Formation of Heavier Elements in the Universe

What is the universe made of? What about the galaxies, the stars, the earth, and your body?
What are they all made of?

In your Chemistry class, you have learned of the numerous elements in solid, liquid, and
gaseous forms that can be found in earth's natural abundance while others were found through man's
ingenuity. These elements are the so-called pure substances made of atoms that are of the same type.
They are the basic compositions of all forms of matter known to humans, whether living or non-living
things, and of all other celestial bodies.

So, where did all these materials come from? How did they come into existence? Now, gear-
up and let us find that out!

1. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis: Light Elements

Question 1: What happened 14 billion years ago?

Yes, the Big Bang had just happened! Three seconds after that event, when the universe was
billions of degrees in temperature, protons, and neutrons were produced in exact numbers as the
universe continue to expand rapidly. At this point, the first atomic nuclei were formed and only lighter
elements such as hydrogen and helium were formed and a negligible amount of lithium.

By the time the universe was three minutes old, the temperature went down. It was too cold
for a nuclear reaction to take place, so the process stopped, and the abundance of the elements was
fixed at ratios of 75% hydrogen and 25% helium.

Scientists believe that this percentage has remained the same since then and this should
explain the current ratio of hydrogen to helium, 3:1. This is also one of the evidences of the Big Bang
where basically all hydrogen and helium originated.

2. Stellar Nucleosynthesis: Heavy Elements

Question 2: What could have caused other elements to pop up?

After the big bang, most of the elements in the universe were produced by the stars in the
nuclear fusion reaction at its core. The earth and all other heavenly bodies are believed to be remnants
of the stars. In our case, we are considered part of the debris of a big star in its active existence, but
not of our sun. Yes, we are just like specks of dust. The nuclear fusion reaction inside the star is the
process by which nuclear reactions between light elements form heavy elements (up to iron).

This is the so-called stellar nucleosynthesis, believed to be the origin and the production of
heavy elements.
 In the core of the main-sequence star, like our Sun, hydrogen is fused into helium. More
massive stars follow the same procedure, but more quickly. Less massive stars form more slowly.

When most of the hydrogen is used up in the core, the helium begins fusing into carbon (C) at
its core. That is when the star is dying, it is compressed due to gravity which generates heat and
results in the expansion of the star. The star swells to become a "red giant" and the smaller elements
fuse to form larger and larger elements.

Red giants are hot enough to turn the helium at their core into heavy elements like carbon.
The star now begins to manufacture carbon atoms by fusing three helium atoms. Rarely a fourth
helium atom combines to produce oxygen. Stars of about the sun's mass stop with this helium-burning
stage and collapse into white dwarfs about the size of the earth, expelling their outer layers in the
process.

Question 3: How is the mass of stars correlates to the formation of heavy elements? More massive
stars begin a further series of nuclear burning or reaction stages. The elements formed in these stages
range from oxygen through to iron.

When the mass of a star is higher, the heavier elements it can create in its core, because heavy
element fusion needed higher temperatures, which only the most massive stars can attain. After all the
hydrogen in the core has been converted to helium, massive stars begin a series of nuclear burning or
reaction stages: carbon burning, neon burning, oxygen burning, and silicon burning. Carbon
undergoes fusion reactions to produce oxygen, neon, sodium, and magnesium. Throughout then neon
burning stage, neon fuses into oxygen and magnesium. During the oxygen burning stage, oxygen
forms silicon and other elements that lie between magnesium and sulfur.

Question 4: From the equations below, which element is used as the primary component of the
elements produced from fusion?

— 3 helium atoms fusing to give a carbon atom:

— carbon atom & helium atom fusing to give an oxygen atom:

— oxygen atom & helium atom fusing to give a neon atom:

— neon atom & helium atom fusing to give a magnesium atom:

Yes, helium is the main fuel that supply the needed energy for the nuclear reaction to take
place deep down in the core up until the dying period of stars,

The high mass stars can make all elements up to iron in their cores. Iron is the heaviest
element they can make and is the end of the line for fusion. The fusion of iron does not create energy,
and without energy supply, the star will soon die.
 However, super massive stars continue to expand in preparation for more heavier but rare
elements to be born.

4. Supernova Nucleosynthesis: Heavier Elements

Question 5: What happens when star has consumed all its fuel and explodes?

More massive stars become super red giant and when their core runs out of fusion fuel, the
core collapses and resists gravity, then the star is doomed. As gravity squashes the core, the star
expands until it explodes and releases a tremendous amount of energy. This explosion is called a
supernova. Supernova frequently releases enough energy and estimated to be more than 100 million
degrees celsius that they shine brighter than an entire galaxy