ECOLOGY

Dr. Dipakshi Sharma

This material is for reference only. Points present in the slides are only for assistance and their elaboration are
present in book. Examination questions will be in depth and can be solved by following text book only.
 Introduction-Ecology
The term Oekologie (Ecology) was coined by the German biologist
Ernst Haeckel in the year 1866. Greek word “Oikos” meaning
“Home” and “Logos” meaning “Study”

Ecology:- The study of relationship of various organisms in their

natural habitat interacting with their surroundings.
•Autecology---Study of single species/organisms.
•Synecology---Study of multiple species/ group of organism.
 Ecosystem
The term Ecosystem was first used in 1935 in a publication by British
ecologist Arthur Tansley.
• It is defined as a basic structural and functional unit of Ecology.
• Each ecosystem has a definite structure and definite role to play in
functioning of that ecosystem. Eg. Grassland ecosystem, forest
ecosystem, aquatic ecosystem etc.

• A self-regulating group of biotic communities of species interacting

with one another and with their non-living environment exchanging
energy and matter.
 Classification of Ecosystem
1. Natural Ecosystem
 Aquatic
• Fresh water
• Running water
• Standing water
 Marine
Terrestrial
• Grassland
• Forest
• Desert
2. Artificial/Engineered Ecosystem
 Structural units/Components of an Ecosystem
Biotic Components Abiotic Components
1. Producers 1. Physical
• Photo-autotrophs • Climatic- Sunlight, Temperature,
Humidity, Rainfall, Wind etc.
• Chemo-autotrophs-
Nitrosomonas, Iron bacteria, • Edaphic- Soil type, Soil moisture, Soil
Methanogens reaction.
2. Consumers • Geographic- Latitude, Longitude,
Altitude
• Herbivores
2. Chemical
• Carnivores
• Macro/micro nutrients
• Omnivores
• Trace elements
• Detrivores
• Pollutants
3. Decomposers
• Organic substances
 Functional units/Components of an Ecosystem
• Food Chain Biogeochemical Cycles
• Food Web 1. Gaseous Cycles
• Trophic Levels • C, N, O and Hydrological Cycle
• Energy Flow 2. Sedimentary Cycles
• Phosphorus Cycle
• Sulphur Cycle
 Food Chain
The linkage between the living organisms (plants/animals) for the transfer of
food energy is known as food chain.
• Food chains are not simple and straight.
Types of Food Chains
1. Grazing food chain- Energy flow begins with plants fixing solar light.
2. Detritus food chain- Energy flow begins with dead organic matter broken down by
decomposers.
 Food Web
The inter linkage between different food chains is known as food web.
Two food chains involving same number of steps are said to be belonging to same
trophic level.
Significance of Food chain/Food web
• Energy flow
• Nutrient cycles
• Ecological balance
• Population size regulation
 Trophic Level- The various steps in a food chain at which the transfer of
food or energy takes place are called trophic levels.

This material is for reference only. Points present in the slides are only for assistance and their elaboration are present in
book. Examination questions will be in depth and can be solved by following text book only.
 Ecological Pyramids
An ecological pyramid depicts how energy and biomass decrease
from lower to higher trophic levels.
• The producer or first trophic level makes up the base of
the pyramid. The successive three levels make the apex.

Types of Ecological Pyramid

1. Pyramid of Numbers
2. Pyramid of Biomass
3. Pyramid of Energy
 Pyramid of Numbers
This pyramid depicts the relationship between herbivores, producers
and carnivores at successive trophic levels in terms of their numbers.
 Pyramid of Biomass Pyramid of Energy
This Pyramid depicts the quantitative This Pyramid depicts the weight and
relationships of the standing crops number of organisms at any level are
instead of the geometric factor. based on the rate at which food is
being produced. It is upright in shape.
 Energy Flow in Environment
Energy flow in the environment is uni-directional
 Energy flow
• Universal energy flow model

This material is for reference only. Points present in the slides are only for assistance and their elaboration are
present in book. Examination questions will be in depth and can be solved by following text book only.
 Energy flow
• Single channel energy flow model

This material is for reference only. Points present in the slides are only for assistance and their elaboration are
present in book. Examination questions will be in depth and can be solved by following text book only.
 Energy flow
• Double channel or Y-shaped energy flow model

This material is for reference only. Points present in the slides are only for assistance and their elaboration are
present in book. Examination questions will be in depth and can be solved by following text book only.
 Nutrient Cycles
Nitrogen Carbon
 Nutrient Cycles
Phosphorus Sulphur
 Production of biomass
• Primary production
– Biomass production using photosynthesis
• Secondary production
– Biomass production by consuming producers
 Homeostasis
It means resistance to changes in the external environment
or
The tendency to maintain a stable, relatively constant internal environment is called
homeostasis.

The term given by Claude Bernard, a French Physiologist in the year 1865 and was first used in
1926 by Walter Bradford Cannon.
The regulation of homeostasis depends on three mechanisms:
 Effector
 Receptor
 Control Center

1. Positive feedback: Stimulates change and it is responsible for the sudden appearance of
rapid changes within ecosystems.
2. Negative feedback: Maintenance of homeostasis usually involves negative feedback loops.
 Ecological Succession
Ecological succession is the gradual process by
which ecosystems change and develop over
time.
 It is therefore a series of predictable
temporary communities or stages leading up
to a climax community.
 Each stage/temporary community is called a
successional stage or seral stage.
 Each step prepares the land for the next
successional stage.
 All habitats are in the state of constant
ecological succession.
 Types of Succession
Primary succession: refers to a series of community changes which occur on an
entirely new habitat which has never been colonized before. For example, a newly
quarried rock face or sand dunes. (pioneer and climax community).
Secondary succession: refers to a series of community changes which take place on a
previously colonized, but disturbed or damaged habitat. For example, land obtained after
felling trees in a woodland, land clearance, or fire.
 Classification of Succession at different type of area

Hydrarch / Hydrosere: Pond, swamp,

bog
Mesarch: Area with adequate moisture
Xerarch / Xerosere: Dry lands
Lithosere: On bare rock
Psammosere: On sand
Halosere: On saline soil
 Process of Ecological Succession
1. Nudation: The formation of a bare area or nudation by several reasons, such as volcanic
eruption, flooding, landslide, erosion etc.
2. Invasion: Arrival of the reproductive bodies or propagules of various organisms and their
settlement in the new or bare area.
 Migration (Dispersal)
 Ecesis (Establishment)
 Aggregation
3. Competition and Co-action: Increase in number of species with the limited space.
4. Reaction: Modification of the environment through the influence of the living organism
present on it. Reaction causes change in land, soil, water, temperature of the area.
5. Stabilization: Final or terminal communities become more or less stabilized for a longer
period of time. It can maintain its equilibrium with the climate of the area.
Final community is called the climate community which is determined by the
climate of the region. Examples of climax communities are – grassland,
forests, coral reef.
 Forest ecosystem
Abiotic Components
 Inorganic and organic substances found in soil
 Temperature, humidity, rainfall, light
 Biogenic gases (CO2, O2)
Biotic components
Producers: Large trees, herbs, lianas (climbers), Orchids
Primary consumer: Deer, Elephant, moles etc.
Secondary consumer: Snake, Lizards etc.
Tertiary consumers: Tiger, Lion etc.
Decomposers
 Tropical rain forest
• Notable features:
– Found in tropical region (near the equator).
– High rainfall, humidity and temperature
– Large leaves
– Rich in biodiversity
– Fauna of these rainforests includes the jaguar, tapir, okapi,
boa constrictor, African grey parrot, keel-billed toucan,
crowned eagle, three-toed sloth, spider monkey, large
flying fox and more.
• Layers
– Emergent layer
– Canopy
– Understory
– Forest floor
• Example: Amazon Rainforest, Congo Rainforest,
Southeast Asian Rainforest etc.
 Tropical Deciduous Forest
Notable features:
 Tropical deciduous forests form a natural
cover almost all over India.
 They are of two types-moist and dry.
Moist forests are found on the eastern
slopes of Western Ghats, North eastern
parts of the Peninsular Chhota Nagpur
plateau and along the Shiwaliks.
 They shed there leaves for a particular
period of time.
 They are economically very important
because of timber like sal and teak.
 The animals found here are tiger, wolves,
rabbit etc.
 Sub-Tropical Forest
Notable features:
– Subtropical forests are within
or bordering the tropical zone.
– temperatures may vary only
slightly over a year
– Subtropical rainforests occur
in Central America, the West
Indies, India, Madagascar,
mainland Southeast Asia, and
the Philippines.
– Small deciduous trees and
shrubs are found.

This material is for reference only. Points present in the slides are only for assistance and their elaboration are
present in book. Examination questions will be in depth and can be solved by following text book only.
 Temperate Rain Forest
Notable features:
– The world's largest temperate rain
forests are found on the Pacific coast of
North America.
– Temperate rain forests are also found in
coastal Chile, Norway, the United
Kingdom, Japan, Australia and New
Zealand.
– The mild weather conditions
– Adequate rainfall
– Coniferous trees dominate the forest
– tall evergreen trees are also found
– Animals: black bears, lynx, wolves etc.
 Temperate Deciduous Forest
Notable features:
 Located in the mid-latitude areas
(between the polar regions and the
tropics).
 The temperature varies widely from
season to season with cold winters and
hot, wet summers.
 During the fall, trees change color and
then lose their leaves.
 Most of the trees are broadleaf trees such
as oak, maple, beech, hickory and
chestnut.
 Animals: toad, chipmunk, gray squirrel,
Yellow-breasted chat etc.
 Evergreen Coniferous Forest
Notable features:
– They are found just in south of
arctic tundra
– Winters are long, cold and dry
– Sunlight is available for few
hours only
– Soil has less nutrient and acidic
– Major trees are Pine, Fir, Cedar
etc.
– Animals: moose, deer, reindeer,
squirrels, wolves, bears, foxes,
owls, woodpeckers hawks etc.
 Grassland Ecosystem
• Abiotic components:
– Inorganic elements (C, H, O, N, P, S)
– Temperature, humidity, rainfall, light
• Biotic components:
– Producers: Some scattered trees, Grass
– Primary consumers: Grazing animals,

This material is for reference only. Points present in the slides are only for assistance and their elaboration are
present in book. Examination questions will be in depth and can be solved by following text book only.
 Tropical Grassland
Notable features:
– Located near the equator, between the Tropic of
Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.
– Although these areas are overall very dry, they
do have a season of heavy rain.
– Dominated by grasses
– May have some drought-resistant, fire-resistant
trees
– Animals: Giraffes, zebras, buffaloes, kangaroos,
mice, moles, gophers, ground squirrels, snakes,
worms, termites, beetles, lions, leopards,
hyenas, and elephants.
Examples: Savannas

This material is for reference only. Points present in the slides are only for assistance and their elaboration are
present in book. Examination questions will be in depth and can be solved by following text book only.
 Temperate Grassland
Notable features:
– Trees and shrubs are completely
absent or rare.
– cold winters (-40⁰C) and hot
summers (38⁰C)
– Gentle slope
– Animals: Rodents, bisons, wolves,
hawks, owls etc.
• Examples:
 Pampas- South America
 Veldts- South Africa
 Steppes- Asia and Europe
 Downs- Australia

This material is for reference only. Points present in the slides are only for assistance and their elaboration are
present in book. Examination questions will be in depth and can be solved by following text book only.
 Polar Grassland
Notable features:
– Severe cold and strong wind
– Arctic wolf, arctic fox,
reindeer, migratory birds and
insects are found.
Examples: Arctic Tundra
– Permafrost: Permafrost is soil,
rock or sediment that is frozen for
more than two consecutive years.
In areas not overlain by ice, it
exists beneath a layer of soil, rock
or sediment.

This material is for reference only. Points present in the slides are only for assistance and their elaboration are
present in book. Examination questions will be in depth and can be solved by following text book only.
 Desert Ecosystem
About 1/3rd of the worlds’ land area is covered with desert
1. Tropical Desert
– Notable features:
• It is the driest and hottest place on earth.
• Rainfall is sporadic and in some years no measurable precipitation falls at all.
Examples: Sahara, Kalahari, Thar, Mexican deserts, Great Australian desert.
2. Temperate Desert
– Notable features:
• Temperate deserts can be much colder than tropical deserts
• The floor of the temperate desert is often covered by rocks and small pebbles
Examples: Mojave, Sonoran Deserts
3. Cold Desert
– Notable features:
• Cold deserts occur in temperate regions at higher latitudes
• Hot summers but extremely cold winters.
Examples: Atacama, Gobi, Great Basin, Namib, Iranian, Takla Makan, and Turkestan
 Pond Ecosystem
Notable features:
– Small freshwater ecosystem
– Water is stagnant
– Can be seasonal
– Exposed to anthropogenic
activities

This material is for reference only. Points present in the slides are only for assistance and their elaboration are
present in book. Examination questions will be in depth and can be solved by following text book only.
 Lake Ecosystem
Organisms of aquatic ecosystem:
– Planktons (Algae, rotifers: limited locomotion)
– Nektons (Fishes: active swimmer)
– Neustons (Floating plants)
– Benthos (Bottom dweller: Snail)
– Periphytons (Crustaceane)
• Zonation (Stratification)
– Epilimnion (Warm, lighter, circulating surface layer)
– Hypolimnion (Cold, viscous, non-circulating bottom layer)

This material is for reference only. Points present in the slides are only for assistance and their elaboration are
present in book. Examination questions will be in depth and can be solved by following text book only.
 Types of Lakes
• Oligotrophic lakes- Low nutrient content
• Eutrophic lake- High nutrient content
• Dystrophic lake- Low pH (Eg: Lake Suchar II in Poland, lakes
Allgjuttern, Fiolen, and Brunnsjön in Sweden.)
• Endemic lakes- Ancient and deep having endemic fauna.
• Desert salt lakes- High salt content Eg: Great Salt Lake
northern Utah, USA
• Volcanic lakes
• Mermictic lakes- Permanently stratified
• Artificial lakes
This material is for reference only. Points present in the slides are only for assistance and their elaboration are
present in book. Examination questions will be in depth and can be solved by following text book only.
 Streams
• Notable features:
Stages
• Mountain highland (Young River)
• Second phase (Middle Aged River)
• Third phase (Old River)

This material is for reference only. Points present in the slides are only for assistance and their elaboration are
present in book. Examination questions will be in depth and can be solved by following text book only.
 Oceans Ecosystem
• Notable features:
– Marine ecosystems support a great diversity of life and variety of habitats.
– The ocean is a major influence on weather and climate.
– Plants: seaweeds, or marine algae (brown, green, red), sea grasses, phytoplankton
– Animals: protozoans, marine invertebrates (echinoderms, mollusks, segmented and
non-segmented worms, jellies, coral, sea anemones, hyroids) marine vertebrates
(fishes, birds, mammals), and zooplankton.
• Zones
– Coastal zone
– Open sea
• Euphotic zone (Abundant sunlight, high photosynthetic activity)
• Bathyal zone (Dim light)
• Abyssal zone (Dark zone)

This material is for reference only. Points present in the slides are only for assistance and their elaboration are
present in book. Examination questions will be in depth and can be solved by following text book only.