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Logic and Set Theory

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Logic and Set Theory

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muhidinhawlet76
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ZI aN - —_— \ . | MATHEMATICAL LOGIC and SET THEORY |. Yohannes Woldetensae, Ph.D. oe ~ oa; r { a aie alc Addis Ababa, June 1999 CONTENT 1. MATHEMATICAL LOGIC 11 Logic 1.2. Propositions 1,3. Propositional Connectives and Truth Values 1.4 Truth Tables of Compound Propositions 1.5. Equivalent Propositions 1.6 Tautology and Contradiction 1.7 Arguments 1.8 Open Propositions and Logical Quantifiers 1.9 Mathematical Proofs Review Exercises on Mathematical Logic 2. SET THEORY 2.1 Basic Concepts of Sets and Elements 2.2 Classification of Sets and Equivalent Sets 2.3 Subsets, Equal Sets and Power Set 2.4 Set Operations 2.5 Venn Diagrams 2.6 Number of Elements in Set Operations 2.7. Properties of Set Operations 2.8 Operations on Collection of Sets 2.9 Applications of Set Theory Review Exercises on Set Theory ANSWERS to Mathematical Logic Review Exercises ANSWERS to Set Theory Review Exercises 57 63 67 2 19 84 87 94 97 106 116 127 1 MATHEMATICAL LOGIC 1.1 LOGIC Logic is a science of reasoning, and its study involves the learning of the principles and methods employed in distinguishing valid arguments from those that are not valid There are two major types of reasoning methods induction and deduction Induction is a method of reasoning in which general laws are obtained from particular facts INDUCTION Particular Facts For every positive integer n 14263 142436 Mathematical Induction 142+344=10 2 142434 +n = nintD 142434445215 2 Deduction is a method rt €asoning from general la i a Which conclusion 'S to particular facts IS reach DEDUCTION Particular \ Facts / Mlustration 1-0 (+ D@-I=0 For any two real ‘numbers a and b The solution set forx?-1=0 iD) orx-1=0 (1)a?-b? = (a +b) (a-b) (2) fab =O then a=0orb=0 se and to develop Mathematicians have employed logic to analy: guiding principles of mathematical ideas 1.2 PROPOSITIONS deal with statements OF tive sentence which is propositions In mathematical logic we jeclarat fement is a de the same time. ssition or a stat t both at t A propo: either true OF false, but no’ 1¢.1 Which of the following Exampet ropositions? -3 a) 44240 he answer” pb) Do you kno’ 2 sentences are ©) Addis Ababa is the capital city of F:thinpia d) Close the door when you leave! €) Today is Monday -3>-2 g) Yohannes is tall and short h) x?- 4 = (x + 2) (x - 2) for every real number « i) I find mathematics to be interesting j)2x-3=1 Solution a) It ig a proposition since it is a false sentence b) It is not a proposition since it is a question c) It is a proposition as it is a true sentence d) It is not a proposition. It is an instruction €) Itis a proposition, but whether it is true or not depends on the "Today". If today is Monday then the proposition is true. Ifnot, itis false. Note that it can not be both true and false at the same time ) It is a proposition as it is a false sentence. g) Itis not a proposition. The sentence asserts contradictory properties and hence is meaningless This type of sentences are not propositions. h) It is a proposition since it is a true sentence. i) Itisnot a proposition. It simply express one's opinion, so we can not consider its being true or false. j) We can not determine whether it is true or false unless x is assigned a specific value. This type of sentences are called open propositions. Example 2 Determine whether the following statements are true or false, a) All prime numbers are odd. b) There exists a real number x such that x + g c) |x| =x for every real number x d) Ifa real number is not positive then it is nega ¢) (ab) + (ac) = (b +c) for any real numbers and ¢. . f) The square of every integer number is positiye Solution a) False, since number two is a prime number but an even number. b) True, forx =-5 we get -5+8 = 3 ¢) False , |x| =x only for x 2 0 but | x | =-x forx <9 d) False, since zero is a number which is neither positive nor negative, e) True, by the distributive property of multiplication over addition. f) False, since zero is an integer whose square is zer0 and this is not positive. Each proposition or statement given in the above example is¢ simple proposition, i.e., a proposition that conveys only on idea. A statement which is made up of two or more simple statements is called a compound statement. Propositional Connectives We often combine simple propositions to form compo! Propositions by using connecting words. Proposlio™” connectives are words that are used to connect two He . Propositions or statements. There are_ five connectives *" are used frequently. These are: (1) not A) if oy then .. (2) and (5) if and only if (3) or ‘The basic propositional connectives with their corresponding names and symbols are given in the following table Symbol | disjunction vo | if, implication >| ifand only if | bi-implication | _¢> Compound Propositions In the study of mathematical logic, letters such as p, 4, , .. are used to represent simple propositions. Let p and q be the propositions given by ‘The weather is windy tis raining outside q Using the connectives, we can relate the given propositions p and q to form new propositions such as the following

q= Ifthe weather is windy then it is raining out side. p> q= The weather is windy if and only if it is raining out side. We call =p. p Aq, PYG P=? Gand p< q Comp propositions with p and q as component propositions i a or more propositions are combined by one or i propositional connectives, the resulting statement is calle compound or complex proposition while the individus statements are called the component propositons. Note: Eventhough ~p is formed fiom one simple proposition p, it is generally considered as a compound proposition Translation of Compound Propositions By using simple propositions and the connectives with their corresponding equivalent symbols, it is possible to translate or change symbolic compound propositions into verbal statements and vice-versa. This is called a translation of compound propositions. Example3 Let p= Today is Friday q= Ihave a test jing into verbal statements. d) (Pp) e)-q=>-P (P49) Translate each of the follow! a) -qv —P b)-p4q o)p>-4 Solution a) I don't have a test or today is not Friday, b) Today is not Friday if and only if I have a test. c) If today is Friday, then I don't have a test. d) It is not true that today is not Friday, or simply, Today is Friday. (> (ap) = P) : ¢) If I don't have a test then today is not Friday. £) It is false that, today is Friday ‘and I have a test 6 Because of their equivalent meaning with the basic propositional connectives, some words are used to connect statements. We will consider here the most common connecting words, by letting p and q to be any two component propositions. (a) p but q=pandq=prq (b) neither p nor q= not p and not q =p 0-4 (o) either p or q=porq=pva Note: Either p or q is used in the sense of or / and. That means either p or q, or, both p and q Ifit had been considered only for "or", then either p or q=(pv.q)\7(Pq) to mean p or q, but not both p and q (4) ponly ifq=ifp thenq=p>4 (©) pifq=ifgthenp=q>pP (© p whenever q= if q then p=4=> P (g) p when q=ifq then p=q=>p The compound proposition p => q, which is if p then g, may be read in one of the following equivalent forms. p implies q, ot pis sufficient for g, or qis necessary for p. Let us consider the following for a better understanding of the translation involving the connectives: only if, if, whenever and when. ponly if q = q is necessary for p = p is sufficient for q= p= 4 Pifq=q implies p = q is sufficient for p=q=> P. — P whenever q = p is necessary for q = q is sufficient for p =q>pP. P when q=q implies p =q is sufficient for p= q_—> p For example, let p = It rains q=Itis cold Then, p only if q = It rains only ifit is cold Pifq = It rains if it is cold p whenever q = Itt rains whenever it is cold. p when q = It rains when it is cold. Whenever p, q = q whenever p = if'p then q = p => q When p, q = q when p = if p then q= pq p if q =p whenever q = p when q=4=>P he sun is shining, q= The plants grow. Write the symbolic form of the following. Example 4 Let p a) The plants grow if the sun is shining b) The sun is shining but the plants do not grow c) Whenever the plants grow the sun is shining. d) The plants do not grow only if the sun is not shining. ¢) The plants grow when the sun is not shining f) It is not true that, neither the plants grow nor the sun is shining. Solution a)p>q d)-q=> -P b)pr-4 e)-p>4 c)q=>P f) (44 4 =P) 1.3 PROPOSITIONAL CONNECTIVES and TRUTH VALUES Truth Value The truth or falsity of a proposition is called its truth value. If we are given a proposition p, we know that p must be either true or false, but not both. If p is a true statement, then we say the truth value of p is true and assign the letter T. If p is false, then its truth value is false and we assign the letter F Truth Tables For a situation where two propositions p and q are involved, there are four possible true-false combinations. (1) both p and q are true (2) pis true and q is false. T : ' (3) pis false and q is true ale (4) both p and q are false Tables which show how the truth values for a particular compound proposition depend on the truth values of the component propositions and the connectives used are called truth tables. Let us now consider the truth tables involving the basic propositional connectives. Negation Ifa given proposition p has a fruth value T, then its negation, (Gp), has a truth value F. The truth value of the negation of 9 any statement is always the opposite of the try, original statement, This can be illustrated on q follows. H Value truth pa the Ifp is true, then -p is false, oy if p is false, then p is true Example 1 Show that =(-p)= Pp Solution There are two logical possibilities, namely, p is true pis false. When p is true, pis false and thus +(—p) is true Ifp is false, then —p is true, and so ~(—p) is false Therefore p and —(-—p) has the same truth values. Note: Given a proposition p, the negation of its negation is Pitself, ie, —(-p) =p Conjunction When two statements are connected by the connective “and the resulting compound proposition is called a conjunction. The conjunction of two propositions p and q, Aq, is true only if both Propositions are true and it is false for all the remaining cases. 10 Disjunction ‘When two statements are connected by the connective “or”, the resulting compound proposition is called a disjunction. | The disjunction of two T| T/T propositions p and q, that is, T|F | T PV q.is false only if both Fi t|t propositions are false and F F | F it is true for all the remaining cases Implication A statement in the form "If p then q” where p and q are propositions is called an implication or conditional proposition and it is denoted by p => q. The proposition p is called the hypothesis or the antecedent of the conditional statement p => q while q is called the conclusion or the consequent An implication of two propositions pandq, p=> 4, is true in all cases except when the antecedent (p) is true and the consequent (q) is false In mathematics, the implication p => q is common and it is used when p and q have some relations to each other and p is true. For example, let p= Sets A and B have the same number of elements. q= Sets A and B are equivalent sets. Then, p=>q=If sets A and B have the same number of elements, then they are equivalent sets ree plus one is four ‘than eight, then three plu rt false, the conditional proposii sion here is caused by th. ‘a statement of the form "Ifp is usually true and the statemen., ob ae an implication causes confusion ample for better understanding @ certain football matc! en it will win the match (3) pis(F) and qis(T) (4) pis(F) and qis(F) For the first possibility, we assume that the team gets a new trainer and subsequently win the match, Since the captain told the truth, we assign the truth value (T) for p => q in the first row of the implication truth table For the next possibility, assume that the team gets a new trainer, but didn't win the match, Has the captain told the truth? No, the original statement is not true and therefore we place (F) in the second row of the implication truth table The statement p => qis false when p is true and q is false aes aan-i In the third situation, we assume that the team doesn't get a new trainer, but subsequently win the match. This is the case where p is false and q is true. Examine the original statement "YY the team gets a new trainer, then it will win the match." Did the captain lie? No, the captain said only what would happen if the team gets a new trainer, not what would happen if the team doesn't get a new trainer. The captain did not lie since he made no claim about what would happen if the team doesn't get anew trainer. Since we can not say that the captain lied, the statement p => q is true, (T), when p is false and q is true The last case to consider is when p and q are false. That is, the team did not get a new trainer and did not win the match. If the team didn't get a new trainer and didn't win the match, we can not blame the captain since he only, said that the team 1B would win the match if it would have got a new trainer. Hence the statement p => q is true, (T), when both p and q are false We note that an implication proposition p => q is true in all cases except when p is true and q is false Bi-implication Given two propositions p and q, the statement "p if and only if q" is called a bi-implication or a bi-conditional statement and it is denoted by p <= q. A bi-implication proposition p > q may be read in one of the following equivalent forms pif and only ifg, or pis necessary and sufficient for q, or q is necessary and sufficient for p ‘Acommon short form of writing" if and only if " is "iff" . So pif and only ifq=piffq=p 4 The bi-implication of two propositions p and q, p q is the same as q.€ p and it can be expressed as (p = q) 0 (q > P) The following table shows that peoq=(p>ar@=>p) 4 Example2 Let p= The square of a number is never negative q= Y2 isa rational number Assign each proposition its truth value. a) paq dq -p b) =qv ap e) 79 => =p °)-=p>q f) (p< =) Solution Since p is true, (T), and q is false, (F), it follows that a) F, (F AF) d)T, (Fe F) b) T. (Tv F) e) F, (T= F) o)T, (F>F) ) F, (1 <> T) or (1) =F Example 3 Determine the truth value of each of the following statements. a) Number one is neither prime nor a composite number. b) 3 is less than 7 only if 4 is greater than 6. ©) Berlin is in Germany if Paris is in England d)0 +5 #0 whenever 5-045 €) 1.5 is a decimal number iff 3 is not a real number. a) T, number one is not a prime number and it is not a composite number (faT=T) b) F, if 3 is less than 7, then 4 is greater than 6 (T=>F=F) ©) T, if Paris is in England, then Berlin is in Germany >T=T) of the following, d pis false ae irrespective of aplication is always Gi ©) pis false, so p A -q is false, =p is true, so sp vqis true. Asa bi-implication is false for different truth values, (p Aq) <> (=p vq) is false, (F) £) The antecedent p is false, so p => q is true. As disjunction is true when one component is true, (> 49) v (p <> 7g) is true, (T), irrespective of p <> —q 8) d= —pistrue as —p is true. Since p is false, P=>—qis true. Thus (q => =p) » (p => =) is true, but its negation is false, (F), h) =p is true, so qv =p is true. Because p is false, PA-qis false. Thus (q v +p) > (p 4 =q) is false Since a conjunction is false when one component is false, the given complex proposition is false, (F) Example § Find the truth values of the following a) q, if (p 4.4) <> (p vq) and —p are true b) =p, if (4 => =p) v (p <> q) and q are false ©) 3(qA =p), if “(p= q) is true. d) +g = =p, if (p A =q) => =p is false €) 9q < p, if (=p v q) A (p & q) is false. a) When —p is true, pis false so p \qis false. Since (p.4q) < (pv q) is true and p » qis false, p v qis false, thus q is false, (F). | We place in columns 1 and 2 the four possible true-false combinations for the two component propositions p and q. In columns 3 and 4 the truth values are determined using the rule of negation for p and q, respectively. The fifth column is determined by applying the rule for bi-implication on columns 4and 1. Column six comes from implication of columns 3 and 4, The last column represents the truth values of the given proposition, and it is determined by the conjunction of columns Sand 6 Example 2 The truth values for compound propositions r, s, t, u, and v (formed from simple propositions p and q) are shown in the table. T T | | ma ie | ae Samal anne t iT F F iT: s44ale mans a) What is the truth value for r and t, when p and q are true? ) What is the truth value of v, if p and q are false? ©) For which truth values of p and q, do rand v have the same truth values. 4) Ifp is true and q is false, what is the truth value for sand u? Solution ) pand q are true in the first row. We observe from the table that the corresponding truth value for r, and tis true. Hence both r, and t are true, (T) b) pand q are false in the fourth row. Thus, the corresponding truth value of v is false, (F). 19 4 t s truth value, (true responding truth val. ie ‘ pis true and q is false >, se, (F), whereas w i, ions three component Prope ination of truth e nm simple propositions mn, then there are 2° T T F T F iW F L Note: In constructing the truth table of a three component compound proposition, itis convenient to place the truth values of the components in the manner, as shown in the first three columns, (p, q, and r) of the above table. In the construction of the truth table, columns 1, 2 and 3 show the possible combinations of the truth values for the three component propositions p, q and r, while the corresponding negations are placed in columns 4, 5 and 6. Column 7 is found by conjunction of columns 2 and 4. The negation of column 7 gives column 8. The ninth column is determined by applying the rule for implication on columns 5 and 6. Finally, the truth values of the given complex proposition are found from columns 8 and 9 by applying the rule for bi- implication as shown on the last column, Example 4 — Assume p is true, q is false and r is true. Find the truth value of each of the following. a) (-pv (qn) b) a(p 4) v “(A =) c) (sp > q) > (ara = 9) Solution If p is true, qiis false, and r is true, then sp is, false, —q is true, and =r is false. Thus, a) Fv T)F)> (FAT), TF, F Thus, the complex proposition is false, (F) 2 _p_ Example 5 Find the truth values of the following a) rif (rq) A(PA—a)is true bd) (p> NS lq> CAP) if-9 v pis false c) (rv =p) > (19), if “(Pp > g) Aris true a) From the conjunction, we observe that both ( —, q) and (p Aq) are true. So, q is false, as —q is true Since q is false, and (—r= q) is true, =r is fa). Thus, ris true, (T). b) If qv pis false, then p is false, and q is trues. [q= (A p)] is false, as 1 pis false. Since p is tals: p=ristrue. Thus, the bi-implication is false (F) ©) ris true, and p = q is false, a8 -(p = q) A r is truc So, p is true, while q is false, Thus (rv q) and (+p v q) are equivalent, and we write, p=>q = —PY4 Logical equivalence of two propositions is denoted by the symbol "=" 4 Example 1 Using truth tables show that the following propositions are eqiiivalent a) “(p> 9) = PA b) (pq) 79 = 74 ¥ —P Solution a) We construct the truth table for —(p => 4) and (p 479) as shown below pa |—a| p=q | -@>q | prnd T|/T|F T F F T| FIT F a a F|T|F T F F F F T iT F | F _} From the last two columns, we note that “(P= ” and p A-q have the same truth value. So they are equivalent. Hence, -(p => 4) = P\—4 b) The truth table for (p04) => “4 and —q v —p is shown below. a | (@Ag= —a | —a¥—P aan ads Pam fo eee ae rey oy oot 3] 4 ta | 23 ans, it follows tha —(q= p) and -; rom their truth table the following pair of ly equivalent, or not th beautiful and intelli she is not intelligent then she is We construct the truth table for —(p » 4) and p > —q pla] T/T T\F F v F i T FiFI TO By comparing the last two columns, we observe that A(PAq) Thus, the statements are logically equivalent. (pag) _p=>- ¥ T T T b) Let p = It rains. q= Itis cold. = If't rains then itis cold = It is cold whenever it rains ap => =q = Ifit doesn't rain, then it is not cold = It is hot if it doesn't rain. Then, p => From the truth table for p => q and sp > —4, = p>qa| -p>-4 | | EP. om ho ama sama anand samalll aoa ‘We found that the two statements are not logically equivalent. Converse, Inverse and Contrapositive Propositions Consider the conditional statement p => q and the following three related conditional statements F (1) q=2p called the converse of p=4 (2) sp => =q called the inverse of p=4q (3) +q=> =p called the contrapositive ofp => q We construct the corresponding truth table. pla] -p [=a | p=a | a>p | -p2-a] -a>-P | T|T|F|[F| T T T T | T|F/F{T] F T T F F/T) T|F] T F F T Fl[F|t|T| T T T T ‘A conditional statement and its converse or inverse are not logically equivalent. But, on the other hand, we note that a conditional statement and its contrapositive are logically equivalent. Thus, p=>q=-q=>-P or q=>p=-P>-4 Example 3 Write the converse, inverse and contrapositive of the statement: "Ifx= 1, then x” Which of the derived implications is true? 0” Solution Let p=x=l1 =x’-1=0 Then, p => q represents the given conditional statement. 26 0, the converse q=> px If x? 0, then x = 1 the inverse sp => —q=Ifx #1, thenx?- 140 the contrapositive -q => sp =Ifx?- 1 #0, thenx 41 ‘The converse is not true since for x # | or x= -1, x-1=0. ‘The inverse is also false as -1 + 1 but (-1y-1=0. We note that the contrapositive is a true statement since x# 1 whenever 7-140, (p> q=~q=> >P) Important Equivalent Propositions By letting p, q and r to be any given propositions, we list below important laws of propositions which involve logical equivalence 1. Commutative Law PAG =aAP pyq=avp 2. Associative Law pagan =(pPagarr pv(qvr) =(pvayr 3. Distributive Law pyar patavy) py grey’) (Prgy Pry 4, De Morgan's Law A(p 4) =-PY 74 (pv q) = =P A749 5. Idempotent Law PAP=P PYP=P ee (Pv) 5, ppropriate truth table Bs PCT = po identity baw Tho ys (ep Dy ae (ey ene eee ah Ve Menyain's bin BoC. ag) deiteabsutive five 4 t.complement lave p. identity law This, Copy a) vaQDn =P oO (PAC Pv aly lan ral elroy @ar@ly laa Gry Oh, distributive law, Demorgan's law = [FV (AD va a—P) v4 ~9)] complement law, distributive law = (p av (qr -P) Fl, identity law, complement law. = (pag v (@A-p), identity law. = (QA p)v (qA=9), commutative law = q A (pv =p), distributive law = qT, complement law. =q, identity law. Thus, (PA CPY A] vlan “PA DI=4 1.6 TAUTOLOGY and CONTRADICTION Tautology Letus consider the truth table for ((p=> 0“ > ~P =pT=p, identity law Thus, p v (p,q) =P b) ap v9) v.(p 44) = (PA.a) v (PA =), De Morgan's law. A (qv 79) , distributive law PAT, complement law =p, identity law Thus, —(—p v =q) v (p Aa) = P ©) (PAGPY Aly fan -@ 09) =(pa-p)v Prd] v [aA Cry —a), distributive law, Demorgan's law. =[Fy@arglyl@s—-p)v @r—a) complement law, distributive law. =(prq)v (4 -p)v FI). identity law, complement law. =(p Aq) v (qA-p), identity law. =(qAp) Vv (qA—p), commutative law. =q A (pV —p), distributive law = qT, complement law. =4q, identity law Thus, [(pA pv a] vlan-@ Ag] =4 1.6 TAUTOLOGY and CONTRADICTION Tautology Let us consider the truth table for [(p => 4) >a] =P. 29 true, no matter Whar onent Propositions, 18 cal test in logic fo; Staten Contradiction ifthe truth value of a compound proposition is always false, no matter what truth values are assigned to its component then the compound proposition is called a We found that the compound proposition -(p v a) (Pp a) is false for all possible truth values of the component propositions p and q. Thus, itis a contradiction Example 2 Show that (p 9.4) (p> =q) is ‘a contradiction ‘Solution We construct its truth table, | erage p> saat Hence, the proposition (p A q) <> (p> —4) is # contradiction Note: Given a proposition p, Pv —pis a tautology. PA =p is a contradiction. 31 Which of the followin, VIN is a tay, contradiction or neith ‘ol er, ver fy BY, a a) (9. =p) 0 “(p v q) b) (p> 9) & (=q A sp) Mle>9.G>))>~>1) i ing the truth table for Solution By constructing u €2ch po we determine and verify whether the stem involve a tautology, a Contradiction o, eithe, a) ] tr Pla |=p | =9 | -qe>—p =pv 4 | pv a) TITTFIFL + T ae TIFIF} T| Ff egy | F F Pret | + T °) Thus, the compound proposition is a tautology 1.7 ARGUMENTS An argument is the assertion that a statement, called the conclusion, follows from othér statements, called the premises. The study of logic enables us to distinguish valid ‘arguments from those that are not valid Valid Arguments ‘An argument is valid if and only if,-whenever the conjunction of the premises is true, the conclusion is also true Ifwe let ps, po, ps, be the premises and ps the conclusion, then Corresponding argument is valid if and only if ps is true Whenever pA pz. ps is true. In other words the argument is Valid if and only if: (PiA po ps) => pa isa tautology. ‘An argument is invalid if the conclusion is false but all the Premises are true. 33 IP swag ™| tip=alq=t| por] @agaqon 1) Tl T/T] rT T r jF) T] Fle F T Jt] FF] tle F T Fl F T | © “FE | T glu jel T r F) T | RF] F T tT) T] Tt] T iy Fit|r|tr Tt | i Example 1 Is the following argument valid? If! study, then I will pass mathematics. I didn't pass mathematics. Therefore, I didn't study. Solution The above three statements taken together co an argument in which the first two statement: premises and the last statement is the conclusior Let p=Istudy. q=I pass mathematics, Then, the premises are: p>q =a and the conclusion is =p The argument is valid if and only if [(p => q) Aq] => —p tautology. To determine the validit idity, we construct the table for this argument as shown below. eta | =p |-a [pal @aga TIT] FL FL, rp ea TIF/ Fi T| F F FIT| TIF] + F Firi|t|T| tT T It follows from the last column that tautology and hence the argument ig ee DA-~q] > pis: Note: An argument is valid if and only ig . statement, whose antecedent is he “onditional the premises ofthe argument and whosn%00 of all the conclusion of the argument, is a tae o™Sequent is Otherwise the argument is invalid or vey, coy Example 1 Is the following argument valid If study, then I will pass mathematics I didn't pass mathematics. Therefore, I didn't study. Solution The above three statements taken togethe: an argument in which the first two statemey, premises and the last statement is the concj., Let p=I study. q =I pass mathematics. Then, the premises are: p>q —_ and the conclusion is =p The argument is valid if and only if [(p > 4) 4-9] >» tautology. To determine the validity, we construct the. table for this argument as shown below. @=94-a| (o> ond FE Pi1qi-p|-qjp=>q T/T/ F/F/ T T T|F/ F/T] F F T FIT|/T/|F T F T Flei[t|T{ 7 T = It follows from the last column that [(p => 4) ©~) = "" tautology and hence the argument is valid ional dition! ction of wet! Note: An argument is valid if and only if the © statement, whose antecedent is the conju" the premises of the argument and whose cons the conclusion of the argument, is @ tautology Otherwise the argument is invalid oF 20" V3" 34 Example? Test the validity of the following arguments. a) Whenever, it rains, the plants grow. It didn't rain Therefore, the plants didn't grow. b) Only if the car is new, it is worth buying, The car is old, but cheap. Therefore it is worth buying if and only if the car is expensive Solution a) Let, p= It rains. q = The plants grow. Then, the premises are: p>q a and the conclusion is =4 The argument is valid if and only if [(p => q) -p] => =qis a tautology. So we construct a truth table to determine the validly. Pig {=p | =| p=q | (p=>q)a-p | (p> 4) a-p] > -q rn pti geal Peele F T TEE te) F ic FIT) T]F| T T F te [ra eT aT T Tr The last column shows that the conditional statement is not a tautology. Therefore, the argument is not valid. b) Let p= The car is new. q= Itis worth buying. r= The car is cheap 35 TT Then, the premises are: q=>p —=pAr and the conclusion is qo@-r ‘The argument is valid if and only if [(q => p) (sp » r)) => (q.¢9 a1) is a tautology. So we construct the truth table as shown below to determine the validity of the argumen, | [@=p] las; pia) + |apiorlg=p|-pariqe-| (span nj=4 TT tee | F | F F ; TTF) FIT ree: Tr. a. T|FIT| FF F T F | T TF|F|F|T rl F F ; FIT|T| TIF |. F. el. 7 FIT/F/T|T oT ee FIF/T|T|F a mi (t FIF|F| TIT Paes: Fe 2 ; LOGIC ITIONS and IFIERS Open Proposition 4 % Consider the following a) x-3=2x+5 All of the sentences involve truth value to each of them The first sentence may be true or 36 number that replaces x, whereas the truth values for the other two sentences can be assigned after individuals or numbers are substituted for the variables x and y. Such sentences are called pen propositions. ‘An open proposition is a sentence that contains one or more variables and becomes a proposition when the variable(s) are replaced by specific number(s), name(s) or individual(s) according to the context of the given sentence. Note that an open proposition is a sentence that is neither true nor false until we replace the value(s) of the unknown(s) The open propositions considered may be symbolized and represented as follows: P(x) =x-3=2x+5 Q(x, y) = y is the father of x RG, y=x-y'<0 Usually, an open proposition is symbolized by using.a capital letter to stand for the property and by using small letters such as x, y and z for each variable involved in the sentence. For example, P(x, y) may be read " x and y satisfy the property P " Equations and Inequalities An open proposition which contains the equal sign, =, to denote the equality of two expressions is called an equation. If ‘4 open proposition involves the inequality signs, (> or < or > tS), then it is called an inequality. 7 Note: In mathematics, we are interested in finding all po... values that make an open proposition a true stateme,,, Je 1 Find all values of the real number x so that the ae ‘open propositions become true statemen,, a) PQx)extl-x =1 3.04 2 b) Q(x) #6 <2x-4<6 o) Rx) ax’ +3x7-x-3=0 a) We solve the equation to make P(x) a true statement. Btl- XK =1> 4c+1)-3x =1 3 Ae 12 2 4x+4-3K = 1 > R445 1>2%x+4)=12 12 2 2 2 2+ 812 > 2x84, of x= 2. Thus, forx = 2, Px) isa true statement b) We solve the inequality to make So we add 4 tall erm ofthe inean tr amen to get SHAKRK644 mw QerReig ‘ Dividing by 2 or multiplying by i” jy. exes Thus, Qe ee wha ni ©) We solve x’ + 3x” -x-3 = 0 as follows: 38 (x +3)- 1x +3)=0 (x +3) (= 1)=0 (x+ 3) (K+ I) &-1I=0 x=-3orx=-lorx=1 Thus, R(x) is true, for x = -3,x=-1and x= 1 Logical Quantifiers ‘An open proposition can be changed in to a proposition with out specifying a value for the variables. This is done by using the following two logical quantifiers 3, which is known as the existential quantifier, and V, which is called the universal quantifier The Existential Quantifier Suppose we have the open proposition P(x). We can use the existential quantifier to express the existence of an individual x which satisfies the property P. So we write: (Ax) P(x) which may be read as "There exists an individual x which satisfies the property P" We note that a sentence in the form (x) P(x) is no more an open proposition, since there are, or there are not, individuals that satisfy the property P. So (4x) P(x) is true, if there is at least one individual that satisfies the property P. Otherwise it is false, and thus the sentence is a proposition in any case. For example, let 39 P(x) #x?- 1 =0 and Q(x) = x?+1=0 , where x isa Teal AU is ition because x? - | 3x) P(x) is a true proposition \ Ten OOP for x=-landx=1 But, (3x) Q(x) is a false statement since there is no rea) solution for x? + 1 = 0. The Universal Quantifier Given an open proposition P(x), we may use the univers, quantifier to express that every individual x, which may b. restricted by some conditions, satisfies the property P ani write (Vx) P(x) which is read as " Every individual x satisfies the property P" “All individuals satisfy the property P ", The Sentence ('Vx) P(x) is a true statement, if every individual x satisfies the property P. And it is s perty I s a false statement, if there exists at least one individual which does not Satisfy the property P. For example, let P(x) = v= x Then, (Vx) P(x) is a true statement, if x is restrt non-negative number. On the other hand, ue tobea number, (Vx) P(x) will bea false proposition, sinew¢ true for negative numbers. is not 40 . The two quantifiers have the following relations. x) P(x (Vx) 4P(x) = (Bx) P(x) ‘To make the above relations understandable, let us consider the following example. suppose, P(x) = x is a rational number Q(x) = x is the square root of a negative number ‘Then, (3x) —P(x) = There are some real numbers, which are not rational numbers (Vx) P(x) = Not every real number is a rational number (Wx) Q(x) = Every real number is not the square root of a negative number. (2x) Q(x) = There is no real number, which is the square root of a negative number. ‘We observe that: (Bx) AP(x) = A(x) PC) and (Vx) =Q() = =Gx) AX) Quantifiers Involving Two Variables The two logical quantifiers may be used in combination when two or more variables are involved. We consider here the following four cases, where only two variables are involved. 1. Bx) Gy) P(x, y) = There exists some x, and some y such that (x, y) satisfies the property P. 41 = There exists some x, such that the { 2 Gx) (Wy) - Eb vi atisfied by 9) forevey For all x, there exists some y, such tha TMA Mtl eistisser tie property P = For every x, and every y, + (9) (Wy) POs 9) (x, y) satisfies the property P. Not i i 1) and in (4) can be Note: The variables of the quantifiers in (1) and | : interchanged with out changing the meanin, 1g of the sentences, But, the order of the quantifiers is essential in (2) and (3). For example, if P(x, y) =x? > y, then. (3x) Gy) P(x, y)= Gy) (Bx) P(x, y), and, both are true But, (3x) (vy) P(x, y) is false, while (Wx) y) P(x, y) is true, thus, they are not equivalent Example 2 Assuming that the vari, : lables are real assign a truth value fc ! numbers, for each, DOG eet, OCR) (9) eye SY, DIYS e tes yay / Obviously, there is no real ny : ally atthe same time: Thus cy ttich is equal to false, (F). DY- mmx y ig \ 42 xsy, ‘ 8) Gx) (Vy) yen, PE -F =F Ve Vian a Ee y ifand only if By is true (TY 1.9 MATHEMATICAL PROOFS Mathematics is a logical system. although there are undefined tems, and some axioms or poste!tes that are commonly accepted with out being proved. Once axioms have been specified, every other statement in a mathematical system must be proved by using the laws and methais of logic. A proof is an argument to show that 2 given at is true The mathematical statements thet are proved are usually called theorems. Proving a Theorem In general, a theorem can be written as a conditional statement im the form: “If othen* The if - part is called the hypothesis or the antecedent, and the then - part is called the conclusion or the consequence of the theorem. We will now consider the following three important methods of mathematical proof used in proving a theorem, a b)x7-y7= (x+y) (x-y), and so, x? ifand only if x or y=x-1 Thus, for allx, x?-y?=x+y,if y=x-1 As there exists some y satisfying this condition, (Vx) @y) x?- y? =x + y is true, (T) =x+y oxi ty? > Ixy => x7 - Ixy + y*> 0, or (x-y)? > 0, which is true for all x and all y. Thus, the proposition (Wx) (Wy) x? + y? > 2xy is true (T), 1.9 MATHEMATICAL PROOFS Mathematics is a logical system, although there are undefined terms, and some axioms or postulates that are commonly accepted with out being proved. Once axioms have been specified, every other statement in a mathematical system must be proved by using the laws and methods of logic. A proof is an argument to show that a given statement is true. The mathematical statements that are proved are usually called theorems. Proving a Theorem In general, a theorem can be written as a conditional statement in the form: "If... then..." The if - part is called the hypothesis or the antecedent, and the then - part is called the conclusion or the consequence of the .. We will now consider the following three important methods of mathematical proof used in proving a theorem 8 conclusion of an implication is true. If this assumption leads to the negation of the hypothesis of the proposition to be proved or contradicts with some known facts, then the conclusion should be valid and the original statement must be true The method of " proof by contradiction " is based on the fact that a conditional statement p = its contra positive, ie., p= q is logically equivalent with q=>-p Example 2 Using proof by contradiction, prove the conditional statement: Ifa is an integer and a’ is even, then a is also an even integer, . Solution We start by negating the conclusion, that is we suppose that a is an odd integer. So, a= 2n +1 for some integer n. This implies that a = 4n? + 4n + 1 = 2(2n? + 2n) +1 =2m+1 Hence, a? = 2m + Fis also an odd integer, where m = +2n. But this contradicts the hypothesis of the proposition to be proved, namely a’ is even. We arrived at this contradiction only because we started the proof by supposing that a is not even. Thus, this supposition is wrong and consequently a must be an even integer, and therefore, the proof by contradiction is complete, 3. Proof by Mathematical Induction. ‘Mathematical induction is a method of proof used when we ve statements involving positive integers. Let Pa denote a 45 mathematical statement associated with each positive int then we obtain the following infinite sequence of propos. Py, P2, Ps. <2, To show that all the statements P, , that are associated », each positive integer n, are true requires the folloy.-. principle Principle of Mathematical Induction. If with each positive integer n there is associated a statemer P,, then all the statements, are true, provided the followine two conditions are satisfied: (1) Pris true (2) Whenever k is a positive integer such that P, is true, then P,.1 is also true. In applying the principle of mathematical induction, we show first that P; is true then we assume that P, i prove that P... is also tue Pi is true and finally we So if the first proposition Py is true and if the the proposition Py is true implies Py. ig ali tus for a postive integer it ‘is true for every positive integer n. ‘assumption i fie sues 's true is reffered as the induction Example 3 Prove by mathematical induct; that Positive integer n, the sum of the for every integers is nn +1), first n positive *e, or, hy, | * seusion Ifn is any positive integer, let Py denote the statement 1424+34...+n = ntl) 2 mt yfn= 1, then P) = 1(+1) = 1, that is 1= 1. Hence P; is true 2 f ‘Assume that Py is true. Thus, the induction hypothesis is 142434... +k = k(k+l) 2 We shall show that Pks1 is also true. That is, 142434... +(k+1) = (k+D(k+2) 2 St ‘thy Using the induction hypothesis, we prove that Pk.1 is true as follows 142434... +(k+I)=(142434... +H +(k+1) = kk+1) + (k+1) i 2 = kk+1)+2(k+1) = (k+D(k+2 2 2 és This shows that Pj.1 is true which completes the proof, he Example 4. Using the principle of mathematical induction, prove that for each positive integer n is f a) n<2" i b) 2isa factor of n? +7 , Solution 4) For each positive integer n, let P, denote the inequality n < 2° P; is true since forn=1,1<2', or 1<2. Assuming P, is true, that is k < 2%, we show that k+1<2**! oP. is true as follows: 47 | | Since 2 isa factor ofthe last exprons : Thus, Py is true for every. eSS!O% Pas is true k<2*implies 1 <2 So, k+1< 24 2k k+1<282), or k+1< 2! Thus, Pi+1 is true, and the proof by mathematics) induction is complete. b) For each positive integer n, let Py =2is a factor of n? + 7n, If n=1, then n? + In = 1? +7(1) = 8 = 2(4) Thus, forn=1, 2 isa factor of n? + 7n, That is P; is true. Assume that Py is true. So, the induction hypothesis 2 is a factor of k? + 7k, or, equivalently, \ + 7k =2m for some integer m. We shall now prove that Pxs1 is true, That is 2 isa factor of (k + 1)? + Uk +1), This can be done as follows: (k+1P + 7+ 1) Extended Principle of Mathematical Induetion The principle of mathematical induction include the situation when P, is asses dint extended to 112 m, where m is any positive integer each integer 48 we use the following two steps in the same manner as we did He > 1, to prove that the statements P,, are true for n > m, (1) Show that Py, is true. (2) Assume that P, is true with k > m and prove that Pkor is true. ‘Then the statements P, are true for every integer n> m. Example § Find the smallest positive integer m for which the inequality, 5 +logs n m. Solution We observe that the inequality 5 + log:n ) c) r= (QAP) q and r be the propositions defined in exercise (3) 4 en the symbolic form of the following a) Henok likes jogging and playing tennis if and only if the weather is not cold. b) Henok likes either playing tennis or jogging whenever the weather is cold c) The weather is not cold but Henok dislikes both jogging and playing tennis 4) Itis false that, Henok likes neither playing tennis nor jogging when the weather is not cold ¢) Henok dislikes playing tennis but likes jogging only if the weather is cold. f) Whenever the weather is not cold, Henok likes neither jogging nor playing tennis Let p= Every integer number is a natural number q = Zero is an even integer. Assign each proposition its truth value. a)-qvp d)q => =p b)-=paq ©) -pa-q qe p fp > 4) 6. Determine the truth value of each of the following ‘statements, a) Either -2>-1 or 2<1 b) All odd numbers are prime, if 4.79 is a rational number. C) The absolute value of a negative number is positive when beer is a soft drink. 4)3-2=-1 implies 2-3=1 Ss. ) what is the truth value of 9 > p when r and t have the same truth value? b) Find compound propositions formed from p and q which are equivalent to r, s, t, u, and v. 1, Construct the truth table of the complex proposition, (ary q) [(-9 > =p) a4] 1g Assume =p, q and — are false find the truth value of each ofthe following, a) -(-q p) A (1 => =p) v a] by (rap) ((Qn—p)> 1] )(eA-9) > AQ] v “(F< =p) 13. Find the truth values of the following propositions 8) “1, if (ap 1) < (pq) is true, and =p => 4 is false. b) (Ar) => (q =p), ifp v 74 is false. ©) (QV p) > (ars) if =(r => =q) is true. \4, Using truth tables show that the following propositions are equivalent. a) —(>9 © p)= -=q > =p b) Ap vq) > p= >-p 4 -9) 'S Determine whether the following pair of statements are “quivalent or not, 4) She doesn't study hard and she failed the exam, She passes the exam if and only if she studies hard. 33 b) It is not true that he ie rich but unhappy Ho is unhappy only if he is poor 16. Write the converse, inverse and contrapositive of »),, following statement, “If two sets are equal, then they have the sare y,,..._ of elements,” Which of the derived implications is true, 17. Verify that q.0 (atv p) = (qA 1) v (4A p) by constructing appropriate truth table. 18: By using laws of propositions show that: a)pA@vn=p b) pa [qa (pv q)] =F ©) (Pp v 74) A (=p v -=q)] vq=eT 19. Show that “(pA —9) €> (q vp) is a tautology 20, Show that (q => +p) A (-p v =) is a contradiction 21. Terie cna meee is a tautology, a contradiction or 8) 4p) <9 (pv 9] vaya epe ny = crop) ©) [-paqv “D1 qe p) 22. Is the following argument valid? If I pass mathematics, then | wi I didn't pass mathematics, Theta In't graduate. Ey ge pra vaiiity of the following arguments ‘Whenever he participates a race, he is the winner articipates the race or he is sick gither he P: Freie not the winner, Therefore he i sick pyif Twake up early, J go to a gymnasium. Either itis Sunday or 1 don't go to a gymnasium. But it is not Sunday. Therefore I didn't wake up early values of the real number x which change the 24, Find the following open propositions into true statements. a) P(X) = xe 2pex-4 b) RO ¢) Q) 25, Assuming that the variables are real numbers assign 2 truth value for each. a) (vx) Gy) x7 b) (vx) Gy) ety?=l (vx) Gy) ¥< et 2x43 26. Determine whether each of the following is true oF false, if P(x) is an open proposition. a) (x) P(X) = CX) POO b) Gx) P(x) = (Vx) AP) o) (x) P(x) = Gx) =POD 4) Gx) =P) = -G9 P(x) 55 27. eee Statemen: j, the direct method of proot Ney, ‘using nye Se aN WAR A " wane. = 3b + 1 for some reai MUM (ne " ‘proof by contradiction to Prove th * ater then m is also a multiple oy : 29. Prove by winaaial induction that each of the followin, Matemen sre for very postive ineyern ; i 1 12023 Sa Few) ne) b) 4"+9isamuttipleors, DPMP ag? [nen 30. Find the smallest 2"> nis true, 2 SET THEORY 21 BASIC CONCEPTS of SETS and ELEMENTS re concept of a set is often used in mathematics as most ‘es of mathematics deal with properties of a certain set For instance, algebra with properties of the set of real numbers tnd plane geometry with the properties of the set of points and fines. There is no given formal definition for set as it is undefined term. A set may be thought of as: any well defined collection of objects such that given an object, itis possible to determine whether that object belongs to the sven collection or not. ‘The objects which from a set are called elements of the set. The relation between any given element and any set is important in description or characterization of a set. Any type of set designation must indicate whether a given object is an clement of the set or is not an element of the set Usually, sets are denoted by capital letters while elements are qed by small letters. ‘The relation between any given flown x and any set A can be expressed symbolically as WS. 7 xe A, read as, xisan clement of , B ) Xisamember of , Aa x belongs to A The symbol "eis the notation for belonging or Member. On the other hand if the element x does not belong 1,, the 5a, we express this by writing: x A, read as, xis not an element of A, or xis not amember of A, or x does not belong to A. 0: isthe notation for not belonging or non-membership For example, if we let P to be the set of all prime numbers, a=1 and b = 2, then we found that a ¢ P, butb« P. Description of Sets Sets are described or characterized e different ways bY the following three A saterit of 1. The complete listing method The method that is used to list all, complete listing method. We can elements if it is possible to list : Braces, { }, are used to enclose the me example, if set A contains positive integ can represent this as: A=(1,2,3,4) ‘ Note that the order of elements in a set is 58 the sets {1, 2, 3, 4} and {3, 1, 4, 2} are ol the same _ gaz (Ha)}> then {a} © A butae A the partial listing method ifaset consists of many elements which have certain pattern that all elements of the set can be unambiguously jcated bY listing some of the elements, then we can describe the set BY fisting few elements and use three dots, , to icate that there are elements in the set that have not been written down. For example, 1,234.3 denotes the set of all positive integers or the set of all natural sumbers, {..5-9, 6-3} describes the set of all negative integers which are a multiple of 3, (11, 12, 13,..., 98, 99} describes the set of all natural numbers that are greater than ten but less than hundred, and (05-42, 0, 2,4,.- 3 denotes the set of all even integers 3. The set-builder method |nthis method, an open proposition is used to describe the type a ts that belong to a set. If we represent an_ open by P(x), then a set can be characterized by writing (x1PQ@) or POD) 59 i i th It X18 between ¢ O denote the set vy. €F8, Fespective y : Partial listing or the se. be the sets given be! : which are common numbers. tof all postive 15, 30}. Thus, the ‘24 and 30 is {1,2 {12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, } is the set of all natural numbers that are a multiple of 12 | ‘Thus, the set of all natural numbers which are common multiples of 9 and 12 is {36, 72, 108, 144....} ¢) If x is a nonnegative real number, then x > 0 Thus, {x|x € R, x>0} describes the given set Example 2 Suppose x is an integer, and describe the set A by the complete listing method. A= {x|[x#4>x< 16) Solution We use the fact that given two simple propositions P and q, the compound propositions p = q and pv q are logically equivalent or p> 4=—P 16} So, {x|x#4=> x? < 16} and {x|x=4v represent the same set ¥<16, or, x7-16<0 implies that -4

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