Experiment

DC
Performance of DC circuit

1
Objectives:

 To introduce the Multimeter , the breadboard , the power supply , Resistors and their color
code .
 To analyze simple resistive circuit in DC . The circuits considered here are :
Resistors in series , parallel , series – parallel combination , current devider and voltage
divider .

Equipment :

- Resistors : ( 0.470kΩ , 1 kΩ , 2.2kΩ , 3.3kΩ , 4.7kΩ ) .

- DMM( Digital Multimeter ) .
- Breadboard .
- DC Power Supply.

Theory :

The analysis of series-parallel dc networks requires a firm understanding of the basics of both series
and parallel networks. In the series-parallel configuration, you will have to isolate series and
parallel configurations and make the necessary combinations for reduction as you work toward the
desired unknown quantity.
As a rule, it is best to make a mental sketch of the path you plan to take toward the complete
solution before introducing the numerical values. This may result in savings in both time and
energy. Always work with isolated series and parallel combinations in a branch before tying the
branches together. For complex networks carefully redrawn set of reduced networks may be
required to insure that the unknown are conserved and that every element has been properly
included.

Ohm's law :The voltage across a resistor is directlyproportional to the current flowing through
it :

- V = R .I , - P = V. I
- R = V/ I , - P = R .I2
- I = V/R , - P = V2 /R

Where P is the power dissipated .

Error Calculation :-Error % =│ ( Dth – Dm) │ / Dth* 100 %
Dth:Theoretical Value
Dm : Measured Value

Voltage divider:
Vout= Vin *( R2 / R1 + R2 )

Current divider:
I2 = I *( R1/ R1 + R2 )

Resistors and color code :

the flow of charge through any material encounters an opposing force due to collision between the
electrons and atoms in the material. This converts electrical energy into heat , and the force
encountered is called resistance. Resistors are manufactured to a specific amount of resistance .
They are used in circuit for many purposes, such as providing voltage drop and limiting current
flow . The relative size of the resistors varies with its wattage ( power) rating , since alarge size
sustain higher current and heat dissipation . To identify the value of the resistor , the color code has
been devised . Four or five color bands are pinted on the end of tge resistor ( see table 1) . The
bands are always read from the end that has the band closest to it . The first and the second bands
represent the first and the second digits ( i.e the number of zeros that follow the second digit ) .The
fourth band is the tolerance , with which the resistor was manufactured .
Resistors are manufactured in fixed wattage ( power rating ) , mainly : 1/8 , 1/4 , 1/2 , 1, 2 , watts ,
ets . This is defined by size , or printed on the component . Note that the size of the resistors is
related to its current carrying capacity . Since large currents mean higher temperatures, a large
surface is needed for the heat to be dissipated , hence a large resistor size indicates a higher power
rating .
Procedure:

Part 1:Series Connection :

a) Construct the series network of Fig.1.4. Insert the measured resistor value next to each
resistor . And fill the table below .

Figure 1.4

Parameter R1 R2 R3 Req Vs VR1 VR2 VR3 Is

Unit KΏ V mA
Theoretical 1 2.2 3.3 12
Measured
%Error
Table 1.1
Where in Series Connection :Req = R1 + R2 + R3
 Part 2:Parallel Connection :

b) Construct the parallel network of Fig.1.4. Insert the measured resistor value next to
each resistor . And fill the table below.

Figure1.5

Parameter R1 R2 R3 Req I1 I2 I3 Is VS
Unit KΏ mA V
Theoretical 1 2.2 3.3 12
Measured
%Error
Table 1.2

Where in Parallel Connection : (1 / Req) = (1 / R1) + (1 / R2) + (1 / R3)

Part 3:Series-Parallel Combination :

a) Connect the circuit in Fig 1.6 and fill the table below :

Figure1.6

Parameter R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 Req I1 I2 I3 I6 Vs V2 V3 V out

Unit KΏ mA V
Theoretical 0.470 1 2.2 3.3 4.7 3.3 12
Measured
%Error
Table 1.3

1.By the calculation find Req and then compare your result with the measured value. (Report)

2.By the calculation find R1 , R2 , R3 , R4 , R5 , R6 , I1 , I2 , I3 , I6 , V1 , V2 , V3 and Vout

and then compare your result with the measured value . ( Report )

3.Write your conclusion about this experiment. (Report )

Methods of Analysis Experiment
(Nodal and Mesh Analysis) DC

2
Objectives:
 To become familiar with branch, mesh and nodal-analysis techniques.

Equipment :
- Resistors : ( 0.47kΩ , 1kΩ , 2.2kΩ , 3.3kΩ , 4.7kΩ , 0.680kΩ )
- DMM ( Digital Multimeter ) .
- DC Power Supply.

Theory :

The Branch, mesh and nodal-analysis techniques are used to solve complex networks
with a single source or networks with more than one source that are not in series or
parallel.
The Branch, mesh and nodal-analysis techniques will determine the currents of the
network, while the nodal-analysis approach will provide the potential levels of the
nodes of network with respect to some reference.
The application of each technique follows a sequence of steps, each of which will
result in a set of equations with desired unknowns. An application of determinants or
other mathematical procedures will then provide the results required.
For all percent difference calculations, the equation is

%Difference = ( | Calculated – Measured | / Calculated) *100% 2.1

1
 Procedure:

Part 1: Nodal Analysis :

Construct the network of fig.2.1. Insert the measured resistor value next to each
resistor.

Figure. 2.1

Parameter R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 Vs V2 V3 V4
Unit KΏ V
Theoretical 0.470 1 2.2 3.3 4.7 12
Measured
%Error
Table 2.1

1. By the calculation find, V2 , V3 , and V4 and then compare your result with the
measured value . ( Report )

2. if we add another voltage source ( with V = 5 V ) Fig. 2.2. Repeat step1 .

(Report )

Figure. 2.2

2
Parameter R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 Vs1 Vs2 V2 V3 V4
Unit KΏ V
Theoretical 0.470 1 2.2 3.3 0.680 12 5
Measured
%Error
Table 2.2

Part 2: Mesh Analysis :

Construct the network of fig.2.3. Insert the measured resistor value next to each
resistor.

Figure. 2.3

Parameter R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 Is I2 I3 I4 I5
Unit KΏ mA
Theoretical 0.470 1 2.2 4.7 3.3
Measured
%Error

Table 2.3
1. By the calculation I2 , I3 , I4 and I5 using Mesh Analysis then compare your
result with the measured value . ( Report )

2. Write your conclusion about this experiment . ( Report )

3
 Experiment
DC
Superposition Principle (DC)

3
Objectives:
 To verify experimentally the superposition principle as applied to DC circuits.

Equipment :
- Resistors : (1.2kΩ , 2.2kΩ , 3.3kΩ)
- DMM ( Digital Multimeter ) .
- DC Power Supply.

Theory :

The superposition principle states that the current through or voltage cross any
resistive branch of a multi source network is the algebraic sum of the contributions
due to each source acting independently. When the effects of one source are
considered, the others are replaced by their internal resistances. Superposition is
effective only for linear circuit relationships.

The steps in applying the theorem are as follows :

1. Choose one source at a time , and replace all other voltages sources with a
short circuit ( R = 0 ) , and all other sources with an open circuit ( R = ∞ ) .
2. Determine the currents and voltage required .
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 for each source in this circuit.
4. The total current or voltages in a branch is the algebraic sum of the individual
source currents or voltages in that branch .

1
PROCEDURE
Part 1:

(a) See Fig 3.1 and measure the value of the resistors using the DMM .

Figure 3.1

Resistors
Nominal Value Measured Value
1.2 kΩ
2.2 kΩ
3.3 kΩ

(b) By using the superposition principle, we first remove one of the sources and
replace it by wire (short circuit). Then fill the table.
(c) Find the theoretical values by calculation and compare your result with the
measured values. ( Report )

Figure 3.2

2
 Parameter Unit Theoretical Experimental % Error
VsI 10
V'I
V'2 V
V'3
I'1
I'2 mA
I'3
P'1
P'2 mW
P'3
Table 3.2

(d) By using the superposition principle, we remove the other sources and
replace it by wire (short circuit). Then fill the table.
(e) Find the theoretical values by calculation and compare your result with the
measured values. ( Report )

Figure 3.3

Parameter Unit Theoretical Experimental % Error

Vs2 15
V' ' I
V' ' 2 V
V' ' 3
I' ' 1
I' ' 2 mA
I' ' 3
P' ' 1
P' ' 2 mW
P' ' 3
Table 3.3

3
 (f) Now construct the original circuit as shown in Fig. 3.4 and fill the table .
(g) Find the theoretical values by calculation and compare your result with the
measured values. ( Report )

Figure 3.4

Parameter Unit Theoretical Experimental % Error

( X' + X'')
Vs1 10
Vs2 15
VI V
V2
V3
11
I2 mA
I3
P1
P2 mW
P3
Table 3.4
Part 2 :

(a) Construct the network of Fig 3.5. Insert the measured resistor values.

Figure 3.5

4
 (b) Using superposition method, remove the first voltage source ( E1 ) and fill
the table .
(c) Find the theoretical values by calculation and compare your result with the
measured values. ( Report )

Parameter Unit Theoretical Experimental % Error

Vs2 -10
V'I
V'2 V
V'3
I'1
I'2 mA
I'3
P'1
P'2 mW
P'3
Table 3.5

(d) Using superposition method, remove the first voltage source ( E2 ) and fill
the table .
(e) Find the theoretical values by calculation and compare your result with the
measured values. ( Report )

Parameter Unit Theoretical Experimental % Error

Vs1 20
V' ' I
V' ' 2 V
V' ' 3
I' ' 1
I' ' 2 mA
I' ' 3
P' ' 1
P' ' 2 mW
P' ' 3
Table 3.6

(f) Reconstruct the original circuit and fill the table .

(g) Find the theoretical values by calculation and compare your result with the
measured values. ( Report )

5
 Parameter Unit Theoretical Experimental % Error
( X' + X'')
Vs1 20
Vs2 10
VI V
V2
V3
11
I2 mA
I3
P1
P2 mW
P3
Table 3.7

6
 Experiment
dc
Thevenin's Theorem and
Maximum Power Transfer
4
Objectives:
To verify Thevenin's theorem and the maximum power transfer principle.

Equipment :
- Resistors : ( 91 Ω, 220 Ω, 330 Ω, 470 Ω ).
- 1 k Ω potentiometer
- DMM( Digital Multimeter ) .
- Dc Power supply.

Theory :
Through the use of Thevenin's theorem, a complex two-terminal, linear multi source
dc network can be replaced by one having a single source and resistor.
The Thevenin equivalent circuit consists of single dc source referred to as the
Thevenin voltage and a single fixed resistor called the Thevenin resistance. The
Thevenin voltage is the open-circuit voltage across the terminals in question. The
Thevenin resistance is the resistance between these terminals with all of the voltage
and current sources replaced by their internal resistances.
If adc voltage source is deliver maximum power to resistor, the resistor have a value
equal to the internal resistance of the source. In a complex network maximum power
transfer to a load will occur when the load resistance is equal to the Thevenin
resistance "seen" by the load. For this value, the voltage across the load will be one-
half of Thevenin voltage. In equation form, the maximum power is given by

Pmax = E2Th / 4RTH Eq (4.1)

1- Open circuit the terminals to which the Thevenin equivalent is desired. In other word
disconnect all of the circuitry that will not be replaced by the equivalent circuit.

2- RTH is the total resistance at the open-circuit terminals, when all voltage sources are
replaced by short circuit, and current sources are replaced by open circuit.

3- VTH is the voltage a cross the open-circuited terminals.

4- Replace the original circuitry by its Thevenin equivalent circuit, with the Thevenin
terminal occupying the same position as the original terminals. The external circuit removed
in step 1 may now be connected

1
Procedure:

Part 1 : Thevenin's theorem

(a) Insert the measured resistor values into Fig 4.1 and measure the Thevenin
voltage and resistance for the network to the left of point a-a'.
(b) Calculate the Thevenin voltage and resistance for the network to the left of
point a-a'. ( Report )

Figure 4.1

Parameter Unit Theoretical Experimental % Error

Vs 10
V TH V
VL
R1
R2 KΩ
R3
RTH
IL mA
Table 4.1

( c ) Insert the vales obtained in (a) in the schematic of Fig 4.2 and measure
IL and compare your result with the original circuit . ( Report )

Figure 4.2

2
 Part 2: Maximum Power Transfer

(a) Construct the network of Fig 4.3 and set the potentiometer to 50 Ω. Measure
the voltage across R as you vary R through the following: 50, 100, 200, 300,
330, 400, 600, 800, 1000 Ω. Be sure to set the resistance with the ohmmeter
section of your meter before each reading. (Remember to disconnect the dc
supply when setting the resistance level.). Complete Table 4.3 and plot power
versus R on Graph 4.1.

R VR PR = V2R/R
50 Ω
200 Ω
300 Ω
600 Ω
800 Ω
1000 Ω
Table 4.3

Figure 4.3

3
 Graph 4.1

(b) Theoretically, for what values of R will the power delivered to R be

Maximum? Check this value against that obtained from the graph. ) Report )

R =-----------------------

(c) In addition, what should the voltage across R be when R is set for maximum
power? Do your experimental data substantiate this?

VR =---------------------

(d) Construct the network of Fig 4.4 and set the potentiometer to 10 Ω. Complete
Table 4.4 for each value of R.

4
 Figure 4.4

R VR PR
50 Ω
150 Ω
200 Ω
250 Ω
350 Ω
400 Ω
Table 4.4

(e) What value of R would appear to result in a maximum power transfer to the
load? How does it compare to the value of RTh determined in Part 1(a)?

R =----------------------

5
 Experiment
DC
Wheatstone bridge and ∆-Y
Conversions
5
Objectives:
To become familiar with the Wheatstone bridge and ∆-Y conversions.

Equipment :

- Resistors : ( 100 Ω, 200 Ω, 270 Ω, 1 k Ω )

- 1 k Ω potentiometer
- Unmarked fixed resistor in range 47 Ω to 220 Ω
- DMM (or VOM)
- DC Power Supply
- Commercial Wheatstone bridge (if available)

Theory :

The Wheatstone bridge is an instrument used to make precision measurements of

unknown resistance levels. The basic configuration appears in Fig 5.1. The unknown
resistance is Rx and R1, R2, and R3 are precision of resistors of known value.

Figure 5.1

1
The Network is balanced when the galvanometer (G) has a zero-level indication.
We are aware from circuit theory that if IG = 0 A, the voltage Vbd is zero and

Vab = Vad and Vbc = Vdc

By substitution,

I1R1 = IxRx 5.1

And

I2R2 = I3R3 5.2

Solving Eq (5.1) for I1 yields

IxRx
I1 =
R1

Substituting I1 for I2 and Ix for I3 in Eq.(14.2), we have

IxRx
I1R2=IxR3 or ( )R2=IxR3
R1

Canceling Ix from both sides and solving for Rx, we obtain

Rx=(R1/R2)R3

Or in the ratio form

R1/R2=Rx/R3
In the commercial Wheatstone bridge, R1 and R2 are variable in decade steps so
that the ratio R1/R2 is a decimal or integral multiplier. R3 is continuous variable
resistor, such as slide-wire rheostat. Before the unknown resistor is connected to
terminals of commercial bridge, the R1/R2 ratio (called the factor of the ratio arms) is
adjusted for that particular unknown resistor. After resistor is connected, R3 is
adjusted until there is no detectable current indicated by the galvanometer
(Galvanometer sensitivities are usually 10-10 A or better.) The unknown resistance
value is ratio factor times the R3 setting. There are certain circuit configurations in
which the resistors do not appear to be in series or parallel. Under these conditions, it
is necessary to convert the circuit in question from one form to another. The two
circuits to be investigated in this experiment are the delta and wye, both of which
appear in Fig. 5.2. To convert a delta to a wye ( or vice versa), we use the following
conversion equations:

Figure 5.2

2
R1=(RARC)/(RA+RB+RC) R2=(RBRC)/(RA+RB+RC
R3=(RARB)/(RA+RB+RC)

RA=(R1R2+R1R3+R2R3)/R2 RB=(R1R2+R1R3+R2R3)/R1

RC=(R1R2+R1R3+R2R3)/R3
If RA=RB=RC ,

RΔ
Ry = 3
If R1=R2=R3

RΔ = 3 Ry

Procedure:

Part 1: Wheatstone bridge circuit

(a) Construct the network of Fig. 5.3. Insert the measured values each resistor
and set potentiometer to the maximum resistance setting.

Figure 5.3

(b) Starting with meter on higher voltage scale, vary potentiometer until the
voltage Vab is close to zero as possible. Then drop the voltage scales to the
lowest range possible to set the voltage Vab as close to zero volts as possible.
The bridge is now balanced.

(c) Measure the voltages Vda, Vdb, Vac, Vbc

Vda=---------------, Vdb=--------------, Vac=-----------------, Vbc=---------------

3
(d) Calculate the currents I1 and I3 using Ohms law. Are they equal as defined in
the resume of theory? ( Report )

I1=--------------- , I3=----------------

(e) Disconnect one lead of potentiometer (using as a rheostat) and measure its
resistance

Rpot=-----------------

(f) Calculate the currents I2 and I4 using the results of (c) and Ohms law.
Are they equal as defined in the resume of theory? ( Report )

I2=------------------------ , I4=----------------------

(g) Verify that the following ratio is satisfied . ( Report )

R1 R2
= R4
R3

(h) Replace the 91 ohm resistor by unknown resistor. Proceed as before to adjust the
potentiometer until Vab=0 V. Remove the variable resistor and measure its
resistance with the ohmmeter section of your multimeter .

Rpot=----------------

(i) Calculate the unknown resistance using Eq. (5.3). ( Report )

Rx=--------------

4
Part 3 : 𝚫 – 𝐲 conversions

(a) Construct the network of Fig. 5.4. Insert the measured values of the 220 ohm
resistors. Assume for moment that each 1k ohm resistor is exactly 1k ohm.

Figure 5.4

(b) Calculate the current I and the voltage Vab using any method other than a Δ-
y (that is ,mesh analysis, nodal analysis and so on) . ( Report )

I=----------------, Vab=--------------

(c) Measure the current I and the voltage Vab and compare to the results of (b)

I=---------------, Vab =--------------

(d) Calculate the equivalent Y for the Δ formed by three 1k oham resistors. Draw
the equivalent circuit with delta replaced by Y.
(e) Insert the values of resistors in the Y in Fig. 5.5 and also current I and the
voltage Vab . current I and the voltage Vab ..

Figure 5.5

5
 Experiment
AC
The Oscilloscope

6
Objectives:
To introduce the basic components and use of an oscilloscope and audio oscillator (or
function generator) .

Equipment :
1- DMM or VOM
1- Oscilloscope
1- Audio Oscillator or Function Generator

Theory :
Oscilloscope
The cathode-ray oscilloscope is an instrument that displays the variations of a voltage
with time on a cathode-ray tube (CRT) such as that appearing in Fig 6.1. The CRT is an
evacuated glass envelope, shaped as shown in Fig 6.1, with the following essential
components:

Figure 6.1

1-An electron gun that generates rapidly moving electrons, shapes them into
a pencil-like beam, and then directs them along the axis of a tub.
2-Deflection plates for producing a vertical and horizontal deflection of the
beam from its original path.
3-A fluorescent screen that emits light at point where the beam strikes
 The electron gun is made up of the following components:
1-A heater and cathode that serve as the source of the electrons.
2-A control electrode that serves to vary the strength of beam current.
3-A focusing electrode that focuses the beam to sharp point on the screen
4-Accelerating and preaccelerating electrodes that give the electrodes that
give the electrons the high velocity required to reach the screen and cause
secondary emission.

The deflection of the beam may be accomplished either electostatically or

electromagnetically. Most oscilloscopes use electrostatic deflection (Fig 6.1). To deflect
the beam, a potential is applied across pates D1 and D2 or D3 and D$. The horizontal
plates D1 and D2 deflect the beam vertically, whereas the vertical plates D3 and D4
deflect the beam horizontally. The deflection of the beam is directly proportional to the
impressed voltage.
The CRT is, in itself, not a very sensitive device. A 5-in. CRT under ordinary conditions
will give about 1 in. of deflection for difference of potential of 100 V. The signals
encountered most frequently are usually well under 100 V, so it becomes necessary to
amplify the signals before a usable deflection will be obtained. Two deflection amplifiers
are required, one for each set plates.
For the oscilloscope to indicate the variations of an electrical quantity in the vertical
direction as a function of time, there must be a voltage impressed on the horizontal
deflection plates that varies linearly with time. This voltage is shown graphically in Fig
6.2. An oscillator that can generate such voltage is called, for obvious reasons , a sawtooth
oscillator. Frequently, the term sweep oscillator is used. Fig 6.3 provides a block diagram
of general purpose oscilloscope.

Figure 6.2

Figure 6.3
All of the controls for proper operation of an oscilloscope are mounted on the front
panel of the instrument. Fig 6.4 indicates the approximate location of the controls

found on most general-purpose oscilloscopes. The location of the control shown varies
according to manufacturer. Table 6.2 describes the function of each.

Figure 6.4 Dual-channel oscilloscope

Control Function
Power Turn on the main power.
Intensity Controls the intensity of the pattern on the screen
Focus Focuses the electron beam so that the pattern will clearly
defined
Triggering mode Determines the type of triggering for horizontal sweeping
pattern
Triggering level Determines the level at which triggering should occur
Vertical display mode Determines whether one or two signals will be displayed at
the same time and which technique will be used to display
the signals
Y-position Controls the vertical location of the pattern
X-position Controls the horizontal location of the pattern
Vertical sensitivity Determines the volts/cm for the vertical axis display
Sweep time horizontal Determines the time/cm for horizontal axis of display
sensitivity
Dc/ac/GND switch Determines whether dc levels will be displayed on the
screen and permits determining the Gnd(zero-volt input
level) of the display
Table 6.2
 (a) Voltage measurements

DC Levels :
To use the scope to measure dc levels, first place dc/ac/Gnd switch in the Gnd position
to establish the ground (zero-volt) level on the screen.
Then switch the dc/ac/Gnd switch to the dc position to measure the dc level.
In the ac mode, a capacitor blocks the dc from screen.
Then place the scope leads across the unknown dc level and use the following equation
to determine the dc level:

dc Level(V) = deflection(cm) * vertical sensitivity (V/cm) 6.1

AC Levels :
After reestablishing the ground level, place dc/ac/Gnd switch in the ac mode and
connect the scope leads across the unknown voltage. The peak to peak voltage can then
be determined from:

VP-P(V) = deflection peak to peak(cm) * vertical sensitivity (V/cm) 6.2

(b) Frequency Measurements:

The oscilloscope can be used to set the frequency of an audio oscillator or function
generator using the horizontal sensitivity in the following manner.
Determine the period of described waveform and then calculate the number of divisions
required to display the waveform on the horizontal axis using the provided
µs/cm, ms/cm or s/cm on the horizontal sensitivity control. Then adjust the audio
oscillator or function generator to provide the proper horizontal deflection for the desired
frequency.
Of course, the reverse of the above procedure will determine the frequency of an
unknown signal.

Audio Oscillator and Function Generator:

The audio oscillator is designed to provide a sinusoidal waveform in the frequency

range audible by the human ear. A function generator typically expands on the
capabilities of the audio oscillator by providing a square wave and triangular waveform
with an increased frequency range. Either instrument is suitable for this experiment
since we will be dealing only with sinusoidal waveforms in the audio range.
Most oscillators and generators require that the magnitude of the output signal be set by
an oscilloscope or DMM(or VOM). That is, the amplitude dial of the oscillator is not
graduated and peak or peak-to-peak value is set by connecting the output of the
oscillator to a scope or meter and adjusting the amplitude dial until the desired voltage is
obtained.
Procedure:

Part 1: Introduction
(a) Your instructor will introduce the basic operation of the oscilloscope and audio
oscillator or function generator.
(b) Turn the oscilloscope and establish a horizontal line centered on the face of the
screen. There are no connections to the vertical input sections of the scope for this
part.
(c) Adjust the controls listed in Table 6.3 and comment on the effect.

Control Observed Effect

Focus
Intensity
Y-position
X-position
Table 6.3

Part 2 : DC Voltage Measurements

(a) set the dc/ac/Gnd switch to the Gnd position and adjust the Y-position control until
zero-volt reference is a line centered vertically on the screen.
(b) Once the zero-volt level is established, move the dc/ac/Gnd switch to the dc position
and set the vertical sensitivity to 1V/cm and connect one channel of the scope across
the 1.5-V battery as shown in Fig 6.5

Figure 6.5

Record the vertical shift below

Vertical shift = ------------------cm
Determine the voltage by multiplying the vertical sensitivity. That is,
Dc voltage = (vertical Shift)(vertical Sensitivity)
= (---------------)(----------------------)
= ----------------V
Change the sensitivity to 0.5 V/cm and note the effect on vertical shift. Recalculate
the dc voltage with this new shift.

dc voltage = (vertical Shift)(vertical Sensitivity)

=(----------------)(----------------------)
=-------------------V
How do the two measurements compare?

Which is more accurate? Why?

(c) Disconnect the 1.5-V battery and reestablish the zero-volt reference line.
Then connect the vertical input section of the scope as shown in Fig 1.6 with the vertical
sensitivity set at 1V/cm.

Figure 6.6

What was the effect on the magnitude and direction of the shift?

Can a scope determine whether a particular voltage is positive or negative? How?

Calculate the measured voltage as follows:

Dc Voltage = (vertical Shift) (vertical Sensitivity)
= (---------------) (----------------------)
=-----------------V

Measure the voltage with the DMM(or VOM) and compare results.

DC Voltage [DMM(or VOM)] = -------------------V

Part 3: Sinusoidal Waveforms-Magnitude

In this part of experience we will learn how to set the magnitude of sinusoid signal using
an oscilloscope or DMM (or VOM). The frequency will remain fixed 500Hz

Oscilloscope:
(a) Connect the output of the oscillator or generator directly to one channel of the
scope as shown in Fig 6.7.

Figure 6.7

(b) Set the output frequency to the oscillator or generator to 500Hz using the dial and
appropriate multiplier. Turn the magnitude knob all the way to the left for minimum
output.
(c) Set the vertical sensitivity of the scope to 1V/cm and horizontal sensitivity to
0.5ms/cm and turn on both the scope and the oscillator or generator.
(d) Set the dc/ac/Gnd switch to the Gnd position to establish the zero-volt reference
level (also the vertical center of a sinusoidal waveform) and then return the switch to the
ac position.
(e) Now adjust the amplitude control of the oscillator or generator until the signal has a
4-V peak-to-peak swing. The resulting waveform has the following mathematical
formulation:
υ= Vmsin2πft = 2sin2π500t
(f) Switch to the dc position and comment below on any change in the waveform.

(g) Make the necessary adjustments to display the following waveforms on the screen.
Sketch both patterns in the space provided , showing the number of divisions ( in
centimeters) for the vertical and horizontal distances, and the vertical and horizontal
sensitivities.

1. V = 2 Sin 2π500 t
Vertical Deflection = ----------------cm
Vertical Sensitivity = -----------------
Horizontal Deflection = ---------------cm
Horizontal Sensitivity = ---------------

2. V = 8 Sin 2π500 t

Vertical Deflection = ----------------cm

Vertical Sensitivity = -----------------
Horizontal Deflection = ---------------cm
Horizontal Sensitivity = ---------------

DMM (or VOM)

(h)The sinusoidal signal 2sin2π500t has an effective value determined by:
Veff = 0.707Vm = 0.707(2) = 1.414V
Connect the DMM (or VOM) directly across the oscillator in the ac rms
mode and adjust the oscillator output until Veff = 1.414. Then connect the output of the
oscillator directly to the scope and note the total peak-to-peak swing.

Is the waveform the same as that obtained in (e)?

(i) Use the DMM (or VOM) to set the following sinusoidal output from the oscillator:
V = 5 Sin 2π500 t
Veff = --------------V
Set Veff with the DMM (or VOM) by adjusting the output of the oscillator and place
the signal on the screen.
Calculate thr peak-to-peak voltage as follows;
Vp-p = (Vertical distance peak to peak)(Vertical Sensitivity)
= (------------------)(-----------------)
= -------------------V
Hoe does above compare to desired 10-V peak-to-peak voltage?

Part 4: Sinusoidal Waveforms-Frequency

This section will demonstrate how the oscilloscope can be used to set the frequency
output or an oscillator or generator. In other words, the scope can be used to make the fir
adjustments on the frequency set by the dials of the oscillator or generator.
For a signal such as 2sin2π500t, the frequency is 500Hz and the period 1/500
= 2ms. With a horizontal sensitivity of 0.5ms/cm, the wave form should appear in
exactly four horizontal divisions. I it does not, the fine-adjust control on the frequency of
the oscillator or generator can be adjusted until it is exactly 4cm. The scope has the set
the output frequency of the oscillator.
Make the necessary adjustments to place the following waveforms on the
scope. Sketch the waveforms in the space provided , indicating the number of vertical
and horizontal deflections and sensitivity of each.

1. V = 4 Sin 60280 t

f = -----------------Hz, t=--------------sec
 Vertical Deflection = ----------------cm
Vertical Sensitivity = -----------------
Horizontal Deflection = ---------------cm
Horizontal Sensitivity = ---------------

2. V = 5 Sin 377 t

f = -----------------Hz, t=--------------sec

Vertical deflection = ----------------cm

Vertical sensitivity = -----------------
Horizontal deflection = ---------------cm
Horizontal sensitivity = ---------------

Part 5 : Sinusoidal Waveforms on a dc level

(a) Set the oscillator or the generator to an output of 1sin2π500t using a vertical
sensitivity of 1V/cm on the scope with a horizontal sensitivity of 0.5ms/cm.
(b) Measure the dc voltage of one of the D cells and insert in Fig 1.8.
E = --------------------V
(b) Construct the network of Fig 1.8.
 Figure 1.8

(d) The input signal now has a dc level equal to the dc voltage of the D cell.
Set the dc/ac/Gnd switch to the Gnd position and adjust the zero line to the center of the
screen.
(e) Switch the ac mode and sketch the response , clearly indicating the zero-level line
and the vertical deflection in centimeters.

(f) Switch to the dc mode and sketch the response, clearly indicating the zero-volt
reference level and the vertical deflections in centimeters.

(g) How are the waveforms of (e) and (f) different? Why?
 Experiment
ac
Frequency
Dependence
R-L-C
Components
7
Objectives:
To note the effect of frequency on the basic R-L-C components

Equipment :
- Resistors ( 100 Ω , 10 Ω , 22 Ω , 470 Ω , 47 Ω , 1k Ω )
- Inductors ( 10mH )
- Capacitors ( 1µF )
- DMM
- Oscilloscope
- Audio oscillator (or Function Generator)

Theory :
The resistance of a carbon resistor is unaffected by frequency, except for
extremely high frequencies. This rule is also true for the total resistance of
resistors in series of parallel. The reactance of an inductor is linearly dependent
on the frequency applied.
That is, if we double the frequency, we double the reactance, as determined by
XL = 2πfL. For very low frequencies, the reactance is corresponding very small.,
While increasing frequencies, the reactance will increase to a very large value.
For the dc conditions, we find that XL = 2π(0)L is zero ohms, corresponding with
short-circuit presentation we used in our analysis of dc circuits. For very high
frequencies XL is high that we can often use open circuit approximation.
The capacitor behaves ( as far as reactance is concerned ) in manner opposite to
that of the inductor. For low frequencies, the capacitive reactance, as determined
by XC = 1/2πfC is very high and approaches the open-circuit approximation used
dc circuits. For very high frequencies, the reactance becomes progressively small
until the short-circuit approximation could be employed. The capacitive
reactance nonlinearly dependent on the frequency.

1
Procedure:
Part 1 : Resistors

Construct the circuit of Fig 7.1. Insert the measured value of R and RS.

Figure 7.1

In this part of experiment, the voltage across the resistor R will be held constant
while only the frequency is varied. If the resistance is frequency independent, the
current through the circuit should not change as function of frequency.
Therefore, by keeping the voltage Vab constant and changing the frequency while
monitoring the current I, we can verify if, indeed, resistance is frequency
independent. The current Irms will be determined by Irms = VRS/RS(meas).
Set the voltage Vab to 4 V(p-p) (with the oscilloscope). Then set the frequencies to
those shown in Table 7.3, each time monitoring Vab[always 4 V(p-p)] and VRS.
Calculate Irms and substitute into Table 7.1

Frequency VAB(rms) Irms R=VAB(rms) / Irms

100Hz
200Hz
500Hz
1000Hz
2000Hz

Table 7.1

Does the resistance R change with frequency

2
Part 2 : Inductors
(a) Construct the circuit of Fig 7.2(Measure the dc resistance of the coil
with the DMM and record rhat values as RL on the diagram).

Figure 7.2

In this part, the resistor of part 1 is replaced by the inductor. Here again the
voltage across the inductor will be kept constant while we vary the frequency
that voltage and monitor the current in the circuit
Set the voltage Vab to 4 V(p-p) (with the oscilloscope) and the oscillator or
generator to the various frequencies shown in Table 7.4, each time making sure
that Vab = 4V(p-p) and that you measure the voltage VRS.Calculate Irms for each
frequency and substitute into Table 7.2

Frequency VAB(rms) Irms XL( Measured ) XL(calculated)

=VAB(rms) / Irms =2πfL
1kHz
3kHz
5kHz
7kHz
10kHz

Table 7.2

(b) Calculate the reactance XL (magnitude only) at each frequency and

insert the values in Table 7.4 under heading XL (measured. We are
assume that XL>>RL for the frequencies of interest, so that

Z = VAB(rms)/ Irms = √(RL2+XL2) ≡ √XL2 =XL

3
 (c) Calculate the reactance at each frequency of Table 7.2 using the name
plate value of inductance (10mH), and complete the Table.
(d) Plot the measured and calculated values of XL versus frequency on
Graph 7.1. Label each curve and plot the points accurately.

(e) Are both plots straight lines? Do they both pass through XL = 0 at f =
0Hz as they should?

Graph 7.1

(f) Determine the inductance at 1500 Hz using the results of (d).That

determine XL from the graph and calculate L from L=XL/2πf. Compare to
the name plate value.

Lcalculated =-------------------, Lnameplate =--------------

4
Part 3: Capacitors
(a) Construct the circuit of Fig 7.3. This part exactly the same as part 2
except that we now insert a capacitor in place of the inductor.

Figure 7.3

Set the voltage Vab to 4 V (p-p) (with the oscilloscope) and the oscillator to the
various frequencies shown in Table 7.5. Make sure that Vab = 4 (p-p) and that
you measure voltage VRS for each setting. Calculate Irms at each frequency and
substitute into Table 7.3

Frequency VAB (rms) I rms XC ( Measured ) XC (Calculated)

= VAB (rms) / Irms = 1 / 2πfC
200Hz
500Hz
800Hz
1000Hz
2000Hz

Table 7.3

(b) Calculate the reactance XC (magnitude only) at each frequency and insert
in Table 7.5 under the heading XC (measured)

(c) Calculate the reactance at each frequency of Table 7.3 using the name
plate value of capacitance (0.1µF) and complete the table.

(d) Plot the measured and calculated values of XC versus frequency on Graph
7.2. Label each curve and plot the points accurately.

(e) How do the two curves compare? Are they linear(straight line) or
nonlinear? Comment on their shape.

5
 f) Determine the reactance of the capacitor at 1500 Hz from the plot and
calculate the capacitance of the capacitor using the equation C = 1/2πfXC.
Compare to the nameplate value.

Ccalculated = ----------------, Cnameplate = ------------------

Graph 7.2

6
Zarqa University Faculty of Engineering and Technology Electronics Lab

Experiment (8)

Diode Characteristics
Objectives:
• To become familiar with checking diodes using volt-ohm meters .

• To investigate the farward and reverse –baised characteristics of diodes .

• To learn how to determine the dc and ac resistance for a diode .

Theory and Background:

The diode is a device formed from a junction of n-type and p-type semiconductor material.
The lead connected to the p-type material is called the anode and the lead connected to the
n-type material is the cathode. In general, the cathode of a diode is marked by a solid line on
the diode.

Figure 1-1: The symbol for a diode compared to an actual diode package.

The primary function of the diode is the rectification. When it is forward biased
(the higher potential is connected to the anode lead), it will pass current. When it is
reverse biased (the higher potential is connected to the cathode lead), the current is
blocked. The characteristic curves of an ideal diode and a real diode are seen in
Figure 1-2
Zarqa University Faculty of Engineering and Technology Electronics Lab

Figure 1-2

When analyzing circuits, the real diode is usually replaced with a simpler model.
The simplest form , the diode is modeled by a switch (Figure 1-3). The switch is
closed
when the diode is forward biased and open when the diode is reverse biased.

Figure 1-3 Equivalent Circuit of Diode

Zener Diode :-
Zener diode is a special type od diodes that operate in the reverse region ( in the
break- down region ) where the voltage a cross the diode remains essentially constant
as the reverse current is changed . the characteristics curve of zener diode is the same
as that of ordinary diode except that the break-down voltage is lower .

To keep VZ constant , two conditions must be satisfied :-

-Iz (min) ≤ Iz ≤ Iz (max)

- Vs ≥ Vz

The maximum current through the diode must be limited by the power rating of the
zener diode , where :- Pz = Iz ( max) Vz .
Zarqa University Faculty of Engineering and Technology Electronics Lab

Procedure :

Material and Equipment :

1. Zener diode (BZX6V2 ).

2. Oscilloscope.
3. Connection Wires and coaxial cable Probes.
4. Digital Multimeter (DMM).
5. Bread-board.
6. Resistors (1KΩ , 110KΩ , 100Ω ).
7. Power supply .
8. IN4007 Diode .

1- To investigate the forward –biased characteristics of the normal and zener diode ,
connect the following circuit shown in figure ( 2-2 ) :-

9.

Figure (2-2)

2- Measure and record in Table (2-1) , the diode voltage VD and the voltage VR
across the resistor for each increment of V s .

V s (Volt) V R (Volt) V D (Volt) ID (mA)

Normal // Zener Normal // Zener Normal // Zener
0.4 // // //
0.6 // // //
1.0 // // //
3.0 // // //
5.0 // // //
7.0 // // //
9.0 // // //
11.0 // // //
Zarqa University Faculty of Engineering and Technology Electronics Lab

Use your result from table ( 2-1) to plot the ID versus VD curve for both diodes in figure( 2-3)

Figure (2-3)

3. To investigate the reverse- baised characteristics of the diode , connect the following
circuit shown on figure (2-4) .

4- measure and record in table (2-2) the diode voltage VD for each decrement of Vs.

Figure (2-4)

V s (Volt) V R (Volt) V D (Volt) ID (mA)

0.0
-6.0
-11.0
-16.0
-21.0
Table (2-2)
Zarqa University Faculty of Engineering and Technology Electronics Lab

Use your result from table ( 2-2) to plot the ID versus VD curve for both diodes in figure( 2-5)

Figure (2-5)

5. To investigate the reverse- baised characteristics of the zener diode , connect the
following circuit shown on figure (2-6) .

6. Measure and record in table (2-3) the zener voltage .

Figure (2-4)

V s (Volt) V R (Volt) V D (Volt) ID (mA)

0.4
0.6
1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
9.0
11.0
Table (2-3)

Use your result from table ( 2-3) to plot the Iz versus Vz curve for zener diode in figure( 2-7)
Zarqa University Faculty of Engineering and Technology Electronics Lab

Figure (2-7)