3-1 Discrete Random Variables

3-1 Discrete Random Variables

Example 3-1
 3-1 Discrete Random Variables
Example 3-2
A semiconductor manufacturing process, two wafers from a lot are
tested. Each wafer is classified as pass or fail. Assume that the
probability that a wafer pass the test is 0.8 and that wafers are
independent . The sample space for the experiment and associated
probabilities are shown in Table 3_1.
For example, because of the independence, the probability of the
outcome that the first wafer tested passes and the second wafer tested
fails, denoted as pf, is:
P(pf) = 0.8x0.2=0.16
Outcome
Wafer 1 Wafer 2 Probability X
Table 3_1 Pass Pass 0.64 2
Wafer Tests Fail Pass 0.16 1
Pass Fail 0.16 1
Fail Fail 0.04 0
 3-1 Discrete Random Variables
Example 3-3
Define the random variable X to be the number of contamination
particles on a wafer in semiconductor manufacturing. Although wafers
possess a number of characteristics, the random X summarizes the
wafer only in terms of the number of particles.
The possible values of X are integers from 0 up to some large value
that represents the maximum number of particles that can be found on
one of the wafers. If this maximum number is very large, we might
simply assume that the range of X is the set of integers from 0 to 

Note that more than one random variable can be defined on a sample
space.
 3-2 Probability Distributions and
Probability Mass Functions
The probability distribution of a random variable X is a description
of the probabilities associated with the possible values of X.

For a discrete random variable, the distribution is often specified by

just a list of the possible values along with the probability of each. In
some cases, it is convenient to express the probability in terms of a
formula.
 3-2 Probability Distributions and
Probability Mass Functions
Example 3 – 4
Digital Channel

There is a chance that a bit transmitted through a digital transmission

channel is received in error. Let X equal the number of bits in error in the
next four bits transmitted. The possible values for X are {0,1,2,3,4}.
Suppose that:
P(X=0) = 0.6561; P(X=1) = 0.2916; P(X=2) = 0.0486
P(X=3) = 0.0036; P(X=4) = 0.0001.

The probability distribution of X is specified by the possible values along

with the probability of each.
 3-2 Probability Distributions and
Probability Mass Functions

Figure 3-1 Probability distribution for bits in error.

 3-2 Probability Distributions and
Probability Mass Functions

Definition
Example 3-5
Example 3-5 (continued)
 3-3 Cumulative Distribution
Functions
Example 3_6 Digital Channel
In example 3_4, we might be interested in the probability of three or
fewer bits being in error. This question can be expressed as P(X<=3).
The event that {X<=3} is the union of the events {X=0}, {X=1}, {X=2}
and {X=3}. These events are mutually exclusive. Therefore,

P  X  3  P  X  0   P  X  1  P  X  2   P  X  3
 0.6561  0.2916  0.0486  0.0036  0.9999
 3-3 Cumulative Distribution
Functions

Definition
 3-3 Cumulative Distribution
Functions

Example 3_7 Cumulative Distribution Function

Determine the probability mass function of X from the following

cumulative distribution function:
0 x  2
0.2  2  x  0

F  x  
0.7 0 x2
1 2 x
3-3 Cumulative Distribution
Functions
 3-3 Cumulative Distribution
Functions

The probability mass function at each point is the change in the

cumulative distribution function at the point. Therefore,

f  2   0.2  0  0.2; f  0   0.7  0.2  0.5; f  2   1.0  0.7  0.3

Example 3-8
 Example 3-8

Figure 3-4 Cumulative distribution function for

Example 3-8.
 3-4 Mean and Variance of a Discrete
Random Variable
Definition
 3-4 Mean and Variance of a Discrete
Random Variable

Figure 3-5 A probability distribution can be viewed as a loading

with the mean equal to the balance point. Parts (a) and (b)
illustrate equal means, but Part (a) illustrates a larger variance.
 3-4 Mean and Variance of a Discrete
Random Variable

Figure 3-6 The probability distribution illustrated in Parts (a)

and (b) differ even though they have equal means and equal
variances.
Example 3-11
 3-4 Mean and Variance of a Discrete
Random Variable

Expected Value of a Function of a Discrete

Random Variable
 3-4 Mean and Variance of a Discrete
Random Variable
Example 3 – 12

Let X be the number of bits in error in the next four bits transmitted.
What is the expected value of the square of the number of bits in error?

Now, h(X)=X2 . Therefore,

E  h  X    02  0.6561  12  0.2916  22  0.0486  33  0.0036  4 2  0.0001  0.52

 3-5 Discrete Uniform Distribution

Definition
 3-5 Discrete Uniform Distribution

Example 3-13
 3-5 Discrete Uniform Distribution

Figure 3-7 Probability mass function for a discrete uniform

random variable.
 3-5 Discrete Uniform Distribution

Mean and Variance

 3-5 Discrete Uniform Distribution

Example 3 – 14
Let the random variable X denote the
number of the voice lines that are in use at
a particular time. Assume that X is a
discrete uniform random variable with a
range of 0 to 48. Then,
E  X    48  0  / 2  24
and

 
1/2
   48  0  1  1 /12  14.14
2

 3-6 Binomial Distribution

Random experiments and random variables

 3-6 Binomial Distribution

Random experiments and random variables

 3-6 Binomial Distribution

Definition
 3-6 Binomial Distribution

Figure 3-8 Binomial distributions for selected values of

n and p.
 3-6 Binomial Distribution

Example 3-18
 3-6 Binomial Distribution

Example 3-18
 3-6 Binomial Distribution

Mean and Variance

 3-6 Binomial Distribution

Example 3-19
 3-7 Geometric and Negative
Binomial Distributions

Example 3-20
 3-7 Geometric and Negative
Binomial Distributions

Definition
 3-7 Geometric and Negative
Binomial Distributions

3-7.1 Geometric Distribution

Example 3-21
 3-7 Geometric and Negative
Binomial Distributions

Definition
 3-7 Geometric and Negative
Binomial Distributions

3-7.2 Negative Binomial Distribution

 3-7 Geometric and Negative
Binomial Distributions

Figure 3-10.
Negative binomial
distributions for
selected values of
the parameters r
and p.
 3-7 Geometric and Negative
Binomial Distributions

Figure 3-11. Negative binomial random variable

represented as a sum of geometric random variables.
 3-7 Geometric and Negative
Binomial Distributions

3-7.2 Negative Binomial Distribution

 3-7 Geometric and Negative
Binomial Distributions

Example 3-25
 3-7 Geometric and Negative
Binomial Distributions

Example 3-25
 3-8. Hypergeometric Distribution

Definition
 3-8. Hypergeometric Distribution

Figure 3-12.
Hypergeometric
distributions for
selected values of
parameters N, K, and n.
 3-8. Hypergeometric Distribution

Example 3-27
 3-8. Hypergeometric Distribution

Example 3-27
 3-8. Hypergeometric Distribution

Mean and Variance

 3-8. Hypergeometric Distribution

Finite Population Correction Factor

 3-8. Hypergeometric Distribution

Figure 3-13. Comparison of hypergeometric and binomial

distributions.
 3-9. Poisson Distribution

Definition
 3-9. Poisson Distribution

Example 3-33
 3-9. Poisson Distribution

Example 3-33
 3-9. Poisson Distribution

Mean and Variance