Pertanika J. Sci. & Technol.

27 (4): 2221 - 2243 (2019)

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/

Fatty Acid Profile and Production of Fatliquor from Canarium

schweinfurthii Mesocarp Oil
Adachukwu Nwaka Nkwor1*, Pius Oziri Ukoha2, William Robert Wise3, Njemuwa
Njoku Nwaji1 and Karl Flowers3
1
Department of Chemistry/Biochemistry/Molecular Biology, Alex Ekwueme Federal University Ndufu-Alike
Ikwo, P.M.B 1010, Abakaliki, Ebonyi State, Nigeria
2
Department of Pure and Industrial Chemistry, University of Nigeria, Nsukka 410001, Enugu State, Nigeria
3
Institute for Creative Leather Technologies, The University of Northampton, Park Campus, Boughton Green
Road, NN2 7AL, Northampton, United Kingdom

ABSTRACT
Fatty acid profile of Canarium schweinfurthii mesocarp oil was determined by GC-MS.
Sulphonated fatliquor was synthesized from the oil and characterized by FT-IR, 1H NMR,
13
C NMR, and DSC. The fatliquor was applied onto light leather in the processing of
leather shoe upper and physical tests carried out on the fixed leather. The sulphonated C.
schweinfurthii mesocarp oil had good characteristics as a leather fatliquor as shown by
the physical and strength properties of the fatliquored leather. In addition, a significantly
opened up structure of the leather treated with the prepared sulphonated oil was observed
as indicated from the Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) images. The features of the
processed trial leathers were comparable with similar leather made with commercially
available fatliquor.
Keywords: Canarium schweinfurthii, characterisation, fatliquor, leather, oil, sulphonated

INTRODUCTION
In the leather industry, many chemical and
ARTICLE INFO
mechanical processes are needed to produce
Article history:
Received: 31 January 2019 finished leather. Fatliquoring process, the
Accepted: 11 July 2019
Published: 21 October 2019 last of the wet processing stage in leather
E-mail addresses: manufacturing is a significant step and its
[email protected]; [email protected]
(Adachukwu Nwaka Nkwor) importance cannot be overemphasized.
[email protected] (Pius Oziri Ukoha)
[email protected] (William Robert Wise)
When water is removed from chrome tanned
[email protected] (Njemuwa Njoku Nwaji) leather during the drying stage, cohesion of
[email protected] (Karl Flowers)
* Corresponding author the fibres takes place and results in leather

ISSN: 0128-7680
e-ISSN: 2231-8526 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press
 Adachukwu Nwaka Nkwor, Pius Oziri Ukoha, William Robert Wise, Njemuwa Njoku Nwaji and Karl Flowers

which is dry, hard, intractable and difficult to work with (Burgess, 1993). The introduction
of fatty matter as lubricant in finely dispersed form in a water medium carried out during
the fatliquoring process keeps the fibres apart during drying and reduces the frictional
forces within the fibre weave, thereby allowing the fibres to slide over one another. Such
lubricants include: natural lubricants which are made up of a blend of natural plant / animal
oils and emulsifying agents; sulphonated lubricants obtained from a reaction of sulphuric
acid and a double bond in an unsaturated fatty acid; sulphited lubricants, produced when
highly oxidised fatty raw materials react with sodium bisulphite to give oxy-sulphonic
acids. Other lubricants include synthetic lubricants, produced when various kinds of
chemical modifications such as sulpho-chlorination are catalytically carried out on paraffins
(Daniels, 2001).
These lubricants, known as fatliquors, also improve the mechanical/strength properties
of leather such as tensile strength, pliability, soft handle and tear load (Heidemann, 1993).
They also aid resistance to acid attack and help in preventing the ugly appearance of chrome
tanned leather after drying (Janakiram, 2007).
The property obtained in each vegetable-based fatliquor differs from the other and it
depends on the properties found in the vegetable oil used (Janakiram, 2007). Canarium
schweinfurthii, also known as black date, is an exotic tree which is abundantly available
in Sub-Sahara Africa and can be readily found in African countries such as Nigeria,
Ethiopia, Sierra-Leone and Sudan (Evans, 2004). The tree, which grows in the wild in
Africa, produces oval- shaped fruits. These fruits have edible mesocarps which are eaten
as supplement to diet.
In this study, oil from the mesocarp of Canarium schweinfurthii was sulphonated and
used as a leather lubricant for chrome tanned goatskins. After the characterisation of the
oil and the sulphonated fatliquor had been produced, the fatliquoring ability was assessed
by comparing it with an imported fatliquor commonly used in Nigerian tanneries.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sample Preparation of Fruits of C. schweinfurthii
Mature fruit samples of C. schweinfurthii were obtained from where they grow wildly
at Onueke, in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. The samples were identified in the Herbarium Unit,
Department of Biological Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
and voucher number 7232 was assigned to it. The mesocarp was manually peeled from
the fruits to separate it from the kernel and dried in the oven (40oC) for five days until it
became crispy, thus obtaining minimum moisture content (Abayeh et al., 1999). The dried
mesocarps were coarsely ground (approximately 2 mm) using the Corona hand kitchen
grinder, before extraction. The extraction of the oil from the seeds was carried out in a
soxhlet apparatus using n-hexane as a solvent.

2222 Pertanika J. Sci. & Technol. 27 (4): 2221 - 2243 (2019)

 Fatliquor from Canarium schweinfurthii Mesocarp Oil

Physical and Chemical Characteristics

Both the sulphonated and unsulphonated oils were analyzed for their physical and chemical
properties according to the American Oil Chemists Society Methods (Firestone, 1998).

Fatty Acid Composition

Fatty-acid composition of Canarium schweinfurthii oil, CSO was determined using
its methyl ester prepared with the method described by Adewuyi et al., (2014) on an
Agilent19091S-433HP-5MS gas chromatograph attached to a mass spectrometer. The
injection and detection temperatures were 280 and 300°C respectively. Helium was used
as the carrier gas at a flow rate of 20 ml/min. The area percentages were recorded with
a standard Chemstation Data system. For the mass spectrometry, an ACQ mode scanner
(with scan range of 15-500 amu and voltage of 2094) was used and the mass spectra were
compared with the NIST11 mass spectral library.

Sulphonation Process
Concentrated sulphuric acid (45 ml) was added dropwise into 150 g of C. schweinfurthii
oil (with constant stirring at 20°C for 2 h). The crude mass was dissolved in 450 ml of
ethanol, and neutralised using 15% NaOH (solubilised in methanol). The salts were filtered
off under vacuum. The solvent was removed and recovered using a rotary evaporator
(Steik, 1943). The resulting sulphonated product was ready for use as a leather fatliquor.
This reaction of unsaturated oils with sulphuric acid is additional.
Sulphonation process:

Scheme 1. Sulphonation of C. schweinfurthii oil to produce sulphonated (Sulphated) oil

Scheme 2. Side by side reaction of the sulphonation of C. schweinfurthii oil

Melting Point Determination

The thermal behaviour of the C. schweinfurthii oil, CSO and Sulphonated C. schweinfurthii
oil, SCSO was determined using the Mettler DSC 2 Star System in temperature range of
-80 to 180ºC.

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 Adachukwu Nwaka Nkwor, Pius Oziri Ukoha, William Robert Wise, Njemuwa Njoku Nwaji and Karl Flowers

FT-IR Analysis
The changes in the functional groups of the oils were studied using the FT-IR analysis by
FT-IR measurement (600-4000 cm-1), normal resolution of 4 cm-1 using a Shimadzu 8400S
FT-IR instrument (Shimadzu, Milton Keynes, UK).

NMR Analysis
1
H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and 13C NMR spectra of both CSO and SCSO were
acquired on a Bruker Biospin AV500 – 5mm BBO probe with Z axis gradient, TOPSPIN
v 2.1, 1H=500.13 MHz, 13C=125.76 MHz (Brucker, Coventry, UK).

Fatliquoring Process
Wet blue goat skin, shaved at 1.2-1.3 mm, was divided into four quarters such that the
sampling positions (BS 2418, 2002), were uniformly represented in all the four quarters.
Further treatments on each of the four quarters of the wet blue goat skins labelled NC,
PC, A1 and A2 respectively, were simultaneously carried out (with the aid of four separate
tanning drums) using a conventional shoe upper manufacturing process [fatliquoring
process] (ICLT SR15/31, 2015).
A negative control (designated NC) was processed without any fatliquor; a positive
control (designated PC) was processed using a commercial sulphated fatliquor, Trupon DXV
(Trumpler Gmbh, Worms, Germany). Sample A1 was processed using pure sulphonated
C. schweinfurthii oil; Sample A2 was processed using a blend of pure sulphonated C.
schweinfurthii oil and 7.5% raw castor oil. Leather dyeing was omitted in the process to
enable the Sudan IV staining test (for identification of fatty substances) be carried out
effectively after the leather manufacturing. The fatliquoring process used was illustrated
in Table 1.

Strength/Mechanical Properties of Leather

These leather samples: NC, PC, A1 and A2 were conditioned according to (BS 2419, 2002)
before mechanical tests were carried out on them. The samples were staked twice using a
Cartigliano PAL 160 leather staking machine (Cartigliano, Bassano, Italy) on the lowest
setting. The Strength / mechanical properties of leather samples were all determined using;
softness (BS 1723, 2015) tensile strength (BS 3376, 2011), elongation at break and tear
strength of leather (BS 3377, 2011) and grain strength standards (BS 3379, 2015).

Sudan Stain Test on Leather Samples

Thin sections (50 μm) of the leather samples were cut with a Leica 1850 cryostat microtome
(Leica, Wetzler, Germany) (set at -20°C) and used in the Sudan (IV) stain test (Bugby, 1999)
for the determination of the extent of penetration of the fatliquors into the leather fibrils.

2224 Pertanika J. Sci. & Technol. 27 (4): 2221 - 2243 (2019)

 Fatliquor from Canarium schweinfurthii Mesocarp Oil

Scanning Electron Microscopy

Cross sections of experimental and control were examined for changes in fibre structure
using Hitachi S-3000N scanning electron microscope, SEM (Hitachi, Maidenhead, UK).
Leather Samples were gold-coated using an Emscope SC 500 gold sputter coater before
SEM analysis (Quorom Technologies, Laughton, UK).

Table 1
Fatliquoring process for shoe upper manufacture damp shaved weight: 400 g

Process % (m/m) Chemical T(°C) Time(min) Comments

Wet Back 300 Water 30
0.2 Surfactant 20
Drain
Neutralise 100 Water 35 -
Add 1 Sodium formate 5
0.25 Sodium bicarbonate 30 pH = 4.6
Bromo-cresol green
cross-section = yellow/
green
Drain
Wash 200 Water 35 5
Drain
Retan/Fat 100 Water 30
Add 6 Replacement syntan 15
4 Vegetable tannin 30 pH = 4.63
20 Water 35
3 Acrylic resin 30 pH = 5.29
Drain
Wash 200 Water 50 5
Drain
Dye/Fat 100 Water 50
Add 2 Dye 10 Paste if necessary
6 Fatliquor (1:3) 40 Run longer if needed
Fix add 1 Formic acid (1:10) 20 pH =3.6
Drain, wash X2,
horse up
Source: ICLT SR 15/31

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Physicochemical Properties
The physicochemical properties of CSO and SCSO are shown in Table 2. The high
percentage quantity of oil in C. schweinfurthii indicates potential applicability for possible
large-scale chemical modification in the synthesis of fatliquor via sulphonation.

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 Adachukwu Nwaka Nkwor, Pius Oziri Ukoha, William Robert Wise, Njemuwa Njoku Nwaji and Karl Flowers

The green colour possessed by CSO was not a disadvantage to the final colour of the
leather article produced as shown by the 10% solution that had a pale green colour. The
specific gravity of the oil is in line with the density of most vegetable oils (Gunstone, 2004).
The translucent (not so clear) nature of the 10% solution is an indication of a medium
degree of sulphonation (Waite, 1999). This physical observation shows that there was a
percentage of SO3 (anionic emulsifier) incorporated into the sulphonated compound. It
should also be noted that SO3 is the fuel which drives the oil droplets into the leather. It
equally ensures a great degree of fixation as they will be attached to the positively charged
leather (Covington, 2011).

Fatty Acid Composition

The nature of the fatty acids present in oils affects the ease of sulphonation and the nature
of sulphonated product obtained. It can be seen from Table 3 that the ratio of the total
unsaturated fatty acids of C. schweinfurthii is almost equal to the total saturated fatty
acids (1: 0.80). Palmitic acid constitutes more than 94% of the saturated fatty acids while
linoleic acid constitutes more than 54% of the unsaturated fatty acid. Oleic acid is also a
major unsaturated fatty acid constitutes more than 43% of its content. Details of the GC-
MS analysis are shown in Appendix A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H. Since a great percentage of
unsaturated fatty acids (55.53%) is found in the oil, the double bonds present in them are
readily available for the sulphonation reaction.

Table 2
Physicochemical properties of both CSO and SCSO

Parameter CSO SCSO

Percentage Yield (%) 51.32 69.7
Colour Dark green Dark green
Odour Inoffensive Odourless
Appearance of 10% Solution - Translucent
Colour of 10% solution - Light green
pH of 10% Solution - 7.44
Stability of 10% solution - Stability> 24hrs
%Ash Content - Trace
% SO3 - 4.05
Specific gravity (at 20°C) 0.948 0.978
Acid Value (mg KOH g-1) 11.36 8.25
Free fatty acid (as oleic acid) 5.68 4.13
Iodine value 68 23
Saponification value 196 192

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 Fatliquor from Canarium schweinfurthii Mesocarp Oil

Table 3
Fatty acid profile of CSO

Fatty acid Percentage composition (%)

Palmitic acid 41.81
Stearic acid 2.66
Saturated fatty acids 44.47
Oleic acid 23.75
Linoleic acid 30.08
Palmitoleic acid 1.70
Unsaturated fatty acids 55.53

Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) Results

It was observed from the DSC results that CSO had a wide melting range of (0.64 to 8.89oC)
depicting the various fatty acids (saturated and unsaturated) present in the oil (Table 4).
These melting ranges and DSC curves result from the combined effects between fatty acid
composition, polymorphism of natural oils and fats, and thermal history (Kaiserberger,
1989). The melting behaviour of the oils CSO and SCSO studied varied due to the different
characteristics and compositions of fatty acids present in the triglycerides (Fashina et al.,
2008).
The increased melting point observed in the SCSO shows that most of the unsaturated
fatty acids have been used up in the sulphonation reaction; leaving behind saturated fatty
acids (which have a higher melting point) than unsaturated fatty acids (Berg et al., 2002).

Emulsion Stability Tests

Table 5 shows that 10% fatliquor emulsions of SCSO are generally stable in various salt
solutions used in leather manufacturing processes like deliming, pickling and chrome
tanning steps. When sulphonated fatliquor which is anionic ionizes in water to release the
anionic sulphonate group, these negative ions react electrostatically with the protonated
amino group from the basic group of protein in leather and thus fixed up with leather.
This fixation can only be done in an acid medium. The SCSO has a good emulsion
stability towards tanning salts, pickle liquor and hard water, but unstable when in contact
with formic acid. This instability of the emulsion with formic acid enables the fatliquor to
stay in the leather and form bonds that hold it there (Habib & Alshammari, 2014). Table
5, therefore, shows that SCSO can also be used in the retanning and fatliquoring steps.
Table 4
The thermal behaviour of CSO and SCSO

Oil Sample Onset Temperature (°C) Peak Temperature (°C) Endset Temperature (Melting Point) (°C)
CSO 0.64 4.42 8.89
SCSO 7.54 16.5 18.44

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 Adachukwu Nwaka Nkwor, Pius Oziri Ukoha, William Robert Wise, Njemuwa Njoku Nwaji and Karl Flowers

Table 5
Stability of 10% fatliquor emulsion of SCSO towards pickle liquor, tan liquor and hard water

Solution added Stability Status

5 % Basic chromium sulfate (tan liquor) Stable
5 % MgSO4 (hard water) Stable
5 % NaCl (found in pickle liquor) Stable
5 % Formic acid Unstable

Fourier Transform Infra-Red (FT-IR) Results

The FT-IR results in Figure 1a and 1b illustrate the IR spectrum of CSO and SCSO. In
Figure 1b, the probable attack of H2SO4 on the –C=C- to form the sulphonated product
was confirmed by the absence of unsaturated C-H stretching peak at 3007.12 cm-1 in

(a)

(b)
Figure 1. FT-IR spectra of CSO (a) and SCSO (b) (Insert: expanded section of signal showing 3007.12 cm-1)

2228 Pertanika J. Sci. & Technol. 27 (4): 2221 - 2243 (2019)

 Fatliquor from Canarium schweinfurthii Mesocarp Oil

non-conjugated. In addition, the presence of vibrational peak at 1198 cm-1 (Figure 1b)
corresponds to S=O stretching of sulphonated groups, which is absent in Figure 1a; hence,
confirming the formation of sulphonated product.
Other prominent peaks found in both samples are at (2853 cm-1) C-H stretching
frequency of alkane; (1744 cm-1 (C=O stretching frequency of ester); 1464 cm-1 (bending
frequency of unsaturated alkene); and 721 cm-1 (bending frequency of saturated carbon
atom). The OH peak at 3431 cm-1 in Figure 1b depicts the traces of alcohol used in the
formation of the sulphonated products.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy Results

The 1H NMR of CSO and SCSO is shown in Figures 2a and 2b respectively, while the 13C
NMR spectral diagrams are found in Figures 3a and 3b respectively. The 1H NMR displayed
the unsulphonated multiplet olefinic protons attached to C=C double bond at δ 5.29 ppm,
integrated into 5 protons. This is expected since these protons are sp2 hybridized, resulting
in deshielded NMR signals due to the influence of the diamagnetic anisotropy of the π
system. Sulphation / sulphonation usually lead to the saturation of the double bond. The
sp3 ahybridized
b protons formed are thus expected tobbe shielded relative to the sp2 olefinic
protons. The newly formed protons (H-C-S and H-C-O) in the SCSO showed signals at

aa b

(a) (b)
Figure 2. 1H NMR of CSO (a) and SCSO (b) in deuterated chloroform

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 Adachukwu Nwaka Nkwor, Pius Oziri Ukoha, William Robert Wise, Njemuwa Njoku Nwaji and Karl Flowers

a
a

(a)

(b)

Figure 3. 13
C NMR of CSO (a) and SCSO (b) in deuterated chloroform

δ 3.6 and 3.73 ppm. It is important to note that the slight deshielding observed for these
protons relative to the rest of the protons in the SCSO is due to the inductive effect of
the electronegative sulphur and oxygen atoms. The inductive effect, however, causes less
deshielding than diamagnetic anisotropy.
Similar explanation can be used to explain the differences in carbon chemical shifts
observed in the 13C NMR for the CSO and SCSO. In the 13C NMR spectra, both the CSO
and SCSO have one signal each at around 14.1 ppm (methyl group at the end of the acyl
chains in glyceride moiety). It is well separated from other signals and, hence, easily
recognized. The same vaIues have been reported in literature (Gunstone, 2004, Okiemen
et al., 2005, Sega et al., 2010). In the 13C spectrum, the signals associated with the olefinic

2230 Pertanika J. Sci. & Technol. 27 (4): 2221 - 2243 (2019)

 Fatliquor from Canarium schweinfurthii Mesocarp Oil

carbons appear highly deshielded at δ 127.09 to 131.85. ppm due to the diamagnetic
anisotropic effect of the π system. Upon sulphonation, these signals were absent due to loss
of the double bonds. The new signals which appeared at 52 and 72 ppm belong to the sp3
hybridized carbons (C-S and C-O) formed after the sulphonation reactions. The slightly
deshielded position of these signals is also due to the influence of the inductive effect of
the electronegative sulphur and oxygen atoms.

Strength Properties of Leather Samples

The strength properties of the leather samples were shown in Figures 4, 5 and also in Table
6. The strength properties of the leather samples were determined both perpendicular and
parallel to the backbone and the average results obtained. It is obvious from Figure 4 that
despite the other processing techniques which involved conditioning, staking and inclusion
of other additives to give leather a soft handle, both the SCSO and its blend with 7.5%
castor oil demonstrated a clear improvement on leather without any fatliquor (NC), and
was comparable to similar leather made with commercially available fatliquor (PC).
Castor seed oil is normally used in the tanning industry as a source of lubrication
because of its humectant property. The strength of grain surface test results is shown in
Figure 5. The lowest values for grain crack and grain burst are seen in the negative control
(having average grain crack and grain burst strengths of 320 and 335 N respectively). The
PC, Pure and Blend, had higher average grain crack of 400, 410 and 405 N respectively,
and also grain burst strengths of 450, 415 and 425 N respectively. Proper lubrication of
the leather fibres in PC, Pure and Blend brought about the increase in average grain crack
and grain burst strength.
Strength properties have been given the greatest consideration in evaluating fatliquored
leather because they give an indication of fibre lubricity (Waite, 1999; Burgess, 1993). The
sulphonated portion of the oil interacts with the active centres in the collagen molecules of
leather fibres and leaves the oil between the fibres. The elongation at break characterizes
the softness, flexibility, strength and toughness of the leather matrix (Alexander et al.,
1993). It is also evident from the strength properties results that the leather fatliquored
using SCSO compared favourably with the commercial fatliquor.

Table 6
Other strength properties results

Properties NC PC PURE BLEND

Average Tear Load (Double Edge Tear) (N) 354.3 543.4 437.8 496.4
Average Tensile Strength (N/mm2) 17.38 24.86 22.54 27.07
Average Elongation at Break (%) 28.48 38.04 35.88 37.14

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 Adachukwu Nwaka Nkwor, Pius Oziri Ukoha, William Robert Wise, Njemuwa Njoku Nwaji and Karl Flowers

Figure 4. Softness test results

500 Average grain crack (N) Average Ball Burst strength (N)
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
NC PC PURE BLEND
Figure 5. Strength of grain surface of leather

Sudan Stain Test Results

Staining renders visible, components within the section which would not be seen easily.
Here, leather fibrils were soaked in Sudan (IV) dyes which were specific for fats and oils
and are specially adapted to suit leather microscopy (Bugby, 1999). The presence of orange/
red stains depicts the presence of fatliquors within the cross-sections of the leather samples
B, C and D in contrast to A which was processed without fatliquor (Figure 6). Sample C
also showed a high level of penetration of the prepared sulphonated oil within the leather.
SCSO obviously compared favourably with the commercial fatliquor – Positive Control.

Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Results

Figure 7 shows the surface morphology of the leather samples. From the SEM analysis
results, the leather samples fatliquored with commercial fatliquor (positive control),
prepared sulphonated fatliquor and its blend with 7.5% raw castor oil exhibited well opened

2232 Pertanika J. Sci. & Technol. 27 (4): 2221 - 2243 (2019)

 Fatliquor from Canarium schweinfurthii Mesocarp Oil

up structures. In contrast, the leather which was not fatliquored had a split up structure but
the fibres restuck after drying. The well opened up fibre structure depicts good lubrication.

A B

C D

Figure 6. Staining Test Results Showing Cross-Section of Chrome Tanned Goatskins Processed with:
A-NC; B- PC; C- A1 (PURE); D- A2 (BLEND)

A B

C D

Figure 7. Scanning Electron Microscopy (X2000) of Chrome Tanned Goatskins Processed with: A-NC;
B- PC; C- A1 (PURE); D- A2 (BLEND)

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 Adachukwu Nwaka Nkwor, Pius Oziri Ukoha, William Robert Wise, Njemuwa Njoku Nwaji and Karl Flowers

CONCLUSION
Structural characterizations performed by FT-IR, 1H NMR and 13C NMR analysis confirmed
the sulphonation of CSO. It was observed from DSC results that both the CSO and SCSO
were relatively thermally stable at the temperatures studied and would not likely decompose
when being processed or in use as leather. The leather processed by the sulphonated C.
schweinfurthii fatliquor had a comparable tensile strength, double edge tear, and grain
strength with commercial/imported fatliquor. The stain test result showed the full lubrication
of the C. schweinfurthii fatliquored leather and is comparable with leather from commercial
fatliquor. This indicates that the sulphonated C. schweinfurthii fatliquor could be a rival
with commercial products for the production of leather shoe upper.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank the management and staff of the Institute for Creative Leather
Technologies (ICLT), University of Northampton, (UoN) Northampton, United Kingdom,
for the support in terms of facilities, equipment and bench space offered for the work.

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 Adachukwu Nwaka Nkwor, Pius Oziri Ukoha, William Robert Wise, Njemuwa Njoku Nwaji and Karl Flowers

Gas chromatogram of CSO methyl ester

APPENDIX A

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 Fatliquor from Canarium schweinfurthii Mesocarp Oil

APPENDIX B
Area percent report of CSO methyl ester

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 Adachukwu Nwaka Nkwor, Pius Oziri Ukoha, William Robert Wise, Njemuwa Njoku Nwaji and Karl Flowers

APPENDIX C
Library search report of CSO methyl ester

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 Fatliquor from Canarium schweinfurthii Mesocarp Oil

APPENDIX D
CSO methyl ester- mass spectrum for area percent (1.699 %, 31.350 min)

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 Adachukwu Nwaka Nkwor, Pius Oziri Ukoha, William Robert Wise, Njemuwa Njoku Nwaji and Karl Flowers

APPENDIX E
CSO methyl ester- mass spectrum for area percent (41.81 %, 31.973 min)

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 Fatliquor from Canarium schweinfurthii Mesocarp Oil

APPENDIX F
CSO methyl ester- mass spectrum for area percent (30.08 %, 34.988 min)

Pertanika J. Sci. & Technol. 27 (4): 2221 - 2243 (2019) 2241

 Adachukwu Nwaka Nkwor, Pius Oziri Ukoha, William Robert Wise, Njemuwa Njoku Nwaji and Karl Flowers

APPENDIX G
CSO methyl ester- mass spectrum for area percent (23.74 %, 35.138min)

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 Fatliquor from Canarium schweinfurthii Mesocarp Oil

APPENDIX H
CSO methyl ester- mass spectrum for area percent (2.66 %, 35.533 min)

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