, Mesh Generation, Mesh Requirement.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 2.8. What do you mean by mesh generation ? What are the
various mesh generation techniques ?
Answer
A. Mesh Generation :
1. Mesh generation is basically discretizing the body into elements and
nodes.
2. To increase the accuracy of finite element of solution, we have to use
denser meshing. Specially in area where stress concentration is high
like sharp corners or near hole, dense meshing is carried out.
3. Mesh generation forms the back bone of the finite element analysis.
Mesh generation refers to the generation of nodal coordinates and
elements.
B. Mesh Generation Technique : There are two types of mesh generation
techniques :
a. Fully Automatic Process :
1. In this process, the data or input required is least to complete process
and mesh generation is carried out automatically.
2. The input required is generally type of element, number of nodes per
element, shape of boundary of part etc.
3. It is used for 3D objects only.
b. Semi Automatic Process :
1. In this process, the input required from user is more, which includes
number of region, density factor etc.
2. This process used for both 2D and 3D objects.
CAD/CAM 2–9 A (ME-Sem-7)
3. There are two methods under semi automatic approach :
i. Wire frame surface based approach.
ii. Solid modeling based approach.
Que 2.9. What are the basic requirements for mesh generation ?
Answer
Some of the basic requirements for mesh generation are as follows :
a. Nodal Locations :
1. Nodes must lie inside or on the boundaries of the geometric model to be
meshed.
2. Nodes that are very close to the boundaries must be pulled to lie on
them to accurately mesh the model.
3. Some generation methods offset (shrink) the model boundary by a
small amount , generate the nodes based on the offset boundary and
then pull the boundary nodes to the original boundary of the model.
b. Element Type and Shape :
1. It is desirable if various elements (large element library) can be generated
to provide users with the required flexibility to meet the compatibility
and completeness requirements.
c. Mesh Gradation :
1. This usually refers to mesh grading and density control.
2. Most often, objects on which FEA is performed may have holes or sharp
corners.
3. It is usually required that mesh density is increased around these regions
to capture the rapid change of the field variable.
4. Mesh gradation is usually encountered in transition region.
d. Mesh Conversion :
1. It may be desirable to convert a mesh of a given type of element to
another mesh of a different element type.
2. In two-dimensional meshes, for example, it is always possible to convert
a triangular element into three quadrilateral elements or combine two
triangular elements to produce a quadrilateral element.
3. Quadrilateral element mesh may be converted into a triangular element
mesh by splitting each quadrilateral into two triangles.
4. Mesh conversion must be done with care as poorly formed elements
may result.
e. Element Aspect Ratio :
1. For geometric invariance, it is important to keep the aspect ratio of any
element close to 1, i.e., all sides of an element are equal in length.
f. Mesh Geometry and Topology :
1. As the object to be meshed has geometry and topology, so does its mesh.
Graphics Standard & Data Storage 2–10 A (ME-Sem-7)
2. Mesh geometry refers to the coordinates of nodal points and the
connectivity information of elements.
3. Mesh topology refers to the mesh orientation relative to object topology.
4. Object topology always determines the mesh topology.
g. Compatibility with Representation Schemes :
1. A mesh generation method is inherently related to the type of geometric
model to be meshed whether it is a wireframe, surface, or solid model.
2. For example, generation methods based on wireframes or surfaces can
never be fully automatic due to their lack of topological information.
h. Cost Effectiveness :
1. The time it takes to generate the mesh and the time it takes to perform
the FEA are crucial.
2. To reduce both, it is important that the mesh generation method
optimizes the mesh and minimizes the number of nodes and elements
that comprise the mesh and yet meets the conversion requirements.
PART-5
Semi Automatic Methods : Node Based Approach, Region Based
Approach, Solid Modeling Based Method.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 2.10. Write a short note on following :
i. Node based approach, and
ii. Region based approach.
Answer
i. Node Based Approach :
1. Methods following this approach consider the nodes to be the primary
control factor of a mesh and therefore generate them first.
2. Then these nodes can be connected to form elements. Various types of
elements (e.g., triangular or quadrilateral for two-dimensional objects)
can be generated.
3. Element generation may be followed by a mesh refinement step, possibly
with element rearrangements, to produce a reasonable mesh.
4. The mesh refinement step can be avoided if all the nodes in the final
mesh are generated in compliance with mesh density specifications.
5. In such a case, the algorithm has only to consider how to connect the
nodes to form the best possible elements.
CAD/CAM 2–11 A (ME-Sem-7)
ii. Region Based Approach :
1. Most commercial mesh generators rely on this approach.
2. This approach requires subdividing the object to be meshed into patches
or regions with specific topologies.
3. Within each region, the mesh is generated automatically by mapping
the region into a regularized domain.
4. The total mesh is obtained by merging or piecing the individual meshed
regions together.
5. The common sides that neighboring regions share must have the same
number of nodes.
6. This requirement can be enforced manually or algorithmically while
generating the meshes of the neighboring regions.
Que 2.11. Explain the solid modeling based method.
Answer
1. In solid modeling, both node-based and region-based approaches are
applicable.
2. Delaunay triangulation is an appropriate method to use with solid models.
3. It ensure the correct representation of the boundary of the solid,
approximates a curved face by a set of planar polygons.
4. Similarly, transfinite mapping can be applied to solids.
5. First, faces of the solid must be extracted, divided and grouped into valid
regions.
6. Also, recursive subdivision can be utilized in meshing solids.
7. Another region-based method which is solely developed for solid models
is hyperpatch decomposition.
8. To mesh a solid with hyperpatch method, the solid must be decomposed
into hyperpatches.
Fully Automatic Methods : Element Based Approach, Applications.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Element Based Approach : Element based approach is the solids’
counterpart to the region based approach. However, methods utilizing
the element based approach discretize the solids’ domain into a set of
valid elements directly without having to subdivide the domain into
region first.
Applications : Fully automatic methods are used in design and
engineering problems.
Graphics Standard & Data Storage 2–12 A (ME-Sem-7)
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 2.12. Explain in detail the various methods of element based
approach.
Answer
Various methods of element based approach are as follows :
a. Modified Quadtree Method :
1. In the quadtree encoding, the object of interest is placed inside a square
with an integer coordinate system attached to it at one of its corners, as
shown in Fig. 2.12.1(a). This square is called the universe square.
2. The length of the side of this square in the integer space is 2n, where n
is the tree subdivision level.
3. To decompose the object, the universe square is divided into four squares
or quadrants. Each quadrant is then checked against the object to see if
it is inside the object (full), outside the object (empty), or if part of it is
inside and part is outside (partial).
4. Homogeneous quadrants require no further subdivisions while each
partial quadrant (parent) is further divided into four quadrants (siblings).
5. These new four quadrants are tested as above and this process of
subdivision continues until all the quadrants have the status of “full” or,
practically, until a specified resolution level (tree level) is reached.
6. Fig. 2.12.1(a) shows a quadtree representation of an object with its
related tree.
7. The quadtree storage array (integer tree) shown is based on the quadrant
numbering system (0, 1, 2, 3) shown for any four quadrant siblings and
on choosing the numbers 0, 1 and 2 to represent “empty,” “partial,” and
“full” respectively.
(Universe square) Level 0
0 1 2 3
Level 3
Empty Partial Full
Fig. 2.12.1(a). Quadtree.
CAD/CAM 2–13 A (ME-Sem-7)
b. Octree Method :
1. In the octree encoding, the object of interest is placed inside a universe
cut with its attached integer coordinate system as shown in Fig. 2.12.2(b).
2. Here, the cube is divided into eight subdivisions or octants.
3. Each octant is classified against the object and each “partial” octant
(parent) is subdivided into eight suboctants (siblings), which, in turn,
are classified.
(Universe cube) Level 0
Octree
Fig. 2.12.2(b). Octree encoding.
4. Once a given resolution is achieved, the octree encoding of the given
object is complete and stored in an octree and its corresponding array.
5. The octant numbering system (0, 1, 2, 3,4, 5, 6, 7) for any eight octant
siblings is shown in Fig. 2.12.2(b).
6. The mapping between the integer space and the cartesian is established
if the solid modeler utilizing the encoding provides the size (length of the
side) of the universe unit (square or cube) and the coordinates of either
its center or one of its corners.
c. Tetrahedral Decomposition Method :
1. This method is sometimes referred to as a topological based method.
2. We describe an algorithm for dividing an arbitrary polyhedron with or
without holes into tetrahedral elements.
3. The algorithm first decomposes a polyhectral object into tetrahedral
elements without adding new vertices to the geometric model. Then it
refines the resulting elements by further subdividing them.
4. Two mesh operators have been developed to achieve the first step.
5. The first operator is used to slice a corner, from the solid that must be
convex and trivalent, that is, has three edges.
6. The second operator is used to dig out a tetrahedron from a convex edge
if the remaining polyhedron (after applying the first operator) does not
have a convex trivalent vertex.
Graphics Standard & Data Storage 2–14 A (ME-Sem-7)
Use first operator Use first operator
Use first operator Use second operator
Fig. 2.12.2. Tetrahedral decomposition of a block.
PART-7
Mesh Refinements using Isoperimetric Finite Elements.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Mesh Refinement : It is the process of editing finite element meshes
in order to increase the accuracy of the solution.
Isoperimetric Finite Elements : These are the elements that can
be easily transformed from some local coordinates to global coordinates.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 2.13. What are the various methods of mesh refinement ?
Answer
Following are the various methods of mesh refinement :
a. H-method :
1. This method increases the number of elements and hence decreases
the element size while keeping the polynomial order of the shape function
constant.
CAD/CAM 2–15 A (ME-Sem-7)
2. This method is primarily based on the choice of characteristic length of
the elements. Characteristic length is referred to in a generalized sense
and is required to define the element topologically.
3. A linear element requires one characteristic length, whereas an element
of rectangular shape requires two characteristic lengths and a triangular
element requires three characteristic lengths for its definition.
4. The set of elements with large values of residues is the region that
needs to be refined.
5. The identified region can be refined by sub-dividing the elements, thus
creating new regions, or by deleting all the elements in the region and
replacing them by finer elements.
6. However, the new elements need to be of the same type as those in the
initial mesh.
7. The equations of the new model are solved and the residues are
computed. If the values of the residues are still large, the refinement
procedure can be repeated.
b. P-method :
1. This method is primarily based on the choice of the order of the
interpolation function, which in practice, translates to the choice of
element type.
2. For example, in a two dimensional domain, the basic triangular element
with three nodes at the three vertices uses a linear shape function.
3. In order to choose quadratic shape functions, the triangular element
with six nodes, three at the vertices and three at mid-side locations, has
to be selected. Similarly, for cubic functions, an element with nine nodes
is selected.
4. Higher order elements generally provide better description of the domain
geometrically. They are particularly useful in regions where the use of
lower order elements would result in a mesh with poor aspect ratios in
those elements.
5. From the point of view of solution accuracy, higher order elements are
usually more accurate than the lower order elements.
c. R-method :
1. It is a far less explored method. It neither increases the polynomial
order nor decreases the element character length.
2. The mesh is refined simply by re-distributing the nodes in the domain
such that the potential energy is reduced.
PART-8
Meshing in High Gradient Area, Transition Region,
Sub Modeling Concept.
Graphics Standard & Data Storage 2–16 A (ME-Sem-7)
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 2.14. Write various steps of meshing in high gradient area.
Answer
1. First, determine if there are any symmetries and divide the geometry in
the CAD system as appropriate. Look for geometric symmetries, but be
sure that the flow will be symmetric as well.
2. Determine if the analysis can be modeled as a 2D or an axisymmetric
geometry. A 2D approximation may be a good place to start, especially if
we are unsure of how to solve a particular type of flow problem.
3. Examine the geometry, identifying probable high and low gradient
regions for all solution variables.
4. Identify solid material zones and fluid zones and keep them as separate
geometric entities or parts.
5. If there are areas with small, repeating geometric details (such as
perforated plates or baffles), replace with distributed resistances to model
these zones, instead of meshing the detail.
6. Assign mesh sizes to all volumes in the model, and then apply finer sizes
to surfaces and edges where necessary in order to capture strong flow
gradients or to represent complicated geometric features.
7. Perform an analysis on a coarse mesh (no more than 50,000 nodes) to
qualitatively assess the flow features present and identify meshing needs
in high gradient regions without a severe time penalty.
8. Looking at the results on the coarse mesh, refine the mesh in the high
gradient regions.
9. To ensure that the final solution is not “mesh-dependent”, compare the
two solutions from the coarse and fine meshes. If they are substantially
different, then it is a good idea to construct a mesh that has at least 10 %
fewer nodes than the fine mesh, obtain a solution and compare.
10. The idea is to have two meshes that vary in number of nodes by 10 % or
more and that give the same solution. This solution is then said to be
“mesh-independent”.
Que 2.15. What is the methodology used in meshing of transition
region ?
Answer
Our methodology in meshing of transition region is follows :
CAD/CAM 2–17 A (ME-Sem-7)
1. First of all, we define a reference solution that is obtained for a given
problem using a model with a uniformly fine mesh over the entire
region.
2. The reference solution is used instead of exact solution, then solution
procedure for each model including transition region is executed. And
each solution is compared with the reference one.
3. Now meshing in transition region can be done by using following three
techniques :
i. Primitive Meshing : In this, the transition region is filled up with the
combination of trapezoidal or irregular shaped four node elements.
ii. Direct Joint Technique : This method introduces some constraint
equations among the related variables in order to retain compatibility of
inter element displacement.
iii. Five Node Element : In this method, special transition five node
elements are arranged in the transition region.
Que 2.16. What do you understand by submodeling concept ?
Answer
1. Submodeling utilizes two separate models. A full or global model
representing the entire structure used to transform global loads to local
deformation.
2. The submodel includes the local geometric details with an appropriate
mesh density. The submodeling algorithm then interpolates the
deformation from the global model to the submodel "cut boundaries"
and solves for the local stress state.
3. This method typically requires extensive planning and documentation
of the workflow, especially if many submodels and numerous load cases
are involved. In addition, setup of a submodel may take considerable
time.
4. The submodeling technique may be combined with the ANSYS
workbench geometry handling and process documentation.
5. Thus, a workflow can be presented that covers the whole process from
CAD to fatigue analysis in following five steps :
Step 1 : Build/import the model from CAD.
Step 2 : Mesh and solve the global model.
Step 3 : Analyze the global model to identify critical spots.
Step 4 : Generate the submodel from CAD data and mesh.
Step 5 : Interpolate boundary conditions from the global model to the
submodel and solve.
PART-9
An Overview of Modeling Software Like Pro-E, CATIA,
I-DEAS, SOLID EDGE etc.
Graphics Standard & Data Storage 2–18 A (ME-Sem-7)
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 2.17. Give a brief introduction of Pro-E. Also write down its
some commands.
Answer
A. Pro-E :
1. Pro-E provides excellent platform to create assemblies.
2. Models or components made in part module can be assembled one by
one to create complete assembly.
3. The commands for orienting and assembling parts with respect to each
other are: mate align, orient and insert.
4. This module is often used by automobile manufacturers to create
complete automobile assembly or sub assemblies such as engine
subassembly.
5. Pro-Engineer as solid modeler is very popular because of its user friendly
features some of which are discussed as follows :
i. Utilizing advanced interactive graphics, Pro-E is simple yet powerful
tool and can create highly complex models having complicated profiles.
ii. A complete solid model is made by adding one feature at a time. Features
such as datum planes, sweep, blend, pattern, copy, cut, hole, etc and
many more are available. Hence, by adding one feature at a time, complex
shapes can be generated.
iii. The software is parametric in nature.
iv. It makes use of parent child relationship to maintain the design intent
during the modeling process.
v. Various modules of Pro-E are associative.
B. Pro-E Commands :
Some commands for Pro-E are as follows :
a. Solid Protrusion : It is used for creating thick protrusions such as
creating a cuboid from a rectangular section or creating a cylinder from
a circular section.
b. Thin Protrusion : It is used for creating protrusions of thin sections.
CAD/CAM 2–19 A (ME-Sem-7)
c. Extrude : A cut or protrusion can be created by extruding a section over
desired thickness.
d. Revolve : Cylindrical features can be created by using this command.
e. Sweep : In this command, a section is swept along a specified path to
create a complete feature. The section of the feature remains the same
along the entire path.
f. Variable Section Sweep : This command is same as sweep but it also
allows for changing the section over the path whenever desired.
g. Helical Sweep : This command is used for sweeping a section along a
helical path. Thus it is used to make helical springs, helical threads or
other similar shapes.
Que 2.18. Give a brief introduction of CATIA. What are its
advantages ?
Answer
A. CATIA :
1. CATIA (Computer Aided Three Dimensional Interactive Application) is
a multiplatform CAD/CAM, CAE commercial software developed by
French Dassault Systems and marketed world-wide by IBM. It is written
in C++ programming language.
2. CATIA supports multiple stages of product development, including
conceptualization, design (CAD), engineering (CAE) and manufacturing
(CAM).
3. CATIA facilitates collaborative engineering across disciplines around its
3D experience platform, including surfacing and shape design, electrical,
fluid and electronic systems design, mechanical engineering and systems
engineering.
B. Advantages of CATIA :
1. It is very user friendly software.
2. From any different software we can import models and can be converted
to CATIA features.
3. It has a powerful rendering option to make the object realistic.
4. Developed to use in the aerospace, automotive, shipbuilding and other
industries to design all types of rich and complex design.
5. Dynamic view can be store to define different motion in kinematic.
6. Bi-directional associativity between assembly, modeling and drafting.
Graphics Standard & Data Storage 2–20 A (ME-Sem-7)
Que 2.19. Write a short note on I-DEAS.
Answer
1. I-DEAS (Integrated Design and Engineering Analysis Software), is a
computer aided design software package.
2. I-DEAS software can be used to automate the management of product
related data and integrate the data with other business processes such
as enterprise resource planning (ERP) and manufacturing execution
systems (MES).
3. I-DEAS was used primarily in the automotive industry.
4. Following are the application of I-DEAS :
i. Mechanical engineering works.
ii. Fashion industry.
iii. Electronics.
iv. Small production industry.
v. Retail business.
Que 2.20. Describe modeling software SOLID EDGE. Write down
its salient features.
Answer
A. SOLID EDGE :
1. Solid Edge is a 3D-CAD, parametric feature and synchronous technology
solid modeling software.
2. Solid Edge is the most proficient, hybrid 2D/3D design system in the
market fast and easy with synchronous technology, designing assemblies
and fast and easy managing workflow. In fact, design times can be up to
100x faster than the competition.
3. It runs on Microsoft Windows and provides solid modeling, assembly
modeling and 2D orthographic view functionality for mechanical
designers.
4. Solid Edge brought a new data management capability that leverages
the Windows file indexing service to add basic data management
functionality without the need for an additional server or set-up.
5. Solid Edge provides support for finite element analysis (FEA).
CAD/CAM 2–21 A (ME-Sem-7)
B. Salient Features :
i. Reuse Design on the Spot : Make quick changes to models regardless
of the authoring source, and directly edit/change imported geometry.
ii. Directly Interact with our Model : 39 % of designers struggle with
model creation. Synchronous technology has the ability to eliminate
this problem.
iii. Redesign with No Model Regeneration : Make changes without our
model regenerating. Leverage Solid Edge’s live to capture design intent.
iv. Design without Pre-Planning : Accelerate our design process by
using a history free environment. Each part is independent of all others.
CAD/CAM 3–1 A (ME-Sem-7)
3 CAM and Material
Handling in CAM
Environment
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Scope and Applications, NC in CAM ........ 3–2A to 3–5A
Part-2 : Principal Types of CNC Machine .............. 3–5A to 3–6A
Tools and their Construction Features
Part-3 : Tooling for CNC ........................................... 3–6A to 3–7A
Part-4 : ISO Designation for Tooling ..................... 3–7A to 3–8A
Part-5 : CNC Operating System : FANUC, ........ 3–9A to 3–10A
SINUMERIK, LINUMERIK
Part-6 : Programming for CNC Machining ....... 3–10A to 3–11A
Part-7 : Coordinate System .................................. 3–11A to 3–13A
Part-8 : Manual Part Programming .................... 3–13A to 3–14A
Part-9 : Computer Assisted Part ......................... 3–15A to 3–16A
Programming
Part-10 : CNC Part Programming with CAD ...... 3–16A to 3–16A
System
Part-11 : Material Handling in CAM ..................... 3–16A to 3–19A
Environment, Types, AGVS, AS/RS
Part-12 : Swarf Handling and Disposal of ........... 3–19A to 3–21A
Wastes
Part-13 : Single and Mixed Mode .......................... 3–21A to 3–22A
Assembly Lines
Part-14 : Quantitative Analysis of ......................... 3–22A to 3–24A
Assembly Systems
CAM & Material Handling in CAM Environment 3–2 A (ME-Sem-7)
PART-1
Scope and Applications, NC in CAM.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
CAM : It can be defined as the use of computer system to plan, manage
and control the operations of a manufacturing plant through either
direct or indirect computer interface with the plant’s production
resources.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 3.1. What are the scope and applications of CAM ?
Answer
A. Scope of CAM :
1. To increase productivity.
2. To create manufacturing database.
3. To help in production and scheduling.
4. To improve communications.
B. Applications of CAM : The applications of computer aided
manufacturing fall into following two broad categories :
a. Computer Monitoring and Control : These are the direct
applications in which the computer is connected directly to the
manufacturing process for the purpose of monitoring or controlling the
process.
b. Manufacturing Support Applications :
1. These are the indirect applications in which the computer is used in
support of the production operations in the plant.
2. But there is no direct interface between the computer and the
manufacturing process.
3. Some examples of CAM for manufacturing support are as follows :
i. Numerical Control Part Programming by Computers : Control
programs are prepared for automated machine tools.
ii. Computer Automated Process Planning : The computer prepares
a list of the operation sequence required to process a particular product
or component.
CAD/CAM 3–3 A (ME-Sem-7)
iii. Computer Generated Work Standards : The computer determines
the time standard for a particular production operation.
iv. Production Scheduling : The computer determines an appropriate
schedule for meeting production requirements.
v. Material Requirements Planning : The computer is used to
determine when to order raw materials and purchased components and
how many should be ordered to achieve the production schedule.
vi. Shop Floor Control : In this CAM application, data are collected from
the factor to determine progress of the various production shop orders.
Que 3.2. What do you understand by NC in CAM ? Also write
down advantages of NC machines.
Answer
A. NC in CAM :
1. Numerical control (NC) can be defined simply as control by numbers.
2. According to Electronics Industries Association, EIA, NC can be defined
as, “a system in which actions are controlled by the direct insertion of
numerical data at some point”.
3. In NC, the numbers form a program of instructions designed for a
particular workpart or job. When the job changes, the program of
instruction changes.
4. NC machine tools are thus automated production machines.
5. NC is expected to serve one or more of the following functions :
i. Starting and stopping of the machine tool spindle.
ii. Controlling the speed of tool spindle.
iii. Positioning the tool tip at desired locations.
iv. Guiding the tool tip along desired paths and controlling its rate of
movement.
v. Changing of tools in the spindle.
B. Advantages :
1. Higher productivity.
2. Higher precision.
3. Lower costs of production.
4. Flexibility in manufacturing.
Que 3.3. Discuss basic components of an NC system.
Answer
The basic components of NC machine are as follows :
CAM & Material Handling in CAM Environment 3–4 A (ME-Sem-7)
a. Machine Control Unit :
1. It is the brain of an NC machine.
2. Every NC machine is fitted with a machine control unit (MCU) which is
not found in conventional machines.
3. The MCU consists of necessary hardware and software that reads and
interprets the part program in order to obtain the mechanical action of
machine tools or other engineering equipment.
Control
panel
Data decoding Auxillary
and control area functions
To machine
Tape M , S , T word
Buffer tool
reader area
Feed rate Servo area
control Interpolator (feedback for To machine
area velocity & position) tool
Fig. 3.3.1. Schematic diagram of machine control unit.
4. The MCU is usually housed in a separate cabinet placed close to the
machine or it can be like a pendant that can swing around.
5. MCU can control the tool path, spindle speed, feed rate, depth of cut and
other machining parameters.
b. Part Program :
1. The part program is a program of instructions that defines cutting tool
path, spindle speed, feed rate, tool changes, coolant on/off and several
other functions of machine tool that can be automatically controlled.
2. The commands also define the position of machine tool spindle or the
cutting tool with respect to the work table on which the workpiece is
fixtured.
3. There are several mediums using which the part program can be entered
into MCU.
4. Initially for several decades a one inch wide punched tape was used. It is
a long strip of paper, mylar, mylar coated aluminum, reinforced paper or
plastic.
5. It contains part program in form of holes.
6. Now a days, the common medium to transfer part program to MCU of
NC machine are magnetic cassettes and floppy discs.
7. The part program can also be saved directly into the machine memory.
An NC machine does not have an onboard computer, but they are
usually equipped with memory to store part programs.
CAD/CAM 3–5 A (ME-Sem-7)
c. Processing Equipment or Machine Tool :
1. This is another important component of NC equipment because this is
the component that performs useful work.
2. For example, in an NC lathe, the processing equipment is the usual
lathe machine (excluding MCU) which performs the actual machining
operation.
fed to Machine runs Machine
Part program
control unit tool
Fig. 3.3.2. A typical NC system.
PART-2
Principal types of CNC Machine Tools and their
Constructional Features.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 3.4. What are the different types of CNC machine tools ?
Explain in detail.
Answer
Following are the some CNC machine tools :
a. CNC Milling Tool :
1. It translates programs consisting of specific numbers and letters to move
the spindle (or workpiece) to various locations and depths.
2. Its Functions include face milling, shoulder milling, tapping, drilling and
some even offer turning.
b. CNC Lathe Tool :
1. It cuts workpieces while they are rotated. Makes fast, precision cuts,
generally using indexable tools and drills.
2. Effective for complicated programs designed to make parts that would
be infeasible to make on manual lathes
c. Plasma Cutter :
1. It involves cutting a material using a plasma torch.
2. Commonly used to cut steel and other metals, but can be used on a
variety of materials.
CAM & Material Handling in CAM Environment 3–6 A (ME-Sem-7)
3. The plasma is sufficiently hot to melt the material being cut and moves
sufficiently fast to blow molten metal away from the cut.
d. Water Jet Cutter :
1. It is a tool capable of slicing into metal or other materials (such as
granite) by using a jet of water at high velocity and pressure, or a
mixture of water and an abrasive substance, such as sand.
2. It is often used during fabrication or manufacture of parts for machinery
and other devices.
e. CNC Drilling Cutter : CNC drilling cutter are used for production
drilling of holes different coordinate positions in workpieces with
automatic cycles consisting of X-Y positioning, rapid approach of tool to
workpiece, drilling with required feed rate to the required depth and
rapid retraction of tool.
f. CNC Grinding Tool : CNC has been successfully applied to all types
of grinding machines. The workpiece size control is achieved by some
method of automatic wheel wear compensation included in the grinding
cycle or through an interactive in-process gauging system which is
interfaced with the wheel in-feed drive.
g. CNC Press Brakes :
1. A press brake is basically a sheet bending machine.
2. CNC systems of press brakes provide interactive help for programming.
3. A tool library is also provided. Simulation capability in the programming
software helps in the development of correct programs.
PART-3
Tooling for CNC.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 3.5. What are the design features of CNC tooling ?
Answer
In general the following points are to be considered while designing of
CNC tooling :
1. It should give high accuracy.
2. It should be able to perform variety of operations.
3. Interchangeability to produce same accuracy.
CAD/CAM 3–7 A (ME-Sem-7)
4. Flexibility.
5. Rigidity of tooling to withstand cutting forces.
6. Rigidity to transmit the power at higher speeds.
7. Quick changing of tools to keep the down time minimum.
Que 3.6. Classify tooling for CNC.
Answer
Tooling for CNC can be classified as follows :
a. On the Basis of Setting up of Cutting Tool :
1. Preset tools,
2. Qualified tools, and
3. Semi qualified tools.
b. On the Basis of Cutting Tool Construction :
1. Solid tools,
2. Brazed tools, and
3. Inserted bit tools.
c. On the Basis of Cutting Tool Material :
1. High speed steel (HSS),
2. High carbon tool steel (HCS),
3. Cast alloy,
4. Cemented carbide,
5. Ceramics, and
6. Boron Nitride.
PART-4
ISO Designation for Tooling.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 3.7. Explain in brief ISO coding system for turning tools and
tool holders.
Answer
1. To have adequate rigidity, as well as high spindle speeds, tools for CNC
machines are generally made of cemented carbide or tungsten carbide
with indexable insert type.
CAM & Material Handling in CAM Environment 3–8 A (ME-Sem-7)
2. In order to make an easy selection of various types of inserts available,
it is necessary to understand ISO coding systems for these.
3. ISO coding system for tungsten carbide tool inserts is shown in
Fig. 3.7.1, and ISO coding system for tungsten carbide turning tool
holders is shown in Fig. 3.7.2.
Insert clearance angle
N–0°
B–5° Cutting edge
C–7° length
T N M G 22 04 08
Insert Shape Tolerance Insert Type Insert Nose
Thickness Radius
T – Triangle G = ± 0.001 A–With hole 4-0.4 mm
S – Square M = ± 0.002 G–Clamp on with 8-0.8 mm
R – Round U = ± 0.005 chip breaker 12-1.2 mm
C – Diamond 80° M–Hole and 16-1.6 mm
D – Diamond 55° special features 24-2.4 mm
V – Diamond 35°
Fig. 3.7.1. ISO coding system for tungsten carbide
tool inserts used in turning.
Clamping system
C–Top clamping Insert
D–Rigid clamping clearance angle
M–Top and hole clamping N–0° Cutting
P–Hole clamping B–5° Shank Shank edge
S–Screw clamping C–7° height width length
P C L N R 16 16 H 09
Insert Shape Holder Style Hand of Tool Tool Length
T – Triangle A–Straight shank 0° SCEA R–Right H–100 S–250
S – Square B–Straight shank 15° SCEA L–Left K–125 T–300
R – Round D–Straight shank 45° SCEA N–Neutral M–150 U–350
C – Diamond 80° E–Straight shank 30° SCEA P–170 V–400
D – Diamond 55° F–Offset shank 0° ECEA Q–180 W–450
V – Diamond 35° K–Offset shank 15° ECEA R–200 Y–500
L–Offset shank 5° SCEA
M–Straight shank 40° SCEA
Fig. 3.7.2. ISO coding system for tungsten carbide turning tool holders.
CAD/CAM 3–9 A (ME-Sem-7)
PART-5
CNC Operating System : FANUC, SINUMERIK, LINUMERIK.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 3.8. Discuss CNC operating system FANUC.
Answer
1. Each generation of the FANUC numerical control system has different
levels of device control capabilities, and these are generally referred to
by a model or series number.
2. Each controller model is typically available with several device control
capabilities, depending on what software functions are licensed for use
on that device. Some common control capabilities are :
i. M - Milling
ii. T - Turning (lathe)
iii. TT - Twin Turret
iv. P - Punch press
v. G - Grinding
3. Within each model name, there can also be generational updates for
each model usually indicated by a trailing letter.
4. Model 0 is somewhat unusual in that both the number zero and the
letter O are used interchangeably to indicate the model.
5. There is no specific syntax for distinguishing the model from the device
type and series, with spaces or dashes or slashes, which can result in
difficulty searching for information, parts and service for this equipment.
6. When separate computer aided manufacturing software is used to control
these different systems, the model differences can be used to tell the
manufacturing software how to more efficiently use the system
programming capabilities.
Que 3.9. Explain in detail about SINUMERIK with its features.
Answer
A. SINUMERIK :
1. SINUMERIK combines automation, technology competence and
digitalization to form a unique range of solutions, thus increasing the
productivity.
CAM & Material Handling in CAM Environment 3–10 A (ME-Sem-7)
2. SINUMERIK CNC systems are the optimum solution for individual
parts or mass production, for simple or complex workpieces.
3. The SINUMERIK CNC supports the file systems FAT16 and FAT32 for
compact flash cards.
4. Data structure of SINUMERIK operate for all files are saved on the
compact flash card or on the hard disk
5. The directory structure comprises the following directories :
i. Addon,
ii. Compat,
iii. Oem,
iv. Siemens, and
v. User.
6. These directories have essentially an identical structure.
B. Features of SINUMERIK :
1. Compact and rugged.
2. Optimized for basic turning and milling applications.
3. Ideal for entry level machine operators.
4. Bench mark for open architecture.
5. Modular and scalable.
PART-6
Programming for CNC Machining.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 3.10. Write a short note on CNC programming.
Answer
1. CNC programming is a term that refers to the methods for generating
the instructions that drive the CNC machine tool.
2. For two dimensional components with little geometric complexity, CNC
instructions can be written manually.
CAD/CAM 3–11 A (ME-Sem-7)
3. However, as the geometrical complexity increases more sophisticated
techniques are required, particularly for 3-axis, 4-axis and 5-axis CNC
machining.
4. There are distinct techniques adopted for creating CNC programs which
are as follows :
i. Manual CNC Programming : It is recommended for simple workpieces
which require only a few blocks of program.
ii. Programming us ing CAM Software (CAD/CAM Based
Programming Systems) : Programming of complex workpieces
requires the help of a CAM software. CAD/CAM based systems have
become popular recently and are now being widely adopted.
Coordinate Systems.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 3.11. Discuss in short about the coordinate system in
numerical control.
Answer
1. The basic of all machining is the cartesian coordinate system.
2. Most commonly it is two axis and three axis coordinate system.
3. Fig. 3.11.1 and Fig. 3.11.2 gives typical two axis coordinate system and
three axis coordinate system.
+Y
–X +X
O
–Y
Fig. 3.11.1. Two axis coordinate system.
CAM & Material Handling in CAM Environment 3–12 A (ME-Sem-7)
+Z
–X
+Y
O
–Y +X
–Z
Fig. 3.11.2. Three axis coordinate system.
4. One could use the right hand coordinate system to specify the coordinate.
5. The two axis coordinate system is also known as 2-dimensional coordinate
system and three axis coordinate system is also known as 3-dimensional
coordinate system.
6. The standard 2-dimensional coordinate system divides the space into 4
subspaces, called quadrants.
7. These are labelled as I, II, III and IV, respectively in counter clockwise
direction. The 2-dimensional cartesian coordinate quadrants is shown
Fig. 3.11.3.
8. These axes and their designations are used for prismatic motions.
9. The rotary motion is also represented by right hand.
10. When the thumb indicates the positive direction of coordinate axis then
the curved finger indicates positive direction of rotation. This is illustrated
in Fig. 3.11.4.
11. The coordinate system utilized in numerical control assumes that
workpiece is stationary and tool is moving relative to it.
12. This coordinate system can be used for operations like drill, press, boring,
milling, turning etc.
+Y
II Quadrant I Quadrant
(–X, +Y ) (+ X, + Y)
–X +X
O
III Quadrant IV Quadrant
(– X, – Y) (+ X, – Y)
–Y
Fig. 3.11.3. Two dimensional cartesian coordinate quadrants.
CAD/CAM 3–13 A (ME-Sem-7)
(+X, +Y, +Z)
Directions
(+A, +B , +C)
Directions
Fig. 3.11.4. Positive direction of rotary motion.
PART-8
Manual Part Programming.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 3.12. Write short notes on manual part programming with
example. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
Answer
1. In manual part programming, the part programming process is
performed manually.
2. In manual part programming the programmer decides the block of
instructions which are generally the steps required to be performed on
the material so as to transform it from raw material to finished part.
3. These blocks of instructions are written in predefined coded form. This
form is called ‘manuscript’.
4. The manuscript is available in three different formats. These are as
follows :
a. Word Address Format :
1. In this format the data is alphanumeric.
2. It consists of address character in alphabets and its data information in
the form of numerical digits.
3. The standard word address format includes various words like : N-word,
G-word, X-word, Y-word, Z-word, F-word, S-word, T-word, M-word,
etc.
CAM & Material Handling in CAM Environment 3–14 A (ME-Sem-7)
4. Some of the address characters in word address format are modal and
some are nonmodal.
5. The modal code signifies that it remains effective during all sequence of
commands once it had been assigned during execution of program. It
can only be cancelled or modified by another modal code.
6. The nonmodal code on the other hand remains effective only for a
particular block of instruction in which it occurs.
b. Tab Sequential Format :
1. In this format, the NC words are written in fixed standard sequence
each word being separated by processing tab key.
2. Since the words are written in the standard sequence, address letter (N,
G, X, Y,... etc.) are not required.
3. If the numerical data of a word remains the same as in the previous
block, it need not be repeated in the subsequent block.
c. Fixed Block Format :
1. NC words in this format should be written in a standard sequence.
2. Address letters are not required.
3. Even if numerical data of the words remain same as in the previous
block, it must repeated in the subsequently block.
4. The character within each NC word must be of same length and format.
Que 3.13. Explain different types of formats used for writing
manual part programs. Which type of format should be preferred ?
Justify.
Answer
A. Different Formats of Manual Part Programming : Refer Q. 3.12,
Page 3-13A, Unit-3.
B. Justification for Preferred Format :
1. Word address format is preferably used for preparing the manuscript of
the NC part programming.
2. The reasons for the preference of word address format are :
i. It is less time consuming, as there is no need to write every word again
and again if it remains unchanged in subsequent blocks.
ii. It saves memory as there is comparatively lesser data as in fixed block
format and tab sequential format.
iii. Data can be entered in any sequence as every numerical data prefixed
by corresponding alphabet which has meaning for its unique function.
CAD/CAM 3–15 A (ME-Sem-7)
PART-9
Computer Assisted Part Programming.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 3.14. Explain computer assisted part programming. Also,
discuss the role of part programmer.
Answer
A. Computer Assisted Part Programming :
1. Most parts machined on NC systems are considerably more complex.
2. In the more complicated point-to-point jobs and in contouring
applications, manual part programming becomes an extremely tedious
work and subject to errors.
3. In these situations it is much more appropriate to employ the high-
speed digital computer to assist in the part programming process.
4. The computer assisted part programming paradigm provides a large
amount of significant benefits.
5. The first reason for assistance of digital computer is the increasing
complexity and frequent design change of workpiece and this is one of
the prime benefits of computer assisted part programming.
6. The other benefits extended by computer assisted part programming
are as follows :
i. Speed and accuracy of digital computer system is much more than
conventional means.
ii. Series of calculations which may be repetitive and complex can be
done efficiently by digital computer.
iii. Ability to generate NC programming codes.
iv. Ability to give plot of cutter path with respect to workpiece.
B. Role of Part Programmer :
1. In the computer assisted part programming environment, the specific
task had been assigned to part programmer.
2. The role of part programmer can be broadly categorized as follows :
a. Geometry Definition : In this the programmer defines geometry
diagrammatically in the engineering drawing.
CAM & Material Handling in CAM Environment 3–16 A (ME-Sem-7)
b. Tool Path Specification : The part programmer second job is to
define and construct the path that the cutter should follow during
machining of the component.
c. Program Entry : The final task of the part programmer is to
enter the part program in the computer.
PART-10
CNC Part Programming with CAD System.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 3.15. What are the various steps of CNC part programming
with CAD ?
Answer
Following are the various steps of CNC part programming with CAD :
Step 1 : Creating stock and setting up the machine files.
Step 2 : Orient the part for machining.
Step 3 : Machining the angled open pockets.
Step 4 : Machining the side wall cut out.
Step 5 : Create a new machine group.
Step 6 : Machine the open pockets on the left end.
PART-11
Material Handling in CAM Environment, Types, AGVS, AS/RS.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Material Handling : It is defined as the movement, storage, protection
and control of materials throughout the manufacturing and distribution
process including their consumption and disposal.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
CAD/CAM 3–17 A (ME-Sem-7)
Que 3.16. What are various types of material handling devices ?
Answer
Various types of material handling devices are as follows :
a. Industrial Trucks :
1. These are a large variety of powered and non-powered equipment used
for transporting material and equipment on the shop floor.
2. This class of equipment includes fork-lift trucks, hand carts, and tractor
trailer rigs.
3. Trucks are normally driven by a human operator and are useful for
intermittent moves over varying paths but require adequate aisles.
b. Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs) :
1. These are battery powered, driverless vehicles for automatic transport
of parts and tooling on the shop floor.
2. These move on fixed paths laid underneath the factory floor and transport
material from the workstations to storage locations, etc.
c. Conveyors :
1. These can be used for moving materials over a fixed path to specified
locations.
2. It transports materials of relatively uniform size and weight with
moderate to high frequency.
3. Conveyors can be used to move material, as well as position fixture for
workers along a production line.
d. Cranes and Hoists :
1. These are overhead lifting devices that are often used for intermittent
movement of large and heavier equipment within a fixed space.
2. Hoists lift material vertically while suspended from a hook.
3. Cranes move horizontally over guide rails with the product being
suspended from a hoist when the crane moves.
Que 3.17. What is a automated guided vehicle ? Also write down
its various types.
Answer
A. Automated Guided Vehicle :
1. The automated guided vehicle (AGV) is a programmable mobile vehicle
without the need of human intervention.
2. An AGV is a vehicle equipped with automatic guidance equipment, either
electromagnetic or optical.
CAM & Material Handling in CAM Environment 3–18 A (ME-Sem-7)
3. Such a vehicle is capable of following prescribed guide paths and may be
equipped for vehicle programming and stop selection, blocking and any
other special functions required by the system.
4. These are basically driverless vehicles and work generally in fixed routes
that are laid on the factory floor.
5. AGVs are used for workpiece distribution and transferring them from
stores to shop/assembly line. They are sometimes also called robocarts.
6. The main parts of an AGV are :
i. Structure,
ii. Drive system,
iii. Steering mechanism,
iv. Power source, battery, and
v. Onboard computer for control.
B. Types of AGVs : A number of AGV types are available to cater to the
variety of functions. They are :
1. AGVs towing vehicles.
2. AGVs unit load vehicles.
3. AGVs pallet trucks.
4. AGVs fork trucks.
5. Light load vehicles.
6. AGVs assembly line vehicles.
Que 3.18. Define automated storage (AS) and retrieval system
(RS). Explain its operation.
Answer
A. AS/RS System :
1. An AS/RS, sometimes also referred to as automated warehouse is a
combination of equipment and controls which handles the stores and
retrieves material faster and with greater safety and efficiency than
conventional material handling and storage systems.
2. It contains several rows of storage racks and storage and retrieval devices
(stacker cranes).
3. The system can be linked to other external devices such as conveyors or
automated guided vehicles (AGV) for transferring material (in trays or
pallets) to the shop floor or palletising stations.
B. AS/RS System Operation :
1. The incoming items are first sorted and assigned to pallets.
2. The pallet loads are then routed through weighing and sizing stations to
ensure that they are within the load and size limits.
CAD/CAM 3–19 A (ME-Sem-7)
3. The accepted ones are transported to the pick-up and delivery stations,
with the details of the pallet contents communicated to the central
computer.
4. This computer assigns the pallet a storage location in the rack and
stores the location in its memory.
5. The pallet is moved from pick-up and delivery station to the storage by
storage and retrieval machines, or stacker crane.
6. Upon receipt of a request for an item, the computer searches its memory
for the storage location and directs the stacker crane to retrieve the
pallet.
7. The supporting transportation transports the pallets from the pick-up
and delivery station to its final destination.
Que 3.19. What are the benefits of using AS/RS ?
Answer
Following are the benefits of using an AS/RS :
1. Better space utilization.
2. Less direct and indirect labour.
3. Reduced inventories.
4. Less energy consumption.
5. Reduced pilferage.
6. Improved working conditions.
7. Easier housekeeping.
8. Less equipment damage.
9. Improved customer service.
10. Better management control.
PART-12
Swarf Handling and Disposal of Wastes.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 3.20. What is swarf handling system ?
CAM & Material Handling in CAM Environment 3–20 A (ME-Sem-7)
Answer
1. Swarf handling system involves a three-stage swarf separation and
recovery process, two of which involve the use of magnetic separation
technology to ensure the effective removal of metallic contaminants
from the drill fluid.
2. Swarf handling system handles the major quantum of dirt generated in
the process.
3. Proper design of a swarf handling system will depend on various factors
like :
i. Process that is generating the swarf,
ii. Flow, and
iii. Type of fluid (density / viscosity).
4. A proper deigned conveyor system will handle up to 99 % of the incoming
dirt thereby reducing the load on the finer filter.
5. The swarf is compacted in briquetting machines which is useful in oil
reclamation and easy disposal.
Que 3.21. Explain how we can dispose the swarf waste and reduce
its landfilling ?
Answer
Disposal of Swarf Waste :
1. Grinding machines used in manufacturing process produces a lot of
swarf or industrial waste, most of which is dumped into landfills.
2. Swarf primarily contains grinding sludge (metallic components), coolant
(oil-based or water-based) and a small amount of grinding powder.
3. By using a briquetting system we can recapture the coolant and produce
briquettes of the metal and abrasive. The briquettes can then be remelted
in an electric arc furnace to make steel.
4. The briquetting system helps both the coolant and the metallic
components to be reused again.
5. In this way we can effectively dispose the swarf waste and reduce its
landfilling.
Que 3.22. What are the 3-R rules for waste disposal ?
Answer
The 3-R rules for waste disposal are :
a. Reduce : With individual efforts, we can reduce the waste we produce
in the first place. For example - materials must be bought from the
market only if it is necessary for us.
CAD/CAM 3–21 A (ME-Sem-7)
b. Reuse : We can use the same thing again and again for different
purposes.
c. Recycle : We can reform glass, plastic, metal and paper objects and
convert them into useful substances. This process is known as recycling.
PART-13
Single and Mixed Mode Assembly Lines.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 3.23. Write a short note on following :
a. Single model assembly line,
b. Batch model assembly line, and
c. Mixed model assembly line.
Answer
a. Single Model Assembly Line :
1. Single model assembly line produces only one product in large quantities.
2. Every work unit is identical, so the task performed at each station is the
same for all products.
3. This line type is intended for products with high demand.
b. Batch Model Assembly Line :
1. A batch model assembly line produces each product in batches.
2. Workstations are set up to produce the required quantity of the first
product then the stations are reconfigured to produce the next product,
and so on.
3. Products are often assembled in batches when demand for each product
is medium.
4. It is generally more economical to use one assembly line to produce
several products in batches than to build a separate line for each different
model.
c. Mixed Model Assembly Line :
1. A mixed model assembly line also produces more than one model;
however, the models are not produced in batches; instead, they are
made simultaneously on the same line.
2. While one station is working on one model, the next station is processing
a different model.
CAM & Material Handling in CAM Environment 3–22 A (ME-Sem-7)
3. Each station is equipped to perform the variety of tasks needed to produce
any model that moves through it.
PART-14
Quantitative Analysis of Assembly Systems.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 3.24. Explain quantitative analysis of assembly systems.
Answer
Quantitative analysis for various assembly systems can be done as given
below :
a. For Multistation assembly machine :
1. In the operation of an assembly workstation, q is the probability that the
component to be added during the current cycle is defective.
2. Let m = probability that a defect results in a jam at the station and
consequential stoppage of the line. Since the values of q and m may be
different for different stations, these terms are subscripted as qi and mi,
where i = 1, 2, ...n, and n is the number of workstations on the assembly
machine.
3. At a particular workstation, say station i, there are three possible events
that might occur when the feed mechanism attempts to feed the next
component and the assembly device attempts to join it to the existing
assembly at the station. These are :
i. The component is defective and causes a station jam. The probability
of this event is the fraction defect rate of the parts at the station (qi)
multiplied by the probability that a defect will cause the station to
jam (mi). For an assembly machine, pi = miqi.
ii. The component is defective but does not cause a station jam. This
has a probability (1 – mi)qi. With this outcome, a bad part is joined
to the existing assembly, perhaps rendering the entire assembly
defective.
iii. The component is not defective. This is the most desirable outcome
and the most likely by far (it is hoped). The probability that a part
added at the station is not defective is equal to the proportion of
good parts (1 – qi).
CAD/CAM 3–23 A (ME-Sem-7)
4. The probabilities of the three possible events must sum to unity for any
workstation, i.e.,
miqi + (1 – mi)qi + (1 – qi) = 1 ...(3.24.1)
5. For the special case where mi = m and qi = q for all i, eq. (3.24.1) reduces
to :
mq + (1 – m)q + (1 – q) = 1 ...(3.24.2)
6. To determine the complete distribution of possible outcomes that can
occur on an n-station assembly machine, the terms of eq. (3.24.1) are
multiplied together for all n stations :
n
[m q
i 1
i i (1 – mi ) qi (1 – qi )] = 1 ...(3.24.3)
7. In the special case where mi = m and qi = q for all i eq. (3.24.3) reduces
to
[mq + (1 – m)q + (1 – q)]n = 1 ...(3.24.4)
b. Single Station assembly Machines :
1. The single station assembly system is depicted in Fig. 3.24.1.
Components added at one station
Starting Completed
base parts assemblies
Fig. 3.24.1. Single station assembly machine.
2. It consists of a single work head, with several components feeding into
the station to be assembled to a base part.
3. Let ne = the number of distinct assembly elements that are performed
on the machine. Each element has an element time, T ej , where
j = 1, 2, ..., ne.
4. The ideal cycle time can be expressed as
ne
Tc = Th Tej ...(3.24.5)
j 1
Where, Th = Handling time, min.
5. Many of the assembly elements involve the addition of a component to
the existing subassembly.
CAM & Material Handling in CAM Environment 3–24 A (ME-Sem-7)
6. When a jam occurs, the assembly machine stops, and it takes an average
Td to clear the jam and restart the system. The inclusion of downtime
resulting from jams in the machine cycle time gives,
ne
Tp = Tc a j m j Td ...(3.24.6)
j 1
7. For the special case of equal q and equal m values for all components
added, eq. (3.23.6) becomes,
Tp = Tc + nmqTd
CAD/CAM 4–1 A (ME-Sem-7)
4 Robotics and Quality
Function Deployment
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Classification and Specification ............... 4–2A to 4–6A
Part-2 : Drive and Controls ..................................... 4–6A to 4–9A
Part-3 : Sensors ...................................................... 4–10A to 4–12A
Part-4 : End Effectors ........................................... 4–12A to 4–13A
Part-5 : Grippers .................................................... 4–13A to 4–17A
Part-6 : Tool Handling and Work Handling .... 4–17A to 4–18A
Part-7 : Machine Vision ........................................ 4–18A to 4–19A
Part-8 : Robot Programming Concepts ............ 4–19A to 4–22A
Part-9 : Case Studies in Assembly ..................... 4–22A to 4–24A
Part-10 : Process Planning, CAPP, Variant ........ 4–24A to 4–28A
and Generative Systems
Part-11 : Concurrent Engineering and ............... 4–28A to 4–31A
Design for Manufacturing
Part-12 : Advanced Manufacturing Planning .... 4–31A to 4–33A
Computer Aided Production Planning
and Control
Part-13 : Aggregate Production Planning ........... 4–33A to 4–34A
and Master Production Schedule
Part-14 : MRP, MRP II, ERP ................................. 4–34A to 4–37A
Part-15 : Capacity Planning .................................. 4–37A to 4–39A
Robotics & Quality Function Deployment 4–2 A (ME-Sem-7)
PART-1
Classification and Specification.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 4.1. What are robots ? State advantages and limitations of
robot.
Answer
A. Robots :
1. It is an automatically controlled, programmable, multipurpose,
manipulator programmable in three or more axes, which may be either,
fixed in place or mobile for use in industrial automation applications.
2. Robots are devices that are programmed to move parts, or to do work
with a tool.
B. Advantages of Robots :
1. The cost of maintaining a robot is much less than the average cost of
maintaining a human being when additional benefits are taken into
account.
2. Robots do not get any additional benefits as they are not paid any
salary, do not need vacations, sick leave or retirement benefits.
C. Limitations of Robots :
1. Initial cost of the involvement of robots is very much.
2. Dependency on the machines increased so if there is any problem in
smooth running of machines and robots the production will suffer.
3. Robots follow the command so lack of intelligence can create serious
problems, sometimes.
4. The job opportunity reduced for the man, due to automation.
Que 4.2. Give geometric classifications of robot in detail.
Answer
Geometric classifications of robot are :
a. SCARA Robots :
1. SCARA means selective, compliant, robot arm. This robot is especially
designed for assembly automation and uses 4-axis of motion, each axis
driven by a servo motor.
CAD/CAM 4–3 A (ME-Sem-7)
2. The two joints have a motor each and the base has a rotate axis.
3. The forth axis is the vertical axis that generally inserts a components.
This arrangement makes a very stiff arrangement that is ideally suited
for accurate insertion.
4. The SCARA is the least expensive of the servo powered robots and are
usually small and can be very fast.
Fig. 4.2.1. SCARA body and arm assembly configuration.
b. Gantry Robot :
1. This type of robot is generally mounted directed to the shop floor and
usually has a large work envelope.
2. It can be used for material handling applications such as stacking and
de-stacking steel blanks, that were laser welded into tailored blanks.
3. They can be pneumatic powered.
c. Cartesian Robot :
1. These machines are usually mounted on a table and are similar in
concept to the gantry robot but on a smaller scale.
2. The axis can be air or servo motor powered and is generally offered in
modules that are complete and can be bolted together, to form the
motions required.
3. It is available in a wide range of sizes and payloads, they can be small
enough to mount on a table.
4. Applications are universal in the field of industrial robotics. The robot
arm can be found in all types of uses, from assembly to welding to
painting and material handling.
Fig. 4.2.2. Cartesian configuration.
Robotics & Quality Function Deployment 4–4 A (ME-Sem-7)
d. Cylindrical Coordinate Robot :
1. Cylindrical configured robots use a vertical column with the robot arm
attached to a side which can move up and down the column.
Simultaneously, the arm can move radially with respect to the column.
2. Usually, a full 360° rotation in is not permitted, due to restrictions
imposed by hydraulic, electrical, or pneumatic connections or lines.
Also, there is minimum, as well as maximum extension (i.e., R), due to
mechanical requirements.
3. Consequently, the overall volume or work envelope is a portion or a
cylinder.
Fig. 4.2.3. Cylindrical configuration.
e. Spherical or Polar Configuration Coordinate Robot :
1. The configuration has a telescopic arm which pivots about a horizontal
axis and also rotates about a vertical axis.
2. Owing the mechanical and/or actuator connection limitations, the work
envelope of such a robot is a portion of sphere.
Fig. 4.2.4. Spherical configuration.
f. Articulated Arm Robot :
1. The jointed arm robot most resembles a human arm and consists of a
series of links connected by rotary joints which when referenced from
base are referred to as the shoulder, arm and wrist joints.
CAD/CAM 4–5 A (ME-Sem-7)
Fig. 4.2.5. Jointed-arm configuration.
Que 4.3. Define and explain the following terms about a robot :
Accuracy, work volume, resolution, repeatability, speed of
movement, load carrying capacity, and reliability.
OR
Explain the following term related to robot :
i. Accuracy,
ii. Work volume,
iii. Resolution,
iv. Repeatability. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10
Answer
i. Accuracy :
1. The accuracy of the robot refers to its capability to position its wrist end
at a given target point within its work volume.
2. Accuracy is closely related to spatial resolution since the robots ability
to reach a particular point in space depends on its ability to divide its
joint movements into small increments.
3. According to this relation, the accuracy of the robot would be one half
the distance between two adjacent resolution points.
4. The robots accuracy is also affected by mechanical inaccuracies, such
as deflection of its components, gear inaccuracies, and so forth.
ii. Work Volume :
1. The term work volume refers to the space within which the robot can
operate.
2. To be technically precise the work volume is the spatial region within
which the end of the robot’s wrist can be manipulated.
3. The work volume of a cartesian coordinate robot will be rectangular.
4. The work volume of a cylindrical coordinate robot will be cylindrical.
5. The work volume of a jointed arm robot will be somewhat irregular,
the outer reaches generally resembling a partial sphere.
iii. Resolution :
1. The term resolution refers to the smallest increment of motion at the
wrist end that can be controlled by the robot.
2. This is determined largely by the robots control resolution, which
depends on its position control system and its feedback measurement
system.
Robotics & Quality Function Deployment 4–6 A (ME-Sem-7)
3. In addition, mechanical inaccuracies in the robot’s joints would tend to
degrade its ability to position its arm.
4. The resolution is the sum of the control resolution and mechanical
inaccuracies.
5. The arm movement must be divided into its basic motions or degrees of
freedom, and the resolution of each degree of freedom is figured
separately. Then the control resolution is the vector sum of each
component.
iv. Repeatability :
1. Repeatability expresses the level of agreement between achieved
positions for robot movements performed under the same conditions
and by the same method.
2. Thus, resultant motions lead to several discordant displacements.
3. As repeatability is a statistical term associated with several achieved
positions for the same target, it can be expressed as the positional
deviation from the average of these displacements.
v. Speed of Movements :
1. This is usually specified as the maximum value of speed of the end
effector manifested at a specified location, under specified conditions
such as no load maximum speed or rated load maximum speed, etc.
2. By taking into account the length of the fully extended arm, the
maximum speed of the gripper may be computed.
3. In most of the robots, the desired speed for a task is either programmable
or manually adjustable at the remote control unit (RCU) panel.
vi. Load Carrying Capacity :
1. It is the highest load which can be carried by robot’s arm or arms under
the operating conditions.
2. Heavy loads of the order of 1000 kg can be handled by commercially
available robots.
3. The rated capacity usually includes the weight of the gripper also and
this should be duly considered for extra light load (below 1 kg)
applications.
vii. Reliability :
1. This is measured in terms of the average time between failures.
2. Reliability depends on the speed and load during operation as well as
on the quality of the robot design and control system.
3. Industrial robots have usually high values of mean time between failures
(MTBF).
PART-2
Drive and Controls.
CAD/CAM 4–7 A (ME-Sem-7)
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 4.4. Describe the drive system along with its types. Also
write advantages and disadvantages of each.
Answer
A. Drive System :
1. The drive system determines the speed of the arm movement, the
strength of the robot, dynamic performance and, to some extent, the
kinds of applications.
2. A drive system is usually used to determine the capacity of a robot.
3. A robot will require a drive system for moving their arm, wrist and
body.
B. Types of Drive System :
a. Electric Drive System :
1. The electric drive systems are capable of moving robots with high
power or speed.
2. The actuation of this type of robot can be done by either DC servo
motors or DC stepping motors.
3. It can be well suited for rotational joints and as well as linear joints.
4. The electric drive system will be perfect for small robots and precise
applications.
i. Advantages :
1. Clean and quite with higher degree of accuracy.
2. Higher reliability.
ii. Disadvantages :
1. Slightly costlier.
b. Hydraulic Drive System :
1. The hydraulic drive systems are completely meant for the large sized
robots.
2. It can deliver high power or speed than the electric drive system.
3. This drive system can be used for both linear and rotational joints.
4. The rotary motions are provided by the rotary vane actuators, while
linear motions are produced by hydraulic pistons.
i. Advantages :
1. High payload capacities.
Robotics & Quality Function Deployment 4–8 A (ME-Sem-7)
2. Relatively easy to maintain.
ii. Disadvantages :
1. Expensive.
2. Not as accurate as either the pneumatic and electric drives.
c. Pneumatic Drive System :
1. The pneumatic drive systems are especially used for the small type
robots, which have less than five degrees of freedom.
2. It has the ability to offer fine accuracy and speed.
3. This drive system can produce rotary movement by actuating the rotary
actuators.
4. The translational movements of sliding joints can also be provided by
operating the piston.
5. The price of this system is less when compared to the hydraulic drive.
i. Advantages :
1. Simple construction.
2. Relatively inexpensive.
ii. Disadvantages :
1. Smaller payloads.
2. Mass inertia and delayed response of the robot arm due to sponginess
and reduced repeatability.
Que 4.5. What do you mean by robotics control system ? Explain
various types of robot control system.
Answer
A. Robotic Control System :
1. The control system is the part of a robot that coordinates all movements
of the mechanical system. It also receives input from the immediate
environment through various sensors.
2. The heart of the robot’s control system is generally a microprocessor
linked to input/output and monitoring devices.
3. The commands issued by the controller activate the motion control
mechanism, consisting of various controllers, amplifiers and actuators.
B. Types of Robot Control System : Robot control system may be
classified by the following two ways :
a. Servo Robot Control System :
1. The servo robot is a closed-loop system because it allows for feedback.
2. In a close loop system, the feedback signal sent to the servo amplifier
affects the output of the system.
CAD/CAM 4–9 A (ME-Sem-7)
3. A servo amplifier translates signals from the controller into motor
voltage and current signals.
4. Servo amplifiers are used in motion control systems where precise
control of position or velocity is necessary.
5. Fig. 4.5.1 shows a block diagram of a servo robot control system.
Controller
Memory Sensors internal
external
Peripheral equipment
Manipulator End effector
Input/output
Servo Robot hand/
Microprocessor Actuators Robot arm
controllers gripper
Servo Feedback
amplifiers
Teach pendant
Teach pendant
Robot’s power supply
Fig. 4.5.1. A servo robot system.
b. Non-Servo Robot Control System :
1. Non-servo robot are the simplest robots and are often referred to as
limited sequence, pick-and-place, or fixed-stop robots.
2. The non-servo robot is an open-loop system.
3. In an open loop control, no feedback mechanism is used to compare
programmed positions to actual positions.
4. Non-servo robots are also limited in their movement and these
limitations are usually in the form of a mechanical stop.
5. This form of robot is excellent in repetitive tasks, such as material
transfer.
6. The diagram in Fig. 4.5.2 represents a pneumatic (air-controlled),
non-servo robot.
Air supply
Controller Control
Signal valve
Exhaust
Manipulator
End stop Air cylinder Limit
switch
Fig. 4.5.2. A non-servo control system.
Robotics & Quality Function Deployment 4–10 A (ME-Sem-7)
PART-3
Sensors.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 4.6. Define external and internal sensors. Give atleast three
examples of each.
Answer
A. External Sensors :
1. External sensors are peripheral devices used in robotics systems.
2. External sensors are used in robotics systems for the following
purposes :
i. Safety monitoring,
ii. Work cell control,
iii. Part inspection and quality control, and
iv. Gaining information about the system.
3. There are many types of external sensors such as proximity sensors,
range finders, tactile sensors, machine vision sensors, and force sensors.
B. Internal Sensors :
1. Feedback sensors provided in robotics systems are called internal
sensors.
2. Internal sensor devices are specifically chosen to suit the need for a
particular task.
3. Internal sensors are needed for the feedback of position, velocity or
acceleration of various elements in the robotics systems.
4. Internal sensors may be classified as :
i. Potentiometers,
ii. Tachometers,
iii. Resolvers,
iv. Optical encoders,
v. Hall effect sensors, and
vi. Moire’s fringes.
CAD/CAM 4–11 A (ME-Sem-7)
Que 4.7. Discuss in brief, the static performance characteristics
of a sensor.
Answer
The following terms are used to define the static performance
characteristics of sensors :
a. Range and Span :
1. The range of a transducer defines the limits between which the input
can vary.
2. The span is the maximum value of the input minus the minimum value.
b. Error : It is the difference between the result of the measurement and
the true value of the quantity being measured.
Error = Measured value – True value.
c. Accuracy :
1. It is the extent to which the value indicated by a measurement system
might be wrong.
2. It is thus the summation of all the possible errors that are likely to occur,
as well as the accuracy to which the transducer has been calibrated.
d. Sensitivity : It is the relationship indicating how much output there is
per unit input, i.e., output/input.
e. Repeatability / Reproducibility :
1. The terms repeatability and reproducibility of a transducer are used to
describe its ability to give the same output for repeated applications of
the same input value.
2. The error resulting from the same output not being given with repeated
applications is usually expressed as a percentage of the full output.
f. Stability : The stability of a transducer is its ability to give the same
output when used to measure a constant input over a period of time.
g. Dead Band :
1. The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range of input values
for which there is no output.
2. The dead time is the length of time from the application of an input until
the output begins to respond and change.
Que 4.8. Describe the four major uses of sensors in industrial
robots and automated manufacturing systems.
Answer
The major uses of sensors in industrial robotics and other automated
manufacturing systems can be divided into four basic categories :
a. Safety Monitoring :
Robotics & Quality Function Deployment 4–12 A (ME-Sem-7)
1. Concerns the protection of human workers who work in the
vicinity of the robot or other equipment.
b. Interlocks in Workcell Control :
1. The second major use of sensor technology in robotics is to
implement interlocks in workcell control.
2. Interlocks are used to coordinate the sequence of activities of the
different pieces of equipment in the workcell.
3. In the execution of the robot program, there are certain elements
of the work cycle whose completion must be verified before
proceeding with the next element in the cycle.
4. Sensors, after very simple devices, are utilized to provide this kind
of verification.
c. Part Inspection for Quality Control :
1. Sensors can be used to determine a variety of part quality
characteristics.
2. Traditionally, quality control has been performed using manual
inspection techniques on a statistical sampling basis.
3. The use of sensor permits the inspection operation to be performed
automatically on a 100 percent basis, in which every part is
inspected.
4. The limitation on the use of automatic inspection is that the sensor
system can only inspect for a limited range of part characteristics
and defects.
d. Determining Position and Related Information about Objects
in the Robot Cell :
1. The fourth major use of sensors in robotics to determine the
positions and other information about various objects in the
workcell (e.g., workparts, fixtures, equipment, etc.).
2. In addition to positional data about a particular object, other
information required to properly execute the work cycle might
include the o bje ct’s orie ntation, colour, size , and o ther
characteristics.
3. Accuracy requirements in a given application exceed the inherent
capabilities of the robot. Feedback information is required to
improve the accuracy of the robot’s positioning.
PART-4
End Effectors.
CAD/CAM 4–13 A (ME-Sem-7)
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 4.9. Define the term end effector. Also, give its classification.
Answer
A. End effector :
1. End effector is gripper or end-of-arm tooling attached to the wrist of
manipulator to accomplish the desired task.
2. Its design depends on the shape and size of part to be held. In some
application end-effector may be required to hold tool and the robot
must be able to manipulate the tool.
B. Types of End effector :
a. Grippers :
1. Grippers are used to hold either workparts (in pick and place operations,
machine loading, or assembly work) or tools.
2. Grippers act as physical interface between robot arm and the work
piece.
b. Tools :
1. Tools are fastened directly to the robot wrist and become the end
effectors.
2. Invariably, a robot is required to manipulate a tool to perform an
operation on a work part.
3. End effector is used as a gripper that can grasp and handle a variety of
tools and the robot has multi tool handling function.
4. However, in most robot applications in which only one tool is to be
manipulated, the tool is directly mounted on the wrist, here the tool
itself acts as the end effector.
PART-5
Grippers.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Robotics & Quality Function Deployment 4–14 A (ME-Sem-7)
Que 4.10. Explain the following :
a. Mechanical grippers,
b. Vacuum grippers,
c. Magnetic grippers, and
d. Adhesive grippers.
Answer
a. Mechanical Grippers :
1. A mechanical gripper is used as an end effector in a robot for grasping
the object with its mechanically operated fingers.
2. In industries, two fingers are enough for holding purposes. More than
three fingers can also be used based on the application.
3. A robot requires either hydraulic, electric, or pneumatic drive system
to create the input power.
4. The power produced is sent to the gripper for making the fingers react.
It also allows the fingers to perform open and close actions.
5. Most importantly, a sufficient force must be given to hold the object.
6. In a mechanical gripper, the holding of an object can be done by two
different methods such as :
i. Using the finger pads as like the shape of the work part.
ii. Using soft material finger pads.
7. In the first method, the contact surfaces of the fingers are designed
according to the work part for achieving the estimated shape. It will
help the fingers to hold the work part for some extent.
Workpiece
Gripper Interchangeable
fingers
Fig. 4.10.1. Mechanical gripper with interchangeable fingers.
CAD/CAM 4–15 A (ME-Sem-7)
8. In the second method, the fingers must be capable of supplying sufficient
force to hold the work part. To avoid scratches on the work part, soft
type pads are fabricated on the fingers.
b. Vacuum Grippers :
1. Vacuum cups, also called suction cups, can be used as gripper devices.
2. The usual requirements on the objects to be handled are that they be
flat, smooth, and clean, conditions necessary to form a satisfactory
between the object and the suction cup.
3. The suction cups used in these types of robot gripper are typically
made of elastic material such as rubber or soft plastic.
4. An exception would be when the object to be handled is composed of a
soft material. In this case, the suction cup would be made of a hard
substance.
5. The shape of the vacuum cup is usually round.
6. Some means of removing the air between the cup and the part surface
to create the vacuum is required. The vacuum pump and the venturi
are two common devices used for this purpose.
7. The vacuum pump is a piston operated or vane driven device powered
by an electric motor. It is capable of creating a relatively high vacuum.
8. The venturi is a simpler device as shown in Fig. 4.10.2 and can be
driven by means of shop air pressure. Its initial cost is less than that of
a vacuum pump and it is relatively reliable because of its simplicity.
9. However, the overall reliability of the vacuum system is dependent on
the source of air pressure.
Nozzle
Exhaust Air in
Vacuum
Fig. 4.10.2. Venturi device used to operate a suction cup.
c. Magnetic Grippers :
1. A type of end effector that uses electromagnets or permanent magnets
to pick up metallic objects.
Robotics & Quality Function Deployment 4–16 A (ME-Sem-7)
2. A simple method to grasp ferrous materials is to use a magnetic gripper.
3. The principle used is the same as the vacuum except that cups are
replaced by magnetic grippers. This type of gripper can handle metal
parts with holes quickly.
4. Electromagnetic grippers (Fig. 4.10.3) are easier to control but they
require a source of electric power.
Electromagnet
body
Magnetising
Protective
coil
sheet
Object
Fig. 4.10.3. Electromagnetic gripper.
5. The permanent magnets, however, have the disadvantage of a lack of
control during some duration of the cycle.
6. A significant feature of a magnetic gripper is that it leaves little to no
residual magnetism when turned off, therefore, releasing the part
instantly.
7. A magnetic gripper, despite its compact size, can sustain enormous
holding power.
8. Its lightweight design ultimately reduces wear on automatic equipment.
d. Adhesive Grippers :
1. In a gripper design, an adhesive substance can be used for grasping
action.
2. The primary requirement in such an arrangement is that the items to
be handled must be gripped on one side only.
3. The reliability of an adhesive gripper is diminished with each successive
operation, cycle as the adhesive substance loses its tackiness with
repeated use.
4. This difficulty can be overcome by loading the adhesive material in the
form of a continuous ribbon into a feeding mechanism attached to the
wrist of the robot.
Que 4.11. A carton weighing 10 kg is held in a gripper using
friction against two opposing fingers. Coefficient of friction = 0.25.
Weight of the carton is directed parallel to finger surfaces.
Determine the required gripping force. Assume a g-factor of 2.0.
CAD/CAM 4–17 A (ME-Sem-7)
Answer
Given : W = 10 kg, = 0.25, g = 2, nf = 2
To Find : Gripping force.
1. Force exerted,
nf Fg = Wg
0.25 × 2 × Fg = 10 × 2
2. Gripping force, Fg = 40 kg
PART-6
Tool Handling and Work Handling.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 4.12. What are the general considerations taken in robot
tool handling and work handling ?
Answer
General considerations in robot tool handling and work handling :
a. Part Positioning and Orientation :
1. In most parts-handling applications, the parts must be presented to the
robot in a known position and orientation.
2. Robots used in these applications do not generally possess highly
sophisticated sensors (e.g., machine vision) that would enable them to
seek out a part and identify its orientation before picking it up.
b. Gripper Design : Special end effectors must be designed for the robot
to grasp and hold the workpart during the handling operation.
c. Minimum Distances Moved :
1. The tool handling application should be planned so as to minimize the
distances that the parts must be moved.
2. This can be accomplished by proper design of the workcell layout (e.g.,
keeping the equipment in the cell close together, by proper gripper
design, and by careful study of the robot motion cycle.
d. Robot Work Volume : The cell layout must be designed with proper
consideration given to the robot’s capability to reach the required
extreme locations in the cell and still allow room to maneuver the
gripper.
Robotics & Quality Function Deployment 4–18 A (ME-Sem-7)
e. Robot Weight Capacity : A robot with sufficient weight carrying
capacity must be specified for the application.
f. Accuracy and Repeatability :
1. Some applications require the tools to be handled with very high
precision.
2. Other applications are less demanding in this respect.
3. The robot must be specified accordingly.
g. Robot Configuration, Degrees of Freedom, and Control :
1. Many parts transfer operations are simple enough that they can be
accomplished by a robot with two to four joints of motion.
2. Machine loading applications often require more degrees of freedom.
3. Palletizing operations and picking parts from a moving conveyor are
examples where the control requirements are more demanding.
h. Machine Utilization Problems :
1. It is important for the application to effectively utilize all pieces of
equipment in the cell.
2. In a machine loading unloading operation, it is common for the robot to
be idle while the machine is working, and the machine to be idle while
the robot is working.
3. To increase the utilization of the robot, consideration should be given
to the possibility for the robot to service more than a single machine.
Machine Vision.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 4.13. What do you understand by machine vision system ?
Answer
1. Machine vision system consists of lighting, camera, analog digital
convertor, frame grabber, computer processor, robot controller and
robot manipulator.
2. The hardware and software for performing the function of sensing
and processing the image and utilizing the results obtained to command
the robot.
CAD/CAM 4–19 A (ME-Sem-7)
3. The sensing and digitizing functions involve the input of vision data by
means of a camera focused on the scene of interest. Special lighting
techniques are frequently used to obtain an image of sufficient contrast
for later processing.
4. The image viewed by the camera is typically digitized and stored in
computer memory. The digital image is called a frame of vision data,
and is frequently captured by a hardware device called a frame grabber.
5. These devices are capable of digitizing images at the rate of 30 frames
per second. The frames consist of a matrix of data representing
projections of the scene sensed by the camera.
Sensing and Frame
Analog/Digital
digitizing image Lighting Camera
conversion grabber
data
Additional
Saved program
COMPUTER storage
Image (OR)
processing and PROCESSOR
analysis
Display Keyboard
Application Interface Robot controller Task
Fig. 4.13.1. Machine vision system.
PART-8
Robot Programming Concept.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 4.14. What are the various levels of robot programming ?
Answer
Various levels of robot programming are as follows :
a. Teach in Programming :
1. The robot will be moved by the human user through interaction with a
teach pendant (sometimes called teach box).
Robotics & Quality Function Deployment 4–20 A (ME-Sem-7)
2. Teach pendant are hand-held button boxes which allow control of each
robot joint or of each cartesian degree of freedom.
3. Now-a-days controllers allow alphanumeric input, testing and branching
so that simple programs involving logic can be entered.
b. Explicit Robot Languages :
1. With the arrival of inexpensive and powerful computers, the trend has
been increasingly toward programming robots via programs written in
computer programming languages.
2. Usually these computer programming languages have special features
which apply to the problems of programming robots.
3. An international standard has been established with the programming
language IRL (Industrial robot language).
c. Task Level Programming :
1. The third level of robot programming methodology is embodied in
task-level programming languages.
2. These are languages which allow the user to command desired subgoals
of the task directly, rather than to specify the details of every action
the robot is to take.
3. In such a system, the user is able to include instructions in the
application program at a significantly higher level than in an explicit
programming language.
4. A task level programming system must have the ability to perform
many planning tasks automatically.
Que 4.15. What are different robot programming methods ?
Answer
There are three basic methods for programming industrial robots.
a. Teach Method :
1. The logic for the program can be generated either using a menu based
system or simply using a text but the main characteristic of this method
is the means by which the robot is taught the positional data.
2. A teach pendant with controls to drive the robot in a number of different
coordinate systems is used to manually drive the robot to the desired
locations.
3. These locations are then stored with names that can be used within
the robot program.
b. Lead Through Programming Method :
1. During this programming method, the travelling of robots is based on
the desired movements, and it is stored in the external controller
memory.
CAD/CAM 4–21 A (ME-Sem-7)
2. There are two modes of a control system in this method such as a run
mode and teach mode.
3. The program is taught in the teach mode, and it is executed in the run
mode.
4. The lead through programming method can be done by two methods
namely :
i. Powered lead through method.
ii. Manual lead through method.
C. Off Line Programming :
1. Similar to the way in which CAD systems are being used to generate
NC programs for milling machines it is also possible to program robots
from CAD data.
2. The CAD models of the components are used along with models of the
robots being used and the fixturing required.
3. The program structure is built up in much the same way as for teach
programming but intelligent tools are available which allow the CAD
data to be used to generate sequences of location and process
information.
4. At present there are only a few companies using this technology as it
is still in its infancy but its use is increasing each year.
Que 4.16. Discuss the programming languages for robotics.
Answer
Various programming languages for robotics are :
a. URBI :
1. URBI stands for Universal Real Time Behavior Interface. It is an open
source language.
2. It is a client/server based interpreted language in which robot works as
a client and controller as a server.
3. It makes us to learn about the commands which we give to robots and
receive messages from them.
4. The interpreter and wrapped server are called as URBI engine.
5. The URBI engine uses commands from client and receives messages
to it. This language allows user to work on basic perception-action
principle.
6. The users just have to write some simple loops on the basis of this
principle directly in URBI.
b. PYTHON :
1. Python is an object oriented language which is used to access and
control robots.
Robotics & Quality Function Deployment 4–22 A (ME-Sem-7)
2. Python is an interpreted language; this language has an application in
working with mobile robots, particularly those manufactured by
different companies.
3. With Python it is possible to use a single program for controlling many
different robots.
4. However Python is slower than C++ but it has some good sides as well
as it proved very easy to interact with robots using this language, it is
highly portable.
5. Python is a very reliable language for string manipulation and text
processing.
c. ROBOTC :
1. ROBOTC is an implementation of C language.
2. If we are designing a simple robot, we do not need assembly code, but
in complex designing we need well defined codes.
3. ROBOTC is another programming language which is C-based.
4. It is actually a text based programming language.
5. The commands which we want to give to our robot, first written on the
screen in the form of simple text, now as we know that robot is a kind
of machine and a machine only understands machine language.
6. So these commands need to be converted in machine language so that
robot can easily understand and do whatever it is instructed to do.
d. ROBOTICS.NXT :
1. ROBOTICS.NXT has a support for a simple message based control.
2. It direct commands, nxtupload is one of its programs which is used to
upload any file.
3. It works on Linux.
PART-9
Case Studies in Assembly.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
CAD/CAM 4–23 A (ME-Sem-7)
Que 4.17. What are the applications of robots in assembly
operations ?
OR
Explain different types of assembly operations.
Answer
Assembly operations can be divided into two basic categories.
A. Parts Mating : The variety of parts mating operations includes the
following assembly situations :
a. Peg-in Hole :
1. This operation involves the insertion of one part (the peg) into another
part (the hole). It represents the most commons assembly task.
2. Peg-in-hole tasks can be divided into two types : The round
peg-in-hole, the robot holes.
3. With the square peg-in-hole case, a full 6 degrees of freedom are
needed in order to mate the corners of the square peg with the corners
of the hole.
b. Hole-on-Peg :
1. This is a variation of the peg-in-hole task. Similar problems exist in
defining the degrees of freedom needed to execute the mating of the
two parts.
z
z
(a) ( b)
Fig. 4.17.1. Elementary generator.
2. A typical example of the hole-on-peg task would be the placement of a
bearing or gear onto a shaft.
c. Stacking :
1. In this type of assembly, several components are placed one on top of
the next, with no pins or other devices for locating the parts relative to
each other.
2. In a subsequent assembly operation, the group of parts would be joined
together.
Robotics & Quality Function Deployment 4–24 A (ME-Sem-7)
3. An example of the stacking assembly operation would be a motor
armature or a transformer in which the individual laminations are
stacked.
B. Parts Joining Task : In parts joining, not only the two (or more)
components are mated, but also some type of fastening procedure is
required to hold the parts together. The possible joining operations
include the following :
a. Fastening Screws :
1. The use of screws is a very common method of joining parts together
in manual assembly.
2. Self tapping screws are often used and this eliminates the need to
perform the extra operation of taping the threaded hole in the mating
part.
3. It can drive the screw by advancing and simultaneously rotating its
wrist, or it can manipulate a special end effector consisting of a power
screwdriver. Power screwdrivers are available that not only drive the
screw but also feed them automatically to the bit.
b. Retainers :
1. Retainers can take a number of alternative configurations.
2. They can be pins inserted through several parts in order to maintain
the relationship among the parts.
3. Another form of retainer is a ring that clamps onto one part to establish
its relationship with another part. Common ring retainers are snap
rings and C-rings.
c. Press Fits :
1. This is another variation of the peg-in-hole task except that the parts
to be mated have an interference fit.
2. This simply means that the peg is slightly larger than the hole into
which it is to be inserted.
3. Press fitted parts can form a very strong assembly.
4. However, a substantial force is required to accomplish the insertion
operation.
d. Welding and Related Joining Method :
1. Continuous arc welding and spot welding are two common welding
operations used to joint parts together.
2. In addition, there are other similar joining techniques requiring heat
energy that are used in assembly operations. These include brazing
soldering, and ultrasonic welding.
3. All of these joining methods can be implemented by means of robots.
PART-10
Process Planning, CAPP, Variant and Generative Systems.
CAD/CAM 4–25 A (ME-Sem-7)
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Process Planning : It is concerned with determining the sequence
of individual manufacturing operations needed to produce a given
part or product.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 4.18. Explain generative computer aided process planning in
detail. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10
OR
Define computer aided process planning. Discuss its various types
with example. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
Answer
A. Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP) :
1. For process planning to be done in a rational and consistent manner
leading to optimal routing, the manual routine work needs to be
eliminated.
2. Use should be made of modern computer software facilities, which on
inputting specifications of component will not only output the routings
fast and correctly but be amenable to efficient storage and communication.
This is known as CAPP.
B. Types of CAPP :
a. Retrieval Type Process Planning (Variant Process Planning) :
1. In the retrieval type (variant approach), group technology code is used
to select a generic process plan from the existing master process plans
developed for each part family, and is edited to suit the requirement
of the part. This type is fully based on group technology concepts.
2. The parts are classified into groups based on similarity and each group
has a master plan.
3. However, this approach is not practically possible in situations where
small batches of widely varying parts are produced.
4. Moreover this method fails to capture the real knowledge of process
planners and there is a danger of mistakes getting repeated from earlier
plans that were stored in the database.
Robotics & Quality Function Deployment 4–26 A (ME-Sem-7)
5. In a variant system, the sequences are as follows :
i. Formation of part family,
ii. Design of database structure,
iii. Algorithm development,
iv. Editing, and
v. Selection of process, parameter selection and updating.
Part code number Search within File for part
to be entered part family family
Retrieval of File for machine
machine sequence
Retrieval of
Sequence of
operation
operation file
sequence
Incorporation of
Generation of Process plan
other application
process plan information
programs
Fig. 4.18.1. Flow information in a variant type CAPP system.
b. Generative Type Process Planning :
1. In generative type process planning system, individual process plans are
generated for each component.
2. It does not involve retrieval of any existing database.
3. A process plan is created right from the scratch for each component
without human assistance.
4. These systems are designed to automatically synthesize process
information and develop process plan for a part.
5. These systems contain the logic to use a manufacturing database and
suitable part description schemes to generate the process plan for a
particular part.
6. Most of the contemporary CAPP systems being developed are generative
in nature.
7. This approach eliminates disadvantages of variant approach and bridges
the gap between CAD and CAM.
CAD/CAM 4–27 A (ME-Sem-7)
Technical
+
Logical decisions
Input description Process Capabilities of machine
of part in code plan tools available
Fig. 4.18.2. Generative type process planning.
Que 4.19. What is generative process planning ? Compare retrieval
and generative process planning methodologies.
Answer
A. Generative Process Planning : Refer Q. 4.18, Page 4–25A, Unit-4.
B. Comparison :
S. No. Retrieval Process Generative Process
Planning Planning
1. It is group technology It is individual process planning.
process planning.
2. This system design by This system design automatically.
master plan.
3. It fails to capture real It contains the logic to use the
knowledge of planner. generation of plan.
Que 4.20. Define computer aided process planning. Discuss its
advantages and disadvantages. Also discuss under what kind of
environment should generative process planning be used instead
of variant process planning ? AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10
Answer
A. CAPP : Refer Q. 4.18, Page 4–25A, Unit-4.
B. Advantages of CAPP :
1. Process rationalization and standardization,
2. Increased productivity of process planning,
3. Reduced lead time for process planning,
4. Improved legibility,
5. Incorporation of other application programs.
Robotics & Quality Function Deployment 4–28 A (ME-Sem-7)
C. Disadvantages of CAPP :
1. The inability to show special manufacturing techniques.
2. The initial cost of establishing a CAPP system is high while compared
with manual process planning.
D. Environment Suitable for Generative Process Planning :
1. In generative type process planning system, individual process plans are
generated for each component.
2. It does not involve retrieval of any existing database.
3. A process plan is created right from the scratch for each component
without human assistance.
4. These systems are designed to automatically synthesize process
information and develop process plan for a part.
5. These systems contain the logic to use a manufacturing database and
suitable part description schemes to generate the process plan for a
particular part.
6. Most of the contemporary CAPP systems being developed are generative
in nature.
7. This approach eliminates disadvantages of variant approach and bridges
the gap between CAD and CAM.
Que 4.21. Discuss the principle of variant process planning. Also
write its advantage. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
Answer
A. Principle of Variant Process Planning : Refer Q. 4.18, Page 4–25A,
Unit-4.
B. Advantage of Variant Proces s Planning : Refer Q. 4.20,
Page 4–27A, Unit-4.
PART-11
Concurrent Engineering and Design for Manufacturing.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 4.22. What do you understand by the term ‘‘concurrent
engineering’’ ?
CAD/CAM 4–29 A (ME-Sem-7)
Answer
1. Concurrent engineering is also known as simultaneous or parallel
engineering.
2. Concurrent engineering is a variable approach in which simultaneous
design of a product and all its related processes in a manufacturing
system are taken into consideration and also ensure the product
matches the required product’s structural with functional requirements.
3. Concurrent engineering also associates the manufacturing implications.
4. Concurrent engineering is used to launch a product early. It reduces
the production lead-time.
5. It also manages the parallel processing to reduce the delay and waste.
6. All the experts from all corresponding departments such as design,
production and marketing are involved in the complete development
process.
Inspection
Manufacturing Marketing
Design
Serviceability coordinator Sales
Assembly Packaging
Function
Fig. 4.22.1. Concept of concurrent engineering.
Que 4.23. Write the objectives and advantages of a concurrent
engineering. Also, discuss its limitations.
Answer
A. Objectives of Concurrent Engineering :
1. Decreased product development time.
2. Improved profitability.
3. Better control on design and manufacturing costs.
4. Greater competitiveness.
5. Improved product quality.
6. Close integration between departments.
Robotics & Quality Function Deployment 4–30 A (ME-Sem-7)
B. Advantages of Concurrent Engineering :
1. It reduces the production lead time.
2. It increases the profitability.
3. It also increases the competition among the manufacturing plants.
4. It improves the quality value of company and its product.
5. It also encourages the team spirit among all departments.
C. Limitations of Concurrent Engineering :
1. If specification of product lacks, it needs to implement an excessive
amount of modification.
2. On manufacturing issues of the product there is a lack of attention.
3. Due to late changes in design leads to expensive changes to tooling and
other equipments.
Que 4.24. Discuss how concurrent engineering concepts would
help in achieving life cycle design.
Answer
1. Concurrent engineering concepts are very helpful in achieving a life
cycle design as it involves the model shown in the Fig. 4.24.1 in which
the people responsible for market analysis are intimately involved as
are those concerned with distribution and sales.
2. Thus a major goal of concurrent engineering is to move engineering
changes back into early stages of design.
3. The importance of this goal is reinforced by the fact widely held that
80 % or more of manufacturing decisions are directly determined by the
product design.
Market Product
analysis design
Sales and Production
distribution system
design
Manufacturing
Fig. 4.24.1. Model of concurrent engineering.
4. Also early design decisions affect life cycle cost in very significant ways.
5. All the process optimization in the world cannot make up in cost savings
for careless design decisions in areas like material selection, selection of
fasteners, ease and assembly etc.
CAD/CAM 4–31 A (ME-Sem-7)
6. In an era of increasing automation with related high capital costs it is
not unreasonable to find that products must be designed to fit the factory
rather than the factory is designed to fit the product.
7. The difficulty of integrating product and process design in large
corporations is due to the fact that historically product design has been
done in a sequence.
8. Product concept and product testing have been done prior to
manufacturing system design, process planning and production.
9. Generally, these sequential functions are carried out in distinct and
separate organization with little interaction.
10. Thus it is easy to see how the design team will make decisions, many of
which are irreversible without having adequate knowledge of the
capabilities of the manufacturing process.
Que 4.25. What do you understand by design for manufacturing ?
Answer
1. It has been estimated that about 70 % of the life cycle cost of a product is
determined by basic decisions made during product design.
2. These design decisions include the choice of part material, part geometry,
tolerances, surface finish, how parts are organized into subassemblies,
and the assembly methods to be used.
3. Once these decisions are made, the potential to reduce the manufacturing
cost of the product is limited.
4. It is important for the manufacturing engineer to have the opportunity
to advise the design engineer as the product design is evolving, to
favorably influence the manufacturability of the product.
5. Terms used to describe such attempts to favorably influence the
manufacturability of a new product are design for manufacturing (DFM).
6 Design for manufacturing involves the systematic consideration of
manufacturability and assemblability in the development of a new product
design. This includes.
i. Organizational changes, and
ii. Design principles and guidelines.
PART-12
Advanced Manufacturing Planning, Computer Aided
Production Planning and Control.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Robotics & Quality Function Deployment 4–32 A (ME-Sem-7)
Que 4.26. Discuss the advance manufacturing planning in detail.
Answer
1. Advance manufacturing planning emphasizes planning for the future.
It is a corporate level activity that is distinct from process planning
because it is concerned with products being contemplated in the
company’s long term plans (2 to 10 years future), rather than products
currently being designed and released.
2. Advanced manufacturing planning involves working with sales,
marketing, and design engineering to forecast the future products
that will be introduced and determine what production resources will
be needed to make those products.
3. In advanced manufacturing planning, the current equipment and
facilities are compared with the processing needs of future planned
products to determine what new technologies and facilities should be
installed.
4. Activities in advanced manufacturing planning include :
a. New Technology Evaluation : One of the reasons a company may
consider installing new technologies is because product lines require
processing method not currently used by the company.
b. Investment Project Management : The management of the project
requires collaboration between the finance department that oversees
the disbursements, manufacturing engineering that provides technical
expertise in the production technology, and other functional areas
that may be related to the project.
c. Facilities Planning :
1. The planning work required to renovate an existing facility or design a
new one is carried out by the plant engineering department (or similar
title) and is called facilities planning.
2. In the design or redesign of a production facility, manufacturing
engineering and plant engineering must work closely to achieve a
successful installation.
d. Manufacturing Research and Development :
1. To develop the required manufacturing technologies, the company
may find it necessary to undertake a program of manufacturing
research and development.
2. Manufacturing research can take various forms, including the
following :
i. Development of new processing technologies.
ii. Adaptation of existing processing technologies.
iii. Process fine-tuning.
iv. Software systems development.
CAD/CAM 4–33 A (ME-Sem-7)
v. Automation systems development.
vi. Operations research and simulation.
Que 4.27. What are the various components of production
planning and control system ?
Answer
Various components of production planning and control system are
shown in Fig. 4.27.1.
Production plan
Master production Resource requirement
scheduling planning
Bill of materials Material requirements Capacity requirement
planning planning
Production activity
control
Fig. 4.27.1. The various components of the
production planning and control system.
PART-13
Aggregate Production Planning and Master Production Schedule.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 4.28. Write a short note on following :
a. Aggregate Production Planning, and
b. Master Production Schedule (MPS).
Answer
a. Aggregate Production Planning :
1. Aggregate planning is a high-level corporate planning activity.
2. The aggregate production plan indicates production output levels for
the major production lines of the company.
Robotics & Quality Function Deployment 4–34 A (ME-Sem-7)
3. The aggregate plan must be coordinated with the plans of the sales and
marketing departments.
4. Because the aggregate production plan includes products that are
currently in production, it must also consider the present and future
inventory levels of those products and their component parts.
5. Because new products currently being developed will also be included in
the aggregate plan, the marketing plans and promotions for current
products and new products must be reconciled against the total capacity
resources available to the company.
b. Master Production Schedule (MPS) :
1. The production quantities of the major product lines listed in the
aggregate plan must be converted into a very specific schedule of
individual products, known as the master production schedule (MPS).
2. It is a list of the products to be manufactured, when they should be
completed and delivered, and in what quantities.
3. Products included in the MPS divide into three categories :
i. Firm customer orders,
ii. Forecasted demand, and
iii. Spare parts.
4. Proportions in each category vary for different companies, and in some
cases one or more categories are omitted.
5. In the case of customer orders for specific products, the company is
usually obligated to deliver the item by a particular date that has been
promised by the sales departments.
6. In the second category, production output quantities are based on
statistical forecasting techniques applied to previous demand patterns,
estimates by the sales staff, and other sources.
7. The third category consists of repair parts that either will be stocked in
the company’s service department or sent directly to the customer.
8. The MPS is generally considered to be a medium range plan since it
must take into account the lead times to order raw materials and
components, produce parts in the factory, and then assembly the end
products.
PART-14
MRP, MRP II, ERP.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
CAD/CAM 4–35 A (ME-Sem-7)
Que 4.29. What is material requirement planning ? What are the
three inputs to the MRP processor ?
Answer
A. MRP :
1. Material requirements planning (MRP) is a computational technique
that converts the master schedule for end products into a detailed
schedule for the raw materials and components used in the end products.
2. The detailed schedule identifies the quantities of each raw material
and component item. It also indicates when each item must be ordered
and delivered to meet the master schedule for final products.
3. MRP is often thought of as a method of inventory control. It is both an
effective tool for minimizing unnecessary inventory investment and a
useful technique in production scheduling and purchasing of materials.
4. MRP is the appropriate techniques for determining quantities of
dependent demand items.
5. These items constitute the inventory of manufacturing : raw materials,
work in process (WIP), components parts, and subassemblies.
B. Inputs to the MRP Processor :
1. The master production schedule,
2. The bill of materials file and other engineering and manufacturing
data, and
3. The inventory record file.
Master
production
schedule
Material Bill-of-materials
Inventory
requirements and other design
record
planning and manufacturing
file
data
Planned order releases for
i. Purchasing, and
ii. Manufacturing, and other
output reports
Fig. 4.29.1. Structure of an material requirement planning system.
Que 4.30. Briefly discuss the manufacturing resource planning
(MRP II).
Robotics & Quality Function Deployment 4–36 A (ME-Sem-7)
Answer
1. Manufacturing resource planning can be defined as a computer based
system for planning, scheduling, and controlling the materials,
resources, and supporting activities needed to meet the master
production schedule.
2. MRP II is a closed-loop system that integrates and coordinates the
major functions of the business involved in production.
3. This means that MRP II incorporates feedback of data on various aspects
of operating performance so that corrective action can be taken in a
timely manner that is MRP II includes shop floor control.
4. MRP II can be considered to consist of three major modules, as illustrated
in Fig. 4.30.1.
i. Material requirements planning, or MRP,
ii. Capacity planning, and
iii. Shop floor control
5. The MRP module accomplishes the planning function for materials,
parts, and assemblies, based on the master production schedule, and it
provides a factory production schedule that matches the arrival of
materials determined by MRP.
6. Manufacturing resource planning is an improvement over material
requirements planning because it includes production capacity and
shop floor feedback in its computations.
Manufacturing resource planning (MRP II)
Mater Material Capacity
Shop floor
production requirements requirements
control
schedule planning planning
Fig. 4.30.1.
Que 4.31. What is enterprise resource planning (ERP) ?
Answer
1. Enterprise resource planning (ERP) is a computer software system
that organizes and integrates all of the business functions and
associated data of an organization through a single, central database.
2. The functions include sales, marketing, purchasing, design, production,
distribution, finance and human resources.
CAD/CAM 4–37 A (ME-Sem-7)
3. In the software of an ERP system, these business functions are
organized into modules, each focused on a different function or group
of functions within the organization.
4. Each module and the business functions within it are designed with
“best practices” in mind, which means that the software vendor has
attempted to incorporate the best way to accomplish the business
function.
5. The modules are integrated through the ERP framework to accomplish
transactions that may affect several functional areas.
6. Enterprise resource planning commonly runs as a client server system,
which means that users access and utilize the system through personal
computers at their respective workplaces.
7. ERP operates on a company-wide basis; it is not a plant-based system
as MRP applications often are.
8. In ERP, everyone in the organization has access to the same sets of
data according to their individual job responsibilities.
9. When a customer orders a product and the order is entered into the
ERP system, all of the business functions that are affected by the
order, such as inventory records, purchasing, production schedules,
shipping and invoicing, are updated in the central database.
10. As powerful a tool as ERP is, its successful implementation requires a
discipline throughout the organization of recording events as they
occur and making sure each record is accurate.
Enterprise resource planning (ERP)
Engineering Manufacturing
Supply chain Project
data resource
management management
management planning
Human Customer
Financial
resource relationship
management
management management
Fig. 4.31.1. Enterprise resource planning (ERP).
PART-15
Capacity Planning.
Robotics & Quality Function Deployment 4–38 A (ME-Sem-7)
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 4.32. What is capacity planning ?
Answer
1. Capacity planning consists of determining what labor and equipment
resources are required to meet the current MPS as well as long-term
future production needs of the firm.
2. Capacity planning also identifies the limitations of the available
production resources to prevent the planning of an unrealistic master
schedule.
3. Capacity planning is often accomplished in three stages, first, during
aggregate production planning; second, when the master production
schedule is established; and third, when the MRP computations are
done.
4. During aggregate production planning, the term resource requirements
planning (RRP) denotes the evaluation process used to make sure that
the aggregate plan is feasible. Downward adjustments may be required
if the plan is too ambitious.
5. RRP may also be used to plan for future increases in capacity to match
an ambitious plan or to anticipate demand increases in the future.
6. Next, in the MPS stage, a capacity calculation called rough cut capacity
planning (RCCP) is made to assess the feasibility of the master schedule.
7. Such a calculation indicates whether there is a significant violation of
production capacity in the MPS.
8. Accordingly, a third capacity calculation is made at the time the MRP
schedule is prepared called capacity requirements planning (CRP), this
detailed calculation determines whether there is sufficient production
capacity in the individual departments and in the work cells to complete
the specific parts and assemblies that have been scheduled by MRP.
9. If the schedule is not compatible with capacity, then either the plant
capacity or the master schedule must be adjusted.
CAD/CAM 4–39 A (ME-Sem-7)
Aggregate RRP
production
planning
Master RCCP Capacity
production
planning
schedule
Material
CRP
requirements
planning
Fig. 4.32.1. Three stages of capacity planning :
i. Resource requirements planning (RRP),
ii. Rought-cut capacity planning (RCCP), and
iii. Capacity requirements planning (CRP).
CAD/CAM 5–1 A (ME-Sem-7)
5 Rapid Prototyping
and Flexible
Manufacturing Cells
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Need for Rapid Prototyping ....................... 5–2A to 5–3A
Part-2 : Basic Principles and ..................................... 5–3A to 5–4A
Advantages of RP
Part-3 : General Features and ................................. 5–4A to 5–5A
Classification of Different
RP Techniques with Examples
Part-4 : Introduction to Three ................................. 5–5A to 5–9A
Representative RP Techniques :
Fusion Deposition Modeling,
Laminated Object Manufacturing,
and Stereo-lithography
Part-5 : System and Characteristics ..................... 5–9A to 5–14A
Part-6 : Economics and Technological ............... 5–14A to 5–15A
Justification
Part-7 : Planning, Installation, ............................. 5–15A to 5–18A
Operation and Evaluation Issues
Part-8 : Role of Group Technology ..................... 5–18A to 5–19A
and JIT in FMS
Part-9 : Typical Case Studies ................................ 5–19A to 5–21A
Future Prospects
Rapid Prototyping & Flexible Manufacturing Cells 5–2 A (ME-Sem-7)
PART-1
Need for Rapid Prototyping.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Rapid Prototyping : It is a group of techniques used to quickly
fabricate a scale model of a physical part or assembly using 3D
CAD.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 5.1. What is the need for rapid prototyping ?
Answer
Need for rapid prototyping are as follows :
a. Clear Understanding and Visualization of the Design Concepts :
1. It is easier to understand the design rather than struggling to visualize
by looking the design on the screen or paper.
2. It helps the designer to understand the look and feel of the design
rather than having a virtual design through CAD model.
b. Quick Changes or Modification :
1. Having a visible and tangible model provides manufacturers with the
better understanding of how the product may look like.
2. It helps them analyze the actual design and suggest correction or
modifications quickly which can be incorporated to make the product
design perfect before advancing to the manufacturing stage.
c. Reduction in Monetary Investment and Time Consumption for
Designing :
1. Rapid prototyping creates a model very similar to what an actual product
can look like. This eliminates a need for preparing molds and use of
other software to create a model.
2. The existing CAD software and printing equipment are sufficient to
create a rapid prototype which gives you a feel of an actual model.
3. This not only result in saving of time and cost invested in creating the
actual models but also results in overall reduction of your time to market.
CAD/CAM 5–3 A (ME-Sem-7)
d. Product Customizations :
1. Rapid prototyping empowers us in developing the customized products
with ease.
2. A small modification in CAD model is sufficient to create a modification
in the existing design without the need for any special tool or process.
e. Higher Accuracy Level in Designing :
1. The material used for the prototyping has similar properties of the
actual product. This makes it easier to perform the physical tests and
identify the flaws and errors prior to the actual manufacturing process.
2. This helps manufacturers to avoid the risk of halting the manufacturing
process at a later stage.
PART-2
Basic Principles and Advantages of RP.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 5.2. Discuss the basic principle of rapid prototyping.
Answer
1. Rapid prototyping technologies are generally based upon a layered
manufacturing (LM) concept.
2. In this method, first a 3D model of the object as a CAD file is transferred
into the system and then sliced into equidistant layers with parallel
horizontal planes.
3. The system then generates trajectories for the material to be added in
each layer by the rapid prototype machine.
4. The sacrificial supporting layers are also simultaneously generated to
keep the unconnected layers in proper position.
5. The resultant separate cross-sectional layer of very small thickness
when assemble (glued) together will form the final object required.
6. There are a number of ways the 3D CAD design data can be represented.
However, the STL (standard triangular language) format is most common
and is generally supported by all the RP equipment.
7. Each physical layer from above is then deposited and fused to the previous
layer using one of the many available depositions and fusion technologies.
Rapid Prototyping & Flexible Manufacturing Cells 5–4 A (ME-Sem-7)
Que 5.3. Write down the advantages, limitations and applications
of rapid prototyping.
Answer
A. Advantages of Rapid Prototyping :
1. Product development time and cost will be greatly reduced compared to
the conventional prototyping techniques used.
2. By reducing the prototype-development time, the total product design
cycle will be shorter, thereby getting products to the market sooner.
3. Communications between marketing, engineering, manufacturing, and
purchasing are enhanced due to the availability of physical prototypes.
4. It is possible to have the physical model at critical design reviews, thereby
the decision making process becomes more accurate.
5. In some cases, it is possible to perform functional prototype testing
before committing to the actual tooling.
B. Limitations of Rapid Prototyping :
1. The initial cost of the equipment is relatively high.
2. The build material choices for different processes are limited in terms of
their properties. In some cases, only plastic materials could be used.
C. Applications of Rapid Prototyping :
1. Checking the feasibility of new design concepts.
2. Making functional models with the limitation of the material to do any
testing.
3. Conducting market tests/evaluation.
4. Creating tooling for metal casting (investment casting, permanent mould
casting, die casting) injection moulding, and some metal forming
processes.
5. Fabricating a master pattern for silicon and epoxy moulds.
6. Manufacture many exact copies of models simultaneously.
PART-3
General Features and Classification of Different RP Techniques
with Examples.
CAD/CAM 5–5 A (ME-Sem-7)
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 5.4. Write down the methodology of rapid prototyping
techniques.
Answer
The basic methodology of rapid prototyping techniques can be
summarised as follows :
1. A CAD model is constructed and then converted to STL (standard
triangular language) format to input into the software for creating the
slice data.
2. The software processes the STL file by creating sliced layers of the
model. The resolution of the built model depends upon the layer
thickness.
3. The RP device creates the first layer of the physical model. The model
is then lowered by the one layer thickness, and the process is repeated
until the model is completed.
4. The model and any supports are removed; the surface of the model is
then finished and cleaned.
Que 5.5. Give the classification of rapid prototyping techniques.
Answer
The following are types of rapid prototyping techniques.
1. Selective laser sintering (SLS).
2. Laminated object manufacturing (LOM).
3. Laser engineering net shaping (LENS).
4. Fused deposition modeling (FDM).
5. Stereo-lithography (SLA).
PART-4
Introduction to Three Representative RP Techniques : Fusion
Deposition Modeling, Laminated Object Manufacturing,
and Stereo-lithography.
Rapid Prototyping & Flexible Manufacturing Cells 5–6 A (ME-Sem-7)
CONCEPT OUTLINE
LOM : Laminated object manufacturing is a type of solid rapid
prototyping used to create low cost 3D model using lasers.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 5.6. Discuss the fusion deposition modeling techniques in
details with neat sketch. Also write its advantages and limitations.
Answer
A. Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) :
1. In this process a plastic filament is unwound from a coil and supplies
material to an extrusion nozzle.
2. The nozzle is heated to melt the plastic and has a mechanism which
allows the flow of the melted plastic to be turned ON and OFF.
Filament from a coil
Feeder
Melter
Extrusion nozzle
Solidified plaster
(to form model)
Platform
Fig. 5.6.1. Schematic of fused deposition
modeling device.
3. The nozzle is mounted to a mechanical platform, which can be moved in
both horizontal and vertical directions.
4. As the nozzle is moved over the table in the required geometry it deposits
a thin bead of extruded plastic to form each layer.
5. The plastic hardens immediately after being squirted from the nozzle
and bonds to the layer below. Several materials are available for the
process including investment casting wax.
CAD/CAM 5–7 A (ME-Sem-7)
6. Some FDM systems utilise two extrusion nozzles – one for the deposition
of a build material, and second for deposition of washable material to
make support environment.
B. Advantages :
1. Easy material changeover.
2. Office environment friendly.
3. Economical machines.
4. Variety of materials.
C. Limitations :
1. Not good for small features, details and thin walls.
2. Supports required on some materials / geometries.
3. Support design / integration / removal is difficult.
4. Slow on large / dense parts.
Que 5.7. Explain the laminated object manufacturing in detail
along with its advantages and disadvantages.
Answer
A. Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) :
1. Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) is a rapid prototyping system
developed by Helisys Inc.
2. Laminated object manufacturing is a method of 3D printing.
3. During the LOM process, layers of plastic or paper are fused together
using heat and pressure, and then cut into the desired shape with a
computer controlled laser or blade.
4. Objects printed with this technique may be additionally modified by
machining or drilling after printing.
5. Typical layer resolution for this process is defined by the material
feedstock and usually ranges in thickness from one to a few sheets of
copy paper.
6. The most common materials used in LOM are thermoplastics such as
PVC, paper, composites (Ferrous metals, non-ferrous metals, ceramics)
7. LOM is used primarily for creating scaled models and conceptual
prototypes that can be tested for form or design.
8. It can also be used to make patterns for use in traditional manufacturing,
such as sand molded casting, a metal casting process and for investment
casting patterns.
B. Advantages :
1. Ability to produce larger-scaled models.
2. Uses very inexpensive paper.
Rapid Prototyping & Flexible Manufacturing Cells 5–8 A (ME-Sem-7)
3. Fast and accurate.
4. Good handling strength.
C. Disadvantages :
1. Paper is cheap but is not very stable.
2. Produce smoke or fumes.
3. Not ideal for making complex geometries.
4. It is not used to create functional prototypes.
Que 5.8. Discuss the stereo-lithography in detail with neat sketch.
Also write its advantages and disadvantages.
Answer
A. Stereo-lithography (SLA) :
1. The most commonly used process for rapid prototyping is stereo-
lithography or photolithography.
2. This system build shapes using light to selectively solidify photocurable
resins. A stereo-lithography machine (Fig. 5.8.1), converts three-
dimensional CAD data of physical objects into vertical stacks of slices.
Scanning mirror
Laser
Cured resin
(to form model)
Recoating bar
Liquid resin
Platform
Fig. 5.8.1. Schematic of stereo-lithography device.
3. A low-power ultraviolet laser beam is then carefully traced across a vat
of photocurable liquid polymer, producing a single layer of solidified
resin the first slice of the object under construction.
4. The laser beam (UV helium-cadmium or argon) is guided across the
surface (by servo-controlled galvanometer mirrors), drawing a cross-
sectional pattern in the x-y plane to form a solid section.
5. The initial layer is then lowered incrementally by the height of the next
slice. A re-coating blade passes over the surface to ensure that a consistent
layer thickness is achieved.
CAD/CAM 5–9 A (ME-Sem-7)
6. The re-coating blade was found to be necessary without which air
entrapment caused build problems.
7. This procedure is repeated until the entire part is fabricated. On
completion, the model is carefully removed and washed in a solvent to
remove uncured resin and placed in an UV oven to ensure all resin is
cured.
B. Advantages :
1. Achieving accuracy in industries.
2. Capable of high detail and thin walls.
3. Good surface finish.
C. Limitations :
1. Requires post-curing.
2. Limited materials (photo polymers).
3. Support structures always needed. Removal of support structures can
be difficult.
PART-5
System and Characteristics.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Types of FMS :
i. Single machine cell.
ii. Flexible manufacturing cell.
iii. Flexible manufacturing system.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 5.9. Define the term flexible manufacturing system. Name
main building blocks of FMS, hardware and software components
of FMS.
Answer
A. Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS) :
1. A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is a highly automated group
technology machine cell.
Rapid Prototyping & Flexible Manufacturing Cells 5–10 A (ME-Sem-7)
2. It consists of a group of processing workstations (usually CNC machine
tools) interconnected by an automated material handling and storage
system, and controlled by a distributed computer system.
3. The reason the FMS is called flexible is that it is capable of processing a
variety of different part styles simultaneously at the various workstations,
and the mix of part styles and quantities of production can be adjusted in
response to changing demand patterns.
4. The FMS is not suited for mid-variety, mid-volume production range.
5. The initials FMS are sometimes used to denote the term Flexible
Machining System. The machining process is presently the largest
application area for FMS technology.
6. However, it seems appropriate to interpret FMS in its broader meaning
allowing for a wide range of possible applications beyond machining.
7. A FMS relies on the principles of group technology.
8. No manufacturing system can be completely flexible. There are limits to
the range of parts or products that can be made in an FMS.
9. Accordingly, a flexible manufacturing system is designed to produce
parts (or products) within a defined range of styles, sizes, and processes.
Raw
Material Material Rough
Raw Handling Fabrication Material
Material Robot
Material
Inventory Handling
Robot
Rough
Material
Goods In Structure of Flexible Machining
Manufacturing System
Product Out Machined
Part
Material
Handling
Assembly Robot
Material Quality Machined
Handling Control Part
Robot Inspected
Part
Fig. 5.9.1. Structure of flexible manufacturing system.
B. Building Blocks (and their Modules) of an FMS : There are
following four main components of a flexible manufacturing system :
1. Processing stations,
2. Material handling and storage station,
CAD/CAM 5–11 A (ME-Sem-7)
3. Computer control system, and
4. Human labour.
C. FMS Involves Following Hardware Components :
1. Machine tools,
2. Handling systems,
3. Tool systems,
4. Transport systems,
D. FMS Involves Following Software Components :
1. Control systems,
2. Planning systems,
3. CAD/CAM.
Tool presetting
device Tool
handling
block
Tool store
Tool transport
Horizontal Workpiece handling block
machining
centre (S )
Transport control Vertical machining Set up/Load-unload
centre (S ) station
Inter- Workpiece store
Control stations face Turning centre (S)
Workpiece
Master control Working centre (S) transport
(RTV/AGV/GR)
Other machines : A module
Control block
Machining system block
Fig. 5.9.2. Building blocks (and their modules) of an FMS.
Rapid Prototyping & Flexible Manufacturing Cells 5–12 A (ME-Sem-7)
Que 5.10. What are characteristics of FMS ?
Answer
1. An FMS is distinguished from an automated production line by its ability
to process more than one product style simultaneously.
2. Complete control of the manufacturing system by the host computer.
3. FMS can make changes in production schedule in order to meet the
demands on different products.
4. Automatic continuous cycling of individual machines.
5. At any moment, each machine in the system may be processing a different
part type.
Que 5.11. State and explain the principle objectives of FMS ? Also
give the area of applications of FMS in industries with a suitable
block diagram. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10
Answer
A. Principle Objective of FMS :
1. Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS) has been used already for a long
time. Due to increasing competition among companies, use of different
kind of flexible production systems is also increasing.
2. The main objectives to implement the FMS in the company are to produce
different parts or part families more efficiently.
3. Efficiency in FMS means minimizing system unbalance and maximizing
system throughput, while satisfying the technological constraint.
4. Selection of rational FMS layout and system components in preliminary
design stage is one the most difficult problem.
CAD/CAM 5–13 A (ME-Sem-7)
B. Area of Applications of FMS :
Tertiary industry
Service Process Manufacturing
Banking, Chemicals,
retail, loads, etc. Planning Technical
transport, Production
services
etc.
Financial
capacity CAD
production CAQ
CAT
Jobs Batch Series
Small Large Flexible Transfer line,
transfer line rotary, linear
Fig. 5.11.1. Area of applications of FMS in an industry.
Que 5.12. Discuss the flexible manufacturing cell in brief.
Answer
1. Flexible manufacturing cell (FMC) consists of several workstations (NC,
CNC) which have been served by single industrial robot.
2. It consists of various parts that are stored in storage buffer.
3. The load/unload station receives part from material handling system
and stores it at storage buffer pallets.
4. The single robot supplies the workparts to various workstations for
processing.
5. Normally dedicated groups of workstations have been grouped in FMC.
6. The flexible manufacturing cells provides advantages as less capital
investment, less sophisticated computer control, ease in operation, ease
in understanding.
Rapid Prototyping & Flexible Manufacturing Cells 5–14 A (ME-Sem-7)
Machine toool
processing
workstation
Material
Computer handling
control systems
Flexible
manufacturing
cell
Buffer Inspection
storage system
Robot
Fig. 5.12.2. FMC components.
Que 5.13. Differentiate between FMC and FMS.
Answer
S. No. Flexible Manufacturing Flexible Manufacturing
Cell (FMC) System (FMS)
1. A flexible manufacturing cell A flexible manufacturing system
(FMC) consists of two or three (FMS) usually has four or more
processing workstations with processing stations connected
a part handling system. mechanically by a common parts
handling system and electronically
by a distributed computer system.
2. FMC has two o r thre e FMS has four or more machines.
machines.
3. FMC is smaller and easy than FMS is generally larger and more
the FMS. sophisticated and more complex
than the FMC.
PART-6
Economics and Technological Justification.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
CAD/CAM 5–15 A (ME-Sem-7)
Que 5.14. What are the economical and technological aspects to
optimize the overall efficiency and effectiveness of FMS.
Answer
The economical and technological aspects to optimize the overall
efficiency and effectiveness of FMS are as follows :
a. Minimizing the Process Cycle Time : The process must be designed
to minimize machining and handling.
b. Maximizing the Utilization of each Machine : This can be done by
balancing the work load in the system and real time scheduling.
c. Use of Automated Storage System to Keep Work Ready for
Machines to Process : The raw work parts must be replenished as
and when needed to avoid starving the work centres.
d. Provision of Adequate Sensors for the Detection of Errors or
Problems : This includes the detection of the presence and absence of
parts, jamming, tool wear, machine failures, and so on. This can be done
with the use of vision systems, limit switches, proximity switches etc.
e. Backup Capabilities : Redundancy is important in ensuring trouble-
free operation of the FMS. The system should be able to run even when
failures occur.
f. Incorporation of In-Process or Post-Process Measurement and
Inspection Techniques : These assure product quality and reduce
scrap and rework.
g. Use of Identification Marking Techniques : Bar codes and RFID
(Radio-frequency identification) tags are now popular for identifying
products as well as components. This permits automatic tracking of
workpieces and tools.
Planning, Installation, Operation and Evaluation Issues.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 5.15. With a block diagram explain the main building blocks
of FMS and problems in implementing it. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
Rapid Prototyping & Flexible Manufacturing Cells 5–16 A (ME-Sem-7)
Answer
A. Building Blocks of FMS : Refer Q. 5.9, Page 5–9A, Unit-5.
B. Problems Faced in Implementation of FMS :
a. Visualisation :
1. This refers to planning phase of FMS.
2. The company should be able to visualise to what extent they should go
for FMS.
3. There have been cases where a poorly planned FMS has added to woes
of company.
4. FMS planners need to understand the basic character of the enterprise.
b. Integration Problem :
1. An FMS is supposed to provide a number of benefits when it is very well
knit with other departments of the company.
2. Work in other departments should not suffer due to implementation of
FMS.
3. The magnitude of the task in integrating an FMS is massive.
4. Considerable effort is generally required to integrate and optimise the
system components because of the problem to link existing systems.
5. FMS installations are seldom designed to be completely self contained,
the majority of them being served by existing factory systems which
may include :
i. Requirement planning for materials,
ii. Job scheduling,
iii. Tool management,
iv. Material handling to and from the system, and
v. Maintenance.
c. Communication :
1. An FMS communication system is supposed to fulfill the following three
requirements :
i. To enable files to be sent and received from devices within the
FMS.
ii. To carry control instructions to the device.
iii. To carry status information from the devices.
2. The procedure of communication is made more difficult by the fact that
there are still no standardised interfaces for linking machines.
d. Financial Justification : Since implementing an FMS requires huge
capital investment, an accurate estimate has to be made, to what extent
it can improve the profits of an organization.
CAD/CAM 5–17 A (ME-Sem-7)
Que 5.16. Discuss the operational issues related to FMS in detail.
Answer
The operational issues related to FMS are as follows :
a. Scheduling and Dispatching :
1. Scheduling of production in the FMS is dictated by the master production
schedule.
2. Dispatching is concerned with launching of parts into the system at the
appropriate times.
b. Machine Loading : This problem is concerned with deciding which
parts will be processed on which machines and then allocating tooling
and other resources to those machines to accomplish the required
production schedule.
c. Part Routing : Routing decision involves selecting the routes that
should be followed by each part in the production mix in order to
maximize use of workstation resources.
d. Part Grouping : Part types must be grouped for simultaneous
production, given limitations on available tooling and other resources at
workstations.
e. Tool Management : Managing the available tools involves making
decisions on when to change tools and how to allocate tools to
workstations in the system.
f. Pallet and Fixture Allocation : This problem is concerned with the
allocation of pallets and fixtures to the parts being produced in the
system.
Que 5.17. Discuss the planning and design issues related to FMS.
Answer
The planning and design issues related to FMS are as follows :
a. Part Family Considerations :
1. Any flexible manufacturing system must be designed to process a limited
range of part or product styles.
2. In effect, the part family to be processed on the FMS must be defined.
Part families can be based on product commonality as well as part
similarity.
b. Processing Requirements : The types of parts and their processing
requirements determine the types of processing equipment that will be
used in the system.
c. Physical Characteristics of the Work Parts : The size and weight
of the parts determine the sizes of the machines and the size of the
material handling system that must be used.
Rapid Prototyping & Flexible Manufacturing Cells 5–18 A (ME-Sem-7)
d. Production Volume :
1. Quantities to be produced by the system determine how many machines
of each type will be required.
2. Production volume is also a factor in selecting the most appropriate type
of material handling equipment for the system.
PART-8
Role of Group Technology and JIT in FMS.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 5.18. What is the role of Just In Time (JIT) In FMS?
Answer
1. Just in time is a management philosophy and not a technique.
2. It originally referred to the production of goods to meet customer demand
exactly, in time, quality and quantity, whether the `customer' is the final
purchaser of the product or another process further along the production
line.
3. It has now come to mean producing with minimum waste. Waste is
taken in its most general sense and includes time and resources as well
as materials.
4. It has been widely reported that the proper use of JIT manufacturing
has resulted in increases in quality, productivity and efficiency, improved
communication and decreases in costs and wastes.
5. The potential of gaining these benefits has made many organizations
question and consider this approach to manufacturing. For these reasons,
JIT has become a very popular subject currently being investigated by
many worldwide organizations.
6. The ability to achieve higher standards of productivity without sacrificing
quality is also an important goal of a manufacturing firm. Over the long
run, application of JIT manufacturing may assist these companies in
achieving these goals of manufacturing excellence.
Que 5.19. What is the role of group technology (GT) in FMS ?
CAD/CAM 5–19 A (ME-Sem-7)
Answer
1. Group technology is an approach to manufacturing in which similar
parts are identified and grouped together in order to take advantage of
their similarities in design and production.
2. Similarities among parts permit them to be classified into part families.
In each part family, processing steps are similar.
3. The improvement is typically achieved by organizing the production
facilities into manufacturing cells that specialize in production of certain
part families.
4. A group of parts that possess similarities in geometric shape and size, or
in the processing steps used in their manufacture.
5. The idea of GT can also be used to build larger groups, such as for
instance, a department, possibly composed of several automated cells or
several manned machines of various types.
6. GT can produce considerable improvements where it is appropriate and
the basic idea can be utilized in all manufacturing environments.
7. Group technology can be used for product design and manufacturing
system design. Components having similar shape are grouped together
into design families, and a new design can be created by modifying an
existing component design from the same family.
PART-9
Typical Case Studies Future Prospects.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 5.20. Discuss the case study of tool management of FMS.
Answer
1. Assumed FMS is designed to machine 2360 different parts of valves.
2. The major components are the valve bodies and bonnets.
3. Tool management is one of the area that is investigated.
4. Initially rationalisation of the tools is carried out to reduce the variety of
the tools required. Still the required number is large as follows :
i. 275 for the machining centres.
ii. 60 for the out facing machines.
Rapid Prototyping & Flexible Manufacturing Cells 5–20 A (ME-Sem-7)
5. Tool changing has to be done very fast because of the short machining
time of the individual tools are well as the flexibility of components
coming to the machine.
6. The machining centre has to tool magazine with 80 tool capability.
7. External tool storage and supply is ruled out in view of the short
machining time. As a result the tools are grouped such that not all jobs
can be done on all machines.
8. Though this restricts the flexibility was found to be cost optimum. This
resulted in
i. 75 % jobs can be done on all machines.
ii. 15 % jobs can be done on certain machines.
iii. 10 % jobs can be done on one machining centre.
Que 5.21. Discuss the case study of raw material and finished
parts managements.
Answer
1. The flow of material within the FMS is shown in Fig. 5.21.1.
2. In order establish the feasibility of the system and develop the procedures,
a simulation study was undertaken. The objectives of simulation that
were set forth are :
i. Determine feasibility of operation,
ii. Establish the degree of flexibility,
iii. Confirm assumptions made,
iv. To find the effect of changing parameters, and
v. To find the total utilisation of the resources.
Response
Raw material time ?
Load station Two
storage
Machining
Finished part Unload
Two
store station
Fig. 5.21.1. Movement of raw material in the FMS.
3. Based on the simulation runs the following points were discovered which
allowed for the modification of the system.
CAD/CAM 5–21 A (ME-Sem-7)
i. Based on the capacity only 4 machining centres and 2 out facer
machines are required. However when the simulation runs were
made, the machining centres were very highly used upto 95 %
which will not give sufficient time for maintenance. Hence one
more machining centre was added which brought the utilisation to
about 85 %.
ii. With a total of 7 automated guided vehicles (AGVs) in the system
the total throughput was less. When they are increased to 8, the
output increased by about 4 %. A further increase to 9 has increased
the output marginally and hence it is decided to use 8 AGVs.
iii. Similar study was done about the number of pallets in the system.
As the number increased from 23 to 25 there is continuous
improvement. However after that the improvement in output is
only marginal.
4. The functions served by the online control are as follows :
i. Update tool master data file.
ii. Record of components to be manufactured.
iii. Record production status of workpieces.
iv. Record position of pallets in the system. Provide error reports.
v. Update NC part programs.
vi. Organise fixture stores.
CAD/CAM SQ–1 A (ME-Sem-7)
Computer Graphics
1 and Geometric
Modeling
(2 Marks Questions)
1.1. Discuss in brief about point plotting.
Ans. Point plotting is an elementary mathematical skill required in
analytical geometry. The frame buffer display is an example of a
point plotting device.
1.2. What are the different line generating algorithms ?
Ans. There are basically three types of algorithm used for generating
line :
1. Bresenham’s line drawing algorithm,
2. Digital differential analyzer (DDA) algorithm, and
3. Algorithm for line drawing using slope method.
1.3. State the advantages of Bresenham line algorithm.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. Advantages of bresenham line algorithm are :
1. It provides high speed.
2. It does not have rounding and floating point operation.
1.4. What do you mean by CAD ? AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans. Computer aided design (CAD) can be defined as the use of
computer systems to assist in the creation, modification, analysis,
or optimization of a design.
1.5. What are the elements of CAD ? AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans. Elements of CAD are :
1. The operating system which controls the basic housekeeping
operations in the computer.
2. Software packages used for geometric modeling.
3. Application software which includes the programs for design
analysis and synthesis.
1.6. Write down the applications of CAD.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
2 Marks Questions SQ–2 A (ME-Sem-7)
Ans. Applications of CAD in industry are :
1. Colour selection of solid models.
2. Stress analysis of machine components, buildings and bridges.
1.7. What are the limitations of CAD in design ?
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. Limitations of CAD in design are as follows :
1. Work can be lost because of the sudden breakdown of computers.
2. Work is prone to viruses.
3. High production or purchasing cost for new systems.
1.8. What is translation ?
Ans. Any graphical entity can be translated or move in x- or y-direction
by using translation routine.
1.9. What is concatenated transformation ?
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. Concatenated transformations are simply obtained by multiplying
the matrices of the corresponding individual transformations.
1.10. What is solid modeling ?
Ans. Solid modeling, also sometimes referred as volume modeling, is
the most widely used approach for representing solids as it gives
complete description of the solid.
1.11. Write down any two application of solid modeling.
Ans. Applications of solid modeling are :
1. Hidden lines can be removed by using solid modeling.
2. It can be used to calculate mass, centre of gravity and moment of
inertia etc.
1.12. Describe the most common primitives used in solid
modeling briefly. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. The most common primitives used in solid modeling are :
a. Cylinder : This primitive is a right circular cylinder whose geometry
is defined by its radius R and length H.
b. Cone : This is a right circular cone or a frustum of a right circular
cone whose radius R, top radius and height H are user defined.
c. Block : This is a box whose geometrical data is its width, height
and depth.
1.13. States the different types of modeling in mechanical
engineering field. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
CAD/CAM SQ–3 A (ME-Sem-7)
Ans. Different types of modeling in mechanical engineering field are :
1. Solid modeling,
2. Wire-frame modeling,
3. Surface modeling, and
4. Realistic modeling.
1.14. Give Euler’s formula used in solid modeling.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. Euler’s formula used in solid modeling are :
1. For a simple polyhedron,
V – E + F = 0
2. For a polyhedron with a hole,
V – E + F = 2G
1.15. What do you understand by analytical curve and synthetic
curve ? AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. Analytical Curve : These can be described by analytical equation.
Examples : Lines, circles and conics.
Synthetic Curve : These can be described by a set of control
points. Examples : Splines and Bezier curves.
1.16. Define spline curve.
Ans. The term spline curve referred as a curve with a piecewise cubic
polynomial function whose first and second derivatives are
continuous across the various curve sections.
1.17. What is the advantage of Bezier curve over the cubic spline
curve ?
Ans. The advantage of Bezier curve over the cubic spline curve is that
the direction of the curve at the joints can be defined and changed
simply by specifying the position of the control point.
1.18. Write down the disadvantage of Bezier curve.
Ans. The main disadvantage of Bezier curve is that the change in control
points not only affects the shape of the curve near the control
points but has the influence throughout the curve.
1.19. Write down any two properties of Bezier curve.
Ans. Properties of Bezier curve are as follows :
1. The curve is tangent to the corresponding edge of control points
at the end points.
2. Bezier curve does not oscillate.
1.20. Describe any two differences between Bezier curve and
cubic spline curve. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
2 Marks Questions SQ–4 A (ME-Sem-7)
Ans.
S. No. Bezier Curve Cubic Spline Curve
1. The direction of the curve at The direction of the curve at
joints can be defined. point cannot be defined.
2. The direction o f curve The dire ctio n cannot be
changed simply by specifying changed.
the position of the control
point.
1.21. What is Bezier surfaces ? AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. Bezier surfaces are mathematical splines used in computer
graphics, computer aided design, and finite element modeling. As
with the Bezier curve, a Bezier surface is defined by a set of
control points.
1.22. Differentiate between plane surface and ruled surface with
neat sketch. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans.
S. No. Plane Surface Ruled Surface
1. The plane surface can be This ruled surface is ideal for
used to ge ne rate cross- representing surfaces that do not
sections by intersecting a have any twists or kinks.
solid with it.
2. For example : Fig. 1.22.1 For example : Fig. 1.22.2 show
show planar surface. ruled surface.
Rail (boundary curve)
One plane
Fig. 1.22.1. Plane surface.
Rail (boundary)
Fig. 1.22.2. Ruled surface.
CAD/CAM SQ–5 A (ME-Sem-7)
1.23. Mention the differences between interpolation and
approximation. AKTU 2015-16, 2018-19; Marks 02
Ans.
S. No. Interpolation Approximation
1. In this method, the polynomial In this method, the curve is
spline curve sections are traced traced without passing through
such that the curve passes the specified control points.
through each specified control
points.
1.24. What do you mean by order of continuity of curves ?
AKTU 2015-16, 2018-19; Marks 02
Ans. Order of continuity of curves are as follows :
Zero Order Continuity : It indicates that the two curves simply
meet.
First Order Continuity : It indicates that the curves must be
tangent at the point of intersection.
Second Order Continuity : It indicates that curvature will be
same.
1.25. What do you mean by output primitives ?
Ans. The output primitives is defined as the drawings and solid models
generated in a CAD package by using certain basic graphical
entities e.g., line, circle, polygon, ellipse etc.
2 Marks Questions SQ–6 A (ME-Sem-7)
Graphics Standard,
Data Storage and
2 Finite Element
Modeling
(2 Marks Questions)
2.1. What do you mean by computer graphics software ?
Ans. Computer graphics software is a sub-branch of computer science
and deals with software to digitally synthesize and manipulate
visual content on computer screen.
2.2. What are the different parts of CAD software ?
Ans. A CAD software can be basically divided into three sub parts :
1. Application software,
2. Computer graphics software, and
3. Applications and graphics information database.
2.3. What are the different parts of graphic software ?
Ans. The graphic software has been divided into two parts :
1. General programming packages, and
2. Special purpose applications packages.
2.4. What are the important functions of a graphic software ?
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans. The important functions of graphic software are :
1. Generation of graphic elements,
2. Display control and windowing functions,
3. Segmenting functions, and
4. User input functions.
2.5. Why are software standards necessary ?
Ans. Software standards are necessary because without using
standards, it is not possible to use program designed for one
hardware system to be used o n another without proper
modification.
2.6. How can be standardization achieved in graphics system?
Ans. The standardization can be achieved by dividing the graphics
system into two sub parts :
1. Kernel system, and
2. Device drier / handler.
CAD/CAM SQ–7 A (ME-Sem-7)
2.9. What do you understand the term PHIGS ?
Ans. PHIGS (Programmer’s Hierarchical Interactive Graphics System)
is basically a library of functions that allow the user to display and
interact with 2D and 3D graphics.
2.8. Define graphic kernel system (GKS).
Ans. GKS is defined in terms of a number of levels describing the levels
of support in terms of facilities.
2.10. What do you mean by IGES ?
Ans. IGES stands for Initial Graphics Exchange Specification. It is
designed to transmit the entire product definition including that of
manufacturing and any other associated information.
2.11. Define STEP.
Ans. Standard for the Exchange of Product Model Data (STEP), is a
series of international standards with the goal of defining data
across the full engineering and manufacturing life cycle.
2.12. What are the various mesh generation techniques ?
Ans. There are two types of mesh generation techniques :
1. Fully automatic process.
2. Semi automatic process.
2.13. Write various modeling software used in computer
graphics.
Ans. The following are the modeling software used in computer graphics :
1. Pro-E,
2. CATIA,
3. I-DEAS,
4. SOLID EDGE.
2.14. What is the need of graphics standards ? List some of the
graphics standards. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans. Need of Graphics Standards :
1. For the exchange of drawing database among software packages.
2. Need for exchanging graphic data between different computer
systems.
Some Graphics Standards :
1. GKS,
2. IGES,
3. CORE.
2 Marks Questions SQ–8 A (ME-Sem-7)
2.15. What is disaggregation in FEM ?
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. The process of modeling a body by dividing it into an equivalent
system of smaller bodies or units (finite elements) interconnected
at points common to two or more elements (nodal points or nodes)
and/or boundary lines and/or surface is called disaggregation.
CAD/CAM SQ–9 A (ME-Sem-7)
CAM and Material
3 Handling in CAM
Environment
(2 Marks Questions)
3.1. What is the scope of CAM ?
Ans. Scope of CAM is as follows :
1. To increase productivity.
2. To create manufacturing database.
3. To help in production and scheduling.
4. To improve communications.
3.2. What is numerical control ?
Ans. Numerical control can be defined as a form of programmable
automation in which the process is controlled by numbers, letters
and symbols.
3.3. What are the basic components of an NC system ?
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans. Basic components of an NC system :
1. Part program,
2. Machine control unit (MCU), and
3. Processing equipment or machine tool.
3.4. What are the advantages of NC machines ?
Ans. Advantages of NC machines are as follows :
1. Higher productivity,
2. Higher precision,
3. Lower cost of production, and
4. Flexibility in manufacturing.
3.5. What are the applications of NC machines ?
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. Applications of NC machines are as follows :
1. Press working machine tools,
2. Welding machines,
3. Automatic drafting, and
4. Plasma arc cutting.
2 Marks Questions SQ–10 A (ME-Sem-7)
3.6. List the differences between CAD/CAM.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans.
S. No. CAD CAM
1. It is Compute r Aide d It is Compute r Aide d
Designing. Manufacturing.
2. It is use d fo r de signing It is used for production purpose.
purposes.
3. Fo r CAD users the end For CAM users the end product
product is a design or image. is an object.
3.7. What is CNC ?
Ans. Computer numerical control (CNC) is an NC system that utilizes a
dedicated, stored program computer to perform some or all of the
basic numerical control functions.
3.8. What are the CNC operating system ?
Ans. The following are the CNC operating system :
1. FANUC, and
2. SINUMERIK.
3.9. Write two G and two M codes used in CNC.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. G Codes :
1. G40 : Cutter compensation cancel,
2. G41 : Cutter compensation ON.
M Codes :
1. M03 : Spindle control for clock wise.
2. M04 : Spindle control for anti-clock wise and rotation.
3.10. What are the main approaches of part programming ?
Ans. The main approaches of part programming are :
1. Manual part programming, and
2. Computer assisted part programming.
3.11. What are the different manual part programming formats
available ?
Ans. The manual part programming is available in three different formats
which are :
1. Word address format,
2. Tab sequential format, and
3. Fixed block format.
CAD/CAM SQ–11 A (ME-Sem-7)
3.12. What are the methods used for improving accuracy of NC
system ? AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. Methods used for improving accuracy of NC system are :
1. NC machine accuracy has been improved over a period of time by
minimizing tool deflection, vibration and chatter.
2. Adaptive control feature of the machine tool also helps in improving
accuracy.
3.13. Name the two types of controller used in the CNC machine
tool. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. Types of controller used in the CNC machine tool are :
1. FANUC controller.
2. SIEMENS controller.
3. HASS controller.
3.14. Distinguish between G and M function.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans.
S. No. G Function M Function
1. Preparatory function is a Miscellaneous functions are the
preset function associated functio ns which affect the
with the mo ve me nt o f running of the machine.
machine axis, e.g. G81, G90.
3.15. What are the different types of material handling devices ?
Ans. Different types of material handling devices are :
1. Industrial trucks,
2. Automated guided vehicle (AGV),
3. Conveyors, and
4. Cranes and hoists.
3.16. Define automated guided vehicle (AGV).
Ans. The automated guided vehicle (AGV) is a programmable mobile
vehicle without the need of human intervention. An AGV is a
vehicle equipped with automatic guidance equipment either
electromagnetic or optical.
3.17. Define automated storage (AS) and retrieval system (RS).
Ans. An AS/RS, sometimes also referred to as automated warehouse is
a combination of equipment and controls which handles the stores
and retrieves material faster and with greater safety and efficiency
than conventional material handling and storage systems.
2 Marks Questions SQ–12 A (ME-Sem-7)
4 Robotics and Quality
Function Deployment
(2 Marks Questions)
4.1. Define robot. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. A robot is a programmable, multi-function manipulator designed to
move material parts, tools, or special devices through variable
programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks.
4.2. What are the laws of robots ?
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans. Following are the laws of robots :
Zeroth Law : A robot must not injure humanity or, through inaction,
allow humanity to come to harm.
First Law : A robot must not harm a human being or, through
inaction, allow one to come to harm.
Second Law : A robot must always obey human beings unless it is
in conflict with a higher order law.
Third Law : A robot must protect itself from harm unless that is in
conflict with a higher order law.
4.3. Mention the classifications of robots.
Ans. Classifications of robots are :
1. Cartesian coordinate configuration,
2. Cylindrical coordinate configuration,
3. Polar or spherical coordinate configuration, and
4. Jointed arm configuration.
CAD/CAM SQ–13 A (ME-Sem-7)
4.4. Differentiate between robot and robotics.
Ans.
S. No. Robot Robotics
1. Robots are artificial devices Robotics is an art of developing
that replicate human work. a robot.
2. A ro bo t is a virtual o r It is technology which enables
mechanical artificial agent. us to design auto mate d
mechanism.
4.5. What is drive system ?
Ans. It is the system which determines the speed of arm movement, the
strength of robot, dynamic performance and to some extent, the
kind of application.
4.6. Write down the types of drive system.
Ans. There are three different types of drive system :
1. Electric drive system,
2. Hydraulic drive system, and
3. Pneumatic drive system.
4.7. Give the types of robot control system.
Ans. There are basically two types of robot control system.
1. Servo robot control system, and
2. Non-servo robot control system.
4.8. What is internal sensor ?
Ans. Feedback sensors provided in robotics are called internal sensors.
4.9. What are the proximity sensors ?
Ans. The sensor which senses the presence or absence of object without
having physical contact.
4.10. Define end effectors.
Ans. It is a device which is attached to the end of wrist arm to perform
specific task.
4.11. List out the gripper design considerations ?
Ans. Gripper design considerations are :
1. Material specification,
2. Part specification,
3. Performance specification, and
4. Source specification.
4.12. What are the levels of robot programming ?
2 Marks Questions SQ–14 A (ME-Sem-7)
Ans. Three levels of robot programming are as follows :
1. Teach in programming,
2. Explicit robot languages, and
3. Task level programming languages.
4.13. Write the name of robot programming languages.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. Programming languages for robotics are :
1. URBI,
2. PYTHON,
3. ROBOTC,
4.14. What is process planning ?
Ans. It is concerned with determining the sequence of individual
manufacturing operations needed to produce a given part or product.
4.15. Define CAPP.
Ans. Computer aided process planning can be defined as a process of
utilizing design information to decide sequence of steps for
manufacturing the product with the help of computer.
4.16. State the advantages of CAPP. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
OR
List the benefits of computer aided process planning.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. Advantages of CAPP are :
1. Reduced lead time for process planning.
2. Increased productivity of process planning.
3. Process rationalization and standardization.
4. Improved legibility.
4.17. What do you mean by variant CAPP ?
Ans. Variant CAPP is based on a group technology coding and
classification approach to identify a larger number of part attributes
or parameters.
4.18. What do you mean by generative CAPP ?
Ans. In generative CAPP individual process plans are made for each
component. As the component features are input in the required
way, the system itself prepares the process plan.
4.19. What is MRP ?
CAD/CAM SQ–15 A (ME-Sem-7)
Ans. Material requirements planning (MRP) is a computational
techniques that converts the master schedule for end products into
a detailed schedule for the raw materials and components used in
the end products.
4.20. What is MRP II ?
Ans. Manufacturing resource planning (MRP II) can be defined as a
computer based system for planning, scheduling and controlling
the materials, resources, and supporting activities needed to meet
the master production schedule.
4.21. Define ERP ?
Ans. Enterprise resource planning (ERP) is a computer software system
that organizes and integrates all of the business functions and
associated data of an organization through a single, central database.
4.22. What is capacity planning ?
Ans. It consists of determining what labor and equipment resources are
required to meet the current MPS as well as long term future
production needs of the firm.
2 Marks Questions SQ–16 A (ME-Sem-7)
Rapid Prototyping
5 and Flexible
Manufacturing Cells
(2 Marks Questions)
5.1. What is rapid prototyping ?
Ans. Rapid prototyping is a group of techniques used to quickly fabricate
a scale model of a physical part or assembly using 3D CAD.
5.2. What are the advantages of rapid prototyping ?
Ans. Advantages of rapid prototyping are :
1. Product development time and cost will be greatly reduced compared
to the conventional prototyping techniques used.
2. By making available an accurate physical prototype, it is possible to
generate precise production tooling.
5.3. What are the limitations of rapid prototyping ?
Ans. Limitations of rapid prototyping are :
1. The initial cost of the equipment is relatively high.
2. The build material choices for different processes are limited in
terms of their properties. In some cases, only plastic materials could
be used.
5.4. Write down the techniques used in rapid prototyping ?
Ans. Techniques used in rapid prototyping are as follows :
1. Stereo-lithography (SLA),
2. Selective laser sintering (SLS),
3. Fused deposition modeling (FDM), and
4. Laminated object manufacturing (LOM).
5.5. What is the need for rapid prototyping ?
Ans. Need for rapid prototyping are as follows :
1. Quick changes or modification.
2. Reduction in monetary investment and time consumption for
designing.
3. Product customizations.
4. Higher accuracy level in designing.
5.6. What is cellular manufacturing ?
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
CAD/CAM SQ–17 A (ME-Sem-7)
Ans. Flexible manufacturing cell or cellular manufacturing consists of
several workstations which have been served by single industrial
robot. The single robot supplies the workparts to various
workstations for processing.
5.7. What is the advantage of FMC ?
Ans. The flexible manufacturing cells provide advantages as less capital
investment, less sophisticated computer control, ease in operation,
ease in understanding.
5.8. What is FMS ? Write its importance.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. FMS : It can be defined as the group of processing stations
interconnected by means of automated material handling and
storage system and controlled by an integrated computer system.
Importance : The importance of flexible manufacturing systems
lies in the fact that it responds cost effectively and rapidly to changing
production needs and requirements. This capability is becoming
incre asingly impo rtant fo r the de sign and o pe ration o f
manufacturing systems, as these systems operate in highly variable
and unpredictable environments.
5.9. What are the advantages of GT ?
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans. Following are the advantages of GT :
1. Higher quality work is accomplished using group technology.
2. Work-in-process is reduced.
3. Standard tooling can be developed for part families.
CAD/CAM SP–1 A (ME-Sem-7)
B.Tech.
(SEM. VII) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2019-20
CAD/CAM
Time : 3 Hours Max. Marks : 70
Note : 1. Answer all sections. If require any missing data, then choose
suitably.
Section-A
1. Attempt all questions in brief : (2 × 7 = 14)
a. List out input and output devices of CAD.
b. State the advantages of rapid prototyping.
c. Write the full form of GKS and IGES. Define IGES.
d. Differentiate between CNC and DNC machines.
e. What is Bezier curve ? Write its purpose.
f. What do you mean by iso parametric formulation of FEM
solutions ?
g. Define Robot and discuss the various types of Robot
configurations.
Section-B
2. Attempt any three of the following : (7 × 3 = 21)
a. Discuss various types of quadric and superquadric surfaces
available in the graphics package. What do you understand
by the blobby objects ?
b. Derive the parametric equation for Hermite cubic curve ?
List out its characteristics.
c. Write short note on :
i. JIT.
ii. FMS.
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–2 A (ME-Sem-7)
d. Write word address format part-programming for drilling
2 similar holes in a rectangular plate of thickness 5 mm at
points with coordinates (10, 25) and (55, 60) and also show
the part on diagram. BLU = 0.01 mm. Origin and start point
is (0, 0). Spindle speed 1675 rpm and feed 200 mm/min.
e. State and explain the principle objectives and three basic
components of FMS ? Also give the area of applications of
FMS in industries with a suitable block diagram.
Section-C
3. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. What do you unders tand by interpolation and
approximation splines ? Determine and plot the blending
functions for Bezier curve.
b. What is transformation ? Explain the terms : translation,
rotation, scaling and reflection. Write their transformation
also.
4. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. Using Bresenham’s line algorithm, find the pixel positions
along the line path between end points (20, 10) and (30,18)
with a slope of 0.8 and Dx = 10, Dy = 8.
b. Determine the nodal displacement, element stresses and
support reactions for the bar shown in figure. The cross-
sectional areas are 200 mm2 and 400 mm2. Young’s modulus
E = 200 GPa.
300 kN 600 kN
1
150 mm 150 mm 200 mm
3.5 mm
Fig. 1.
5. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. What is APT ? Write main features of APT. Discuss MACRO
statements used in APT with suitable examples.
CAD/CAM SP–3 A (ME-Sem-7)
b. Write down the shorts notes on the following :
i. Automated flow lines.
ii. Automated guided vehicles (AGVs).
6. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. Compare NC machines vs robots ? Also briefly write types
and generations of robots with applications.
b. Define computer aided process planning. Discuss its
advantages and disadvantages. Also discuss under what
kind of environment should generative process planning
be used instead of variant process planning.
7. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. What is the basic principle of rapid prototyping ? Explain
the general features of rapid prototyping techniques with
examples.
b. Describe the principle of flexible manufacturing systems.
Why is a flexible manufacturing s ystem capable of
producing a wide range of lot sizes ? Explain.
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–4 A (ME-Sem-7)
SOLUTION OF PAPER (2019-20)
Note : 1. Answer all sections. If require any missing data, then choose
suitably.
Section-A
1. Attempt all questions in brief : (2 × 7 = 14)
a. List out input and output devices of CAD.
Ans. Input Devices of CAD :
1. Keyboard, and
2. Mouse.
Output Devices of CAD :
1. Monitor, and
2. Plotter.
b. State the advantages of rapid prototyping.
Ans. Advantages of rapid prototyping are as follows :
1. Product development time and cost will be greatly reduced compared
to the conventional prototyping techniques used.
2. By making available an accurate physical prototype, it is possible to
generate precise production tooling.
c. Write the full form of GKS and IGES. Define IGES.
Ans. GKS : Graphic kernel system.
IGES : Initial graphics exchange specification.
IGES : It is designed to transmit the entire product definition
including that of manufacturing and any other associated
information.
d. Differentiate between CNC and DNC machines.
Ans.
S. No. CNC Machines DNC Machines
1. The CNC machines controls DN C machines controls large
only one machine tool, or number of machine tools. They
sometimes a small number of supply instructions to large number
machine tools. of machine tools and collect the
information from them.
2. The CNC machines is always DNC machine is normally placed at
located near the machine tool a lo cation that is normally a
or machine tools they are computer like and clean one.
controlling.
CAD/CAM SP–5 A (ME-Sem-7)
e. What is Bezier curve ? Write its purpose.
Ans. Bezier Curve : A Bezier curve is a parametric curve frequently
used in computer graphics and related fields. It is a mathematically
defined curve used in two dimensional graphic applications.
Purpose : Bezier curves are used in computer graphics to draw
shapes, for animation and in many other places.
f. What do you mean by iso parametric formulation of FEM
solutions ?
Ans. The transformation whose geometric variable and field variable
are described by same interpolation of same order is known as iso
parametric formulation of FEM solutions.
g. Define Robot and discuss the various types of Robot
configurations.
Ans. Robot : A robot is a programmable, multi-function manipulator
designed to move material parts, tools, or special devices through
variable programmed motions for the performance of a variety of
tasks.
Types of Robot Configurations :
Types of robot configurations are as follows :
1. Cartesian coordinate configuration,
2. Cylindrical coordinate configuration,
3. Polar or spherical coordinate configuration, and
4. Jointed arm configuration.
Section-B
2. Attempt any three of the following : (7 × 3 = 21)
a. Discuss various types of quadric and superquadric surfaces
available in the graphics package. What do you understand
by the blobby objects ?
Ans.
A. Types of Quadric Surfaces :
i. Sphere :
1. The equation of spherical surface with radius unity and coordinate
origin as its centre is given as,
x2 + y2 + z2 = 1
2. If the radius is r and the origin remains unchanged, the equation
becomes
x2 + y2 + z2 = r2
ii. Ellipsoid :
1. The equation of ellipsoid surface is given in cartesian form as,
2 2 2
x y z
= 1
rx ry rz
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–6 A (ME-Sem-7)
Where, r x , r y, r z are the radius along x, y, and z directions
respectively.
2. Hence, an ellipsoid is an extension of sphere with different radii in
the three mutually perpendicular directions.
z
rz
rx
x
ry
y
Fig. 1. Ellipsoid.
iii. Torus :
1. A torus can be generated by rotating a circle or some other conic
surface about certain specified axis.
2. The equation of a torus surface is given by,
2
2 2 2
x y r
r =1
rx ry rz
B. Types of Superquadric Surfaces :
i. Superellipse :
1. The cartesian equation of superellipse is given by,
2 2
xs ys
r r = 1
x y
Where, s is a variable parameter that can be assigned any real
value.
2. Various shapes generated on varying the value of s are shown in
Fig. 2.
s=1 s = 1.5 s=2 s=3
Fig. 2. Superellipse drawn for various values of s.
ii. Superellipsoid :
1. Cartesian equation of superellipsoid is given by,
s0
2 2 2
s1
x s0 y s0 z s1
=1
rx r rz
y
CAD/CAM SP–7 A (ME-Sem-7)
2. For s0 = s1, we get the ordinary ellipsoid equation in three dimension.
C. Blobby Objects :
1. Some object do not maintain a fixed shape but change their surface
characteristics in certain motion or when in proximity to other
objects.
2. This class of object includes molecular structures, water droplets
and other liquid effects, melting object and muscles shape in the
human body. These objects can be described as exhibiting blobbiness
and are called blobby objects, since their shapes show a certain
degree of fluidity.
b. Derive the parametric equation for Hermite cubic curve ?
List out its characteristics.
Ans.
A. Parametric Equation for Hermite Cubic Curve :
1. A Hermite spline is an interpolating piecewise cubic polynomial
with a specified tangent at each control point.
2. Hermite splines can be adjusted locally because each curve section
is only dependent on its end point constraints.
3. If P(u) represents a parametric cubic point function for the curve
section between control points Pk and Pk + 1 as shown in Fig. 3.
Pk
P(u) = { x(u ), y(u), z( u)}
Pk + 1
Fig. 3. Parametric point function P(u) for a Hermite curve section
between control point Pk and Pk + 1.
4. Then, the boundary condition that defines this Hermite curves
sections are :
P(0) = Pk
P(1) = Pk + 1
P(0) = DPk
P(1) = DPk + 1
Where DPk and DPk + 1 specifying the values for the parametric
derivation at control points Pk and Pk + 1 respectively.
5. The parametric cubic polynomial that is filled between each pair of
control points with the following set of equations,
x(u) = axu3 + bxu2 + cxu + dx 0u1
y(u) = ayu3 + byu2 + cyu + dy
z(u) = azu3 + bzu2 + czu + dz
6. We can write the vector equivalent of above equation for this
Hermite curve section as,
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–8 A (ME-Sem-7)
P(u) = au3 + bu2 + cu + d 0u1 ...(1)
7. The matrix equivalent of above equation
a
b
P(u) = [u3 u2 u 1] ...(2)
c
d
and the derivative of the point function can be expressed as,
a
b
P(u) = [3u2 2u 1 0] ...(3)
c
d
8. We can express the Hermite boundary condition of eq. (1) in the
matrix form :
Pk 0 0 0 1 a
1 1 1 1 b
P
k1
DP = 0 0 1 0 c
k
DPk 1 3 2 1 0 d
1
a 0 0 0 1 Pk
1 1
b 1 1 Pk 1
=
c 0 0 1 0 DP
k
d 3 2 1 0 DPk 1
2 2 1 1 Pk
3
3 2 1 Pk 1
=
0 0 1 0 DPk
1 0 0 0 DPk 1
a Pk
b
= M Pk 1
c H DP
k
d
DPk 1
Where MH, the hermite matrix is the inverse of the boundary
constraint matrix.
9. Eq. (2) can be written as :
Pk
P(u) = [u3 u2 u 1] · MH Pk 1 ...(4)
DP
k
DPk 1
CAD/CAM SP–9 A (ME-Sem-7)
10. Finally we can determine expressions for the Hermite blending
functions by carrying out the matrix multiplication in eq. (4) and
collecting coefficients for the boundary constraints to obtain the
polynomial form.
P(u) = Pk (2u3 – 3u2 + 1) + Pk + 1 (– 2u3 + 3u2) + DPk (u3 – 2u2 + u)
+ DPk + 1 (u3 – u2)
P(u) = Pk H0(u) + Pk + 1 H1(u) + DPk H2(u) + DPk + 1 H3(u)
11. The polynomial Hk(u) for K = 0, 1, 2, 3 are referred as blending
function because they blend the boundary constraint values to
obtain each coordinate position along the curve.
B. Characteristics of Hermite Cubic Curve :
1. Hermite curve interpolates all the control points.
2. Hermite curve have zero order continuity inherent in its
representation.
3. Hermite curve can easily achieve first order continuity.
4. Hermite curve have local control.
c. Write short note on :
i. JIT.
Ans.
1. Just in time is a management philosophy and not a technique.
2. It originally referred to the production of goods to meet customer
demand exactly, in time, quality and quantity, whether the
`customer' is the final purchaser of the product or another process
further along the production line.
3. It has now come to mean producing with minimum waste. Waste is
taken in its most general sense and includes time and resources as
well as materials.
4. It has been widely reported that the proper use of JIT manufacturing
has resulted in increases in quality, productivity and efficiency,
improved communication and decreases in costs and wastes.
5. The potential of gaining these benefits has made many organizations
question and consider this approach to manufacturing. For these
reasons, JIT has become a very popular subject currently being
investigated by many worldwide organizations.
ii. FMS.
Ans.
1. A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is a highly automated group
technology machine cell.
2. It consists of a group of processing workstations (usually CNC
machine tools) interconnected by an automated material handling
and storage system, and controlled by a distributed computer system.
3. The reason the FMS is called flexible is that it is capable of processing
a variety of different part styles simultaneously at the various
workstations, and the mix of part styles and quantities of production
can be adjusted in response to changing demand patterns.
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–10 A (ME-Sem-7)
4. The FMS is not suited for mid-variety, mid-volume production range.
5. The initials FMS are sometimes used to denote the term Flexible
Machining System. The machining process is presently the largest
application area for FMS technology.
6. However, it seems appropriate to interpret FMS in its broader
meaning allowing for a wide range of possible applications beyond
machining.
d. Write word address format part-programming for drilling
2 similar holes in a rectangular plate of thickness 5 mm at
points with coordinates (10, 25) and (55, 60) and also show
the part on diagram. BLU = 0.01 mm. Origin and start point
is (0, 0). Spindle speed 1675 rpm and feed 200 mm/min.
Ans.
Given : Spindle speed = 1675 rpm, fee d = 200 mm/min
BLU = 0.01 mm, t = 5 mm, coordinates (10, 25), and (55, 60).
Y (55, 60)
C
25 B 60
(10, 25)
25
A 10
(0, 0) X
10
55
Fig. 4.
Part programming for drilling in word address format are as
follows :
N01 G21 G90 X0 Y0 Z0 EOB
N02 G00 X10 Y0 Z0 EOB
N03 G00 X10 Y25 Z0 EOB
N04 G01 M03 M07 S1675 F200 Z5 EOB
N05 G01 Z-5 EOB
N06 G01 Z5 M05 EOB
N07 G01 X55 Y0 EOB
N08 G01 X0 Y60 EOB
N09 G01 S1675 F200 Z -5 EOB
N10 G01 Z5 X55 Y 60 EOB
N11 M05 M09 M30 EOB
e. State and explain the principle objectives and three basic
components of FMS ? Also give the area of applications of
FMS in industries with a suitable block diagram.
CAD/CAM SP–11 A (ME-Sem-7)
Ans.
A. Principle Objective in FMS :
1. Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS) has been used already for a
long time. Due to increasing competition among companies, use of
different kind of flexible production systems is also increasing.
2. The main objectives to implement the FMS in the company are to
produce different parts or part families more efficiently.
3. Efficiency in FMS means minimizing system unbalance and
maximizing system throughput, while satisfying the technological
constraint.
4. Selection of rational FMS layout and system components in
preliminary design stage is one the most difficult problem.
B. Three Basic Components of FMS :
There are following three main components of a flexible
manufacturing system :
1. Processing stations,
2. Material handling and storage station, and
3. Computer control system.
C. Area of Applications of FMS :
Tertiary industry
Service Process Manufacturing
Banking, Chemicals,
retail, loads, etc. Planning Technical
transport, Production
services
etc.
Financial CAD
capacity
production CAQ
CAT
Jobs Batch Series
Small Large Flexible Transfer line,
transfer line rotary, linear
Fig. 5. Area of applications of FMS in an industry.
Section-C
3. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. What do you unders tand by interpolation and
approximation splines ? Determine and plot the blending
functions for Bezier curve.
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–12 A (ME-Sem-7)
Ans.
A. Interpolation Spline : In this method, the polynomial spline curve
sections are traced such that the curve passes through each specified
control points. This method is used for animation paths.
B. Approximation Spline : In this method the curve is traced without
passing through the specified control points. This method in used
for structuring object surfaces.
C. Blending Function for Bezier Curve :
1. The Bezier curve is represented mathematically as,
n
P(t) = BJ
i 0
i n , i(t)
Where, Jn i(t) = Blending function
Jni = nCiti (1 – t)n–i
The blending function Jni(t) is the Bernstein polynomial.
P1 P1 P2
P0 P2 P3
P0
P1
P2
P3
P0
P0
P2 P1 P3
Fig. 6. Examples of Bezier curves generated from
two, three, four control points.
and Ci = Binomial coefficient
n!
=
i !(n i)!
b. What is transformation ? Explain the terms : translation,
rotation, scaling and reflection. Write their transformation
also.
Ans.
A. Transformations :
1. Any graphical entity or drawing which is generated on the computer
can be manipulated using transformations. It includes change in
size and shape.
CAD/CAM SP–13 A (ME-Sem-7)
B. Translation :
1. It involves moving the element in x or y direction.
2. If (x, y) is coordinate of original position then basic equations of
translation are :
x = x + tx
and y = y + ty
3. The equations can be written in matrix form as
1 0 0
[x y 1] = x y 1 0 1 0
t ty 1
x
Where,
1 0 0
0 1 0 = Translation matrix
t ty 1
x
x and y = New coordinates after translation.
x and y = Old coordinates before translation.
tx and ty= Distance to be translated in x and y direction
respectively.
C. Scaling :
1. Scaling of an element is used to either reduce or enlarge the size of
object.
2. The basic equations for scaling are,
x = xsx
y = ysy
Where sx and sy = Scaling factor in x and y direction respectively.
3. The equation can be written in matrix form as,
sx 0 0
[x y 1] = x y 1 0 s y 0
0 0 1
Where,
sx 0 0
0 s 0
y = Scaling matrix
0 0 1
D. Rotation :
1. In rotation transformation the points of an object are rotated about
the origin by an angle .
2. We assume anticlockwise rotation as positive and clockwise rotation
as negative.
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–14 A (ME-Sem-7)
y P( x, y)
r
P(x, y)
r
x
Fig. 7. Rotation of a point P to P about z-axis.
3. Transformation for rotation matrix,
cos sin 0
[x y 1] = sin cos 0
0 0 1
(Rotation of a point about z-axis)
E. Reflection : Reflection is a transformation which produces a mirror
image of an object and always carried with respect to axis of
reflection.
i. Reflection about x-Axis : Reflection of point P about x-axis is P
as shown in Fig. 8.
y
P ( x, y)
P (x, – y)
Fig. 8. Reflection about x-axis.
To find the coordinates of point P about x-axis,
1 0 0
[x y 1] = [x y 1] 0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
Where, 0 1 0 = Reflection matrix (Rx)
0 0 1
ii. Reflection about y-Axis : Reflection of point P about y-axis is P
as shown in Fig. 9.
CAD/CAM SP–15 A (ME-Sem-7)
(–x, y) (x , y )
P P
x
Fig. 9. Reflection about y-axis.
To find the coordinates of point P about y-axis,
1 0 0
[x y 1] = [x y 1] 0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
Where, 0 1 0 = Reflection matrix (Ry)
0 0 1
iii. Reflection matrix when the axis of reflection is the line
passing through origin :
The equation of the line passing through origin is
y = mx,
y
x
m
=
y
x
Fig. 10.
The steps should taken to find reflection matrix are :
Step 1 : Rotate the line (i.e., axis of rotation) y = mx, in clockwise
direction by angle = tan–1m to align it with x-axis. Rotation matrix
is given by,
cos ( ) sin ( ) 0
A1 = sin ( ) cos ( ) 0
0 0 1
Step 2 : Reflection about x-axis is obtained. Assuming A2 be the
reflection matrix. Then
1 0 0
A2 = 0 1 0
0 0 1
Step 3 : Now the line is rotated by angle in counter clockwise
direction so that original position of line is restored.
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–16 A (ME-Sem-7)
cos sin 0
A3 = sin cos 0
0 0 1
The resultant reflection matrix [R] is obtained by concatenating
[A1], [A2], [A3] as
[R] = [A1] × [A2] × [A3]
F. Shear :
1. A transformation which distorts the shape of an object such that
the transformed shape appears as if the object is composed of
internal layers that have been caused to slide over each other is
known as shear.
y y
x x
x-direction shear y-direction shear
Fig. 11.
2. Transformation matrix for x-direction is,
1 0 0
sh 1 0
x
0 0 1
3. Transformation matrix for y-direction is,
1 sh y 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
4. When shearing is applied both in x and y direction, it is referred as
simultaneously shearing and is represented by the following
homogeneous matrix,
1 shy 0
sh x 1 0
0 0 1
4. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. Using Bresenham’s line algorithm, find the pixel positions
along the line path between end points (20, 10) and (30,18)
with a slope of 0.8 and Dx = 10, Dy = 8.
Ans.
1. Let starting point (x1, y1) is (20, 10) and the end point (x2, y2) is (30, 18).
CAD/CAM SP–17 A (ME-Sem-7)
Dx = 10
Dy = 8
m = Dy / Dx = 8 / 10 = 0.8
2. Since slope, m < 1,
Po = 2Dy – Dx = 2 × 8 – 10 = 6
3. Since starting point is (20, 10)
x y P
20 10 P0 = 2Dy – Dx = 6 (P0 > 0)
21 11 P1 = P0 + 2(Dy – Dx) = 2 (P1 > 0)
22 12 P2 = P1 + 2(Dy – Dx) = – 2 (P2 < 0)
23 12 P3 = P2 + 2Dy = 14 (P3 > 0)
24 13 P4 = P3 + 2(Dy – Dx) = 10 (P4 > 0)
25 14 P5 = P4 + 2(Dy – Dx) = 6 (P5 > 0)
26 15 P6 = P5 + 2(Dy – Dx) = 2 (P6 > 0)
27 16 P7 = P6 + 2(Dy – Dx) = – 2 (P7 > 0)
28 16 P8 = P7 + 2(Dy) = 14 (P8 < 0)
29 17 P9 = P8 + 2(Dy – Dx) = 10 (P9 > 0)
30 18
b. Determine the nodal displacement, element stresses and
support reactions for the bar shown in figure. The cross-
sectional areas are 200 mm2 and 400 mm2. Young’s modulus
E = 200 GPa.
300 kN 600 kN
1
150 mm 150 mm 200 mm
3.5 mm
Fig. 12.
Ans.
Given : A1 = A2 = 200 mm2, A3 = 400 mm2, l1 = l2 = 150 mm,
l3 = 200 mm, E = 200 GPa = 200 × 109 N/m2 = 200 × 103 N/mm2
To Find : i. Nodal displacement.
ii. Element stresses.
iii. Support reactions.
Step 1 : Discretization of the bar,
The stepped bar is discretized into three elements and four nodes
as shown in Fig. 13.
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–18 A (ME-Sem-7)
300 kN 600 kN
1 1 3 3 4
2 2
Fig. 13.
Step 2 : Element stiffness matrix,
i. For element 1 ,
E1 A1 1 – 1 200 103 200 1 – 1
k1 = – 1 = – 1
l1 1 150 1
1 2
1
1 – 1
= 2.67 105
– 1 12
ii. For element 2 ,
E2 A2 1 – 1 200 103 200 1 – 1
k2 = – 1 = – 1
l2 1 150 1
2 3
2
1 – 1
5
= 2.67 10
– 1 13
iii. For element 3 ,
E3 A3 1 – 1 200 103 400 1 – 1
k3 = – 1 = – 1
l3 1 200 1
3 4
3
1 – 1
5
= 4 10
– 1 1 4
Step 3 : Assemble matrix k1, k2 and k3 to form global stiffness
matrix, KG,
1 2 3 4
2.67 – 2.67 0 0 1
5 – 2.67 (2.67 + 2.67 ) – 2.67 0 2
[KG] = 10
0 – 2.67 (2.67 + 4) –4 3
0 0 –4 –4 4
i. We know that, [KG] [x] = [F]
2.67 – 2.67 0 0 x1 R1
– 2.67 5.34 – 2.67 0 x
300
105 2 =
0 – 2.67 6.67 – 4 x3 400
0 0 – 4 – 4 x
4 0
CAD/CAM SP–19 A (ME-Sem-7)
Where, R1 is reaction at node 1.
ii. Applying the boundary condition i.e., x1 = 0 and using the
elimination approach,
5.34 – 2.67 0 x2 300
105 – 2.67 6.67 – 4 x3 = 400 × 103
0 –4 4 x4 0
iii. On solving, x2 = 2.62 mm, x3 = 4.12 mm and x4 = 4.12 mm.
0
2.62
Nodal displacement matrix =
4.12
4.12
Step 4 : Element stresses calculation,
E
i. Stress in element 1 , 1 = (x2 – x1)
l1
200 103
= (2.62 – 0) = 3.5 × 103 N/mm2
150
E
ii. Stress in element 2 , 2 = (x3 – x2)
l2
200 103
= (4.12 – 2.62) = 2.0 × 103 N/mm2
150
E
iii. Stress in element 3 , 3 = (x4 – x3)
l3
200 103
= (4.12 – 4.12) = 0
200
Step 5 : Support reaction at node 1,
0
2.62
R1 = [2.67 2.67 0 0] = – 6.9954 × 105 N
4.12
4.12
5. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. What is APT ? Write main features of APT. Discuss MACRO
statements used in APT with suitable examples.
Ans.
A. APT and its Features :
1. APT stands for Automatically Programmed Tooling.
2. APT is not only an NC language, it is also the computer program
that performs the calculations to generate cutter positions based
on APT statements.
3. APT is a three dimensional system that can be used to control upto
five axes.
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–20 A (ME-Sem-7)
4. APT can be used to control a variety of different machining
operations.
5. To program in APT, the programmer must first define the part
geometry. Then the tool is directed to various point locations and
along surfaces of the workpart to accomplish the required machining
operations.
6. The view point of the programmer is that the workpiece remains
stationary, and the tool is instructed to move relative to the part.
7. To complete the program speeds and feeds must be specified, tools
must be called, tolerances must be given for circular interpolation,
and so forth.
B. MACRO Statements with Example :
1. MACROs are also called parametric subroutines.
2. It is observed that many of the machining moves are similar but
differ only in the magnitude of the moves.
3. Therefore, the MACROs are written in the same way as the
subroutines except that the parameters which change are specified
by symbols like * or numbers like #1, #2.... In the main program, in
the instruction to call the required subroutine, the values of the
parameters are specified in the order in which they appear in the
subroutine.
4. The following example illustrates the use of MACROs.
Main program MACRO
...... : 1010
...... N010 G01 X60000 F1000
N020 Z–5000
N030 G91 X#1
M98 P1010 (2; 40000; 50000 N040 Y#2
40000; 50000 N050 X#–3
....... N060 Y#–4
....... N070 G90
....... N080 Z 10000
....... N090 M90
M02
5. Here the subroutine 1010 is called twice and the values of the
parameters #1 to #4 would be 40, 50, 40, and 50 mm respectively.
50
40 40
60
60
Fig. 14.
CAD/CAM SP–21 A (ME-Sem-7)
b. Write down the shorts notes on the following :
i. Automated flow lines.
ii. Automated guided vehicles (AGVs).
Ans.
i. Automated Flow Lines :
1. An automated flow line consists of several machines or workstations
which are linked together by work handling devices that transfer
parts between the stations.
2. The transfer of work parts occurs automatically and the
workstations carry out their specialized functions automatically.
3. Automated flow lines are generally the most appropriate means of
productions in case of relatively stable product life, high product
demand, which requires high rates of production, and where the
alternative method of manufacture would invoice large labour
content.
ii. Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs) :
1. The automated guided vehicle (AGV) is a programmable mobile
vehicle without the need of human intervention.
2. An AGV is a vehicle equipped with automatic guidance equipment,
either electromagnetic or optical.
3. Such a vehicle is capable of following prescribed guide paths and
may be equipped for vehicle programming and stop selection,
blocking and any other special functions required by the system.
4. These are basically driverless vehicles and work generally in fixed
routes that are laid on the factory floor.
5. AGVs are used for workpiece distribution and transferring them
from stores to shop/assembly line. They are sometimes also called
robocarts.
6. The main parts of an AGV are :
i. Structure,
ii. Drive system,
iii. Steering mechanism,
iv. Power source, battery, and
v. Onboard computer for control.
6. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. Compare NC machines vs robots ? Also briefly write types
and generations of robots with applications.
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–22 A (ME-Sem-7)
Ans.
A. Comparison of NC Machines and Robots :
S. No. NC Machines Robots
1. NC machines are fixed in Robots may be fixed or mobile.
one place.
2. NC machine s are Robots are used for pick-in-
ge ne rally use d fo r place assembly, welding etc.
machining purpose.
3. NC machines have a box Robots manipulator is mostly in
type MCU along with the form of an arm.
machine tool hardware.
4. NC machines make use of Apart from positioning and
positioning and velocity velocity sensors, a robot may
sensors. use tactile sensor, vision sensor,
range sensor, proximity sensor
etc.
5. NC machines do not have A typical robot can lift as much
load lifting capability. as 1000 kg load.
B. Types of Robots :
Types of robots are as follows :
i. SCARA robots,
ii. Gantry robot,
iii. Cartesian robot,
iv. Cylindrical coordinate robot,
v. Spherical or polar configuration coordinate robot, and
vi. Articulated arm robot.
C. Generations of Robots :
i. First Generation : The main task of such robots is to do repetitive
type of operation such as in spray painting, spot welding. They
have open loop control.
ii. Second Generation : In this generation, robots use closed loop
control of manipulation motions and decisions are made in response
to sensor signal.
iii. Third Generation : In this generation, the robot can manipulate
an object with the help of vision based information system.
iv. Fourth Generation : In this stage of generation a robot can
automatically program its actions on the basis of sensing devices
incorporated within it.
v. Fifth Generation : In this generation, robot may consist of human
like intelligence to make its own decision and solve the problems.
D. Applications of Robots :
i. Welding : This is one of the major uses for an industrial robot.
Robots can readily and economically perform both spot welding
and continuous arc welding.
CAD/CAM SP–23 A (ME-Sem-7)
ii. Spray Painting : The spray painting operation should not be
performed by human beings as the fine mist of paint can become
a cause of health hazards. Hence, robots are used for spray painting.
iii. Material Handling and Parts Transfer : In many applications,
robots are required to move parts or objects from one location to
another. Often they are used for machine loading and unloading
application.
iv. Assembly : Assembly operations are repetitive and monotonous
in nature for human beings. Hence, robots are also being used for
assembly operations.
v. Inspection : Robots are being used to inspect electronic devices
like printed circuit board.
b. Define computer aided process planning. Discuss its
advantages and disadvantages. Also discuss under what
kind of environment should generative process planning
be used instead of variant process planning.
Ans.
A. Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP) :
1. For process planning to be done in a rational and consistent manner
leading to optimal routing, the manual routine work needs to be
eliminated.
2. Use should be made of modern computer software facilities, which
on inputting specifications of component will not only output the
routings fast and correctly but be amenable to efficient storage and
communication. This is known as CAPP.
B. Advantages of CAPP :
1. Process rationalization and standardization,
2. Increased productivity of process planning,
3. Reduced lead time for process planning,
4. Improved legibility,
5. Incorporation of other application programs.
C. Disadvantages of CAPP :
1. The inability to show special manufacturing techniques.
2. The initial cost of establishing a CAPP system is high while compared
with manual process planning.
D. Environment Suitable for Generative Process Planning :
1. In generative type process planning system, individual process plans
are generated for each component.
2. It does not involve retrieval of any existing database.
3. A process plan is created right from the scratch for each component
without human assistance.
4. These systems are designed to automatically synthesize process
information and develop process plan for a part.
5. These systems contain the logic to use a manufacturing database
and suitable part description schemes to generate the process plan
for a particular part.
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–24 A (ME-Sem-7)
6. Most of the contemporary CAPP systems being developed are
generative in nature.
7. This approach eliminates disadvantages of variant approach and
bridges the gap between CAD and CAM.
7. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. What is the basic principle of rapid prototyping ? Explain
the general features of rapid prototyping techniques with
examples.
Ans.
A. Principle of Rapid Prototyping :
1. Rapid prototyping technologies are generally based upon a layered
manufacturing (LM) concept.
2. In this method, first a 3D model of the object as a CAD file is
transferred into the system and then sliced into equidistant layers
with parallel horizontal planes.
3. The system then generates trajectories for the material to be added
in each layer by the rapid prototype machine.
4. The sacrificial supporting layers are also simultaneously generated
to keep the unconnected layers in proper position.
5. The resultant separate cross-sectional layer of very small thickness
when assemble (glued) together will form the final object required.
6. There are a number of ways the 3D CAD design data can be
represented. However, the STL (standard triangular language)
format is most common and is generally supported by all the RP
equipment.
7. Each physical layer from above is then deposited and fused to the
previous layer using one of the many available depositions and
fusion technologies.
B. General Features of Rapid Prototyping Techniques :
1. Physical models of parts produced from CAD data files can be
manufactured in a matter of hours, to allow rapid evaluation of
manufacturability and design effectiveness.
2. With suitable materials, the prototype can be used in subsequent
manufacturing operations to obtain the final parts.
3. Rapid prototyping operations can be used in some applications to
produce tooling for manufacturing operation.
b. Describe the principle of flexible manufacturing systems.
Why is a flexible manufacturing s ystem capable of
producing a wide range of lot sizes ? Explain.
Ans.
A. Principle of Flexible Manufacturing Systems :
1. A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is a highly automated group
technology machine cell.
2. It consists of a group of processing workstations (usually CNC
machine tools) interconnected by an automated material handling
and storage system, and controlled by a distributed computer system.
CAD/CAM SP–25 A (ME-Sem-7)
3. The reason the FMS is called flexible is that it is capable of processing
a variety of different part styles simultaneously at the various
workstations, and the mix of part styles and quantities of production
can be adjusted in response to changing demand patterns.
4. The FMS is not suited for mid-variety, mid-volume production range.
5. The initials FMS are sometimes used to denote the term Flexible
Machining System. The machining process is presently the largest
application area for FMS technology.
6. However, it seems appropriate to interpret FMS in its broader
meaning allowing for a wide range of possible applications beyond
machining.
7. A FMS relies on the principles of group technology.
8. No manufacturing system can be completely flexible. There are
limits to the range of parts or products that can be made in an FMS.
9. Accordingly, a flexible manufacturing system is designed to produce
parts (or products) within a defined range of styles, sizes, and
processes.
Raw
Material Material Rough
Raw Handling Fabrication Material
Material Robot
Material
Inventory Handling
Robot
Rough
Material
Goods In Structure of Flexible Machining
Manufacturing System
Product Out Machined
Part
Material
Handling
Assembly Robot
Material Quality Machined
Handling Control Part
Robot Inspected
Part
Fig. 15. Structure of flexible manufacturing system.
B. Capability of FMS for Producing Wide Range of Lot Sizes :
1. Flexible manufacturing system capable of producing a wide range
of lot sizes because FMS usually has multiple automated stations
and is capable of variable routings among stations, while its flexibility
allows it to operate as a mixed model system.
2. The FMS concept integrates many of the advanced technologies
that include flexible automation, CNC machines, distributed
computer control, and automated material handling and storage.
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