Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.

com/c/sharikatr

MODULE 2: Relational Model

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

SYLLABUS
• Structure of Relational Databases - Integrity Constraints,
Synthesizing ER diagram to relational schema
• Introduction to Relational Algebra - select, project, cartesian
product operations, join - Equi-join, natural join. query
examples,
• Introduction to Structured Query Language (SQL), Data
Definition Language (DDL), Table definitions and
operations – CREATE, DROP, ALTER, INSERT, DELETE,
UPDATE.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Relational data model

• Represent database as a collection of relations
• Relation is a table which has values and rows in table is a
collection of related data values
• Each row in table is a fact
• Row in relational table is called a tuple, column header is
attribute and table is a relation

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Attributes

Relation name

EMPLOYEE
EMP_NO Name Address Mobile number Age Salar
y

101 RAM XYZ 9898989898 20 10000

Tuples 102 SAM CVF 9999999999 21 20000

103 SITA FDFD 888888888 22 30000

 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• In the relational model, all data is logically structured within

relations (also called table)
• Informally a relation may be viewed as a named two-
dimensional table representing an entity set.
• A relation has a fixed number of named columns and
variable number of rows.

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Components of relational database

• The main components of relational database structure are as
follows:
1. Domains
2. Tuples (rows)
3. Columns (attributes)
4. Keys
5. Relations (Tables)
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Domain
• It has three parts
▫ Name
▫ Data type
▫ Format
• A Domain is allowed set of atomic values.
• Atomic means each value in the domain is indivisible to the
relational model.

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• A domain has a logical definition:

e.g.“USA_phone_numbers” are the set of 10 digit phone
numbers valid in the U.S.
• A domain may have a data-type or a format defined for it.
▫ The USA_phone_numbers may have a format: (ddd)-ddd-
dddd where each d is a decimal digit. E.g.,
▫ Dates have various formats such as month name, date, year or
yyyy-mm-dd, or dd mm,yyyy etc
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Tuples (rows)
• A tuple is an ordered set of values
• Tuple is a portion of a table containing data that described
only entity, relationship, or object
• Also known as record
• Each value is derived from an appropriate domain.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• <Kumar, Singh, 52/57 store, 223001,

9889898989> is a tuple belonging to the
CUSTOMER relation.

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Columns
• Columns in a table are also called attributes or fields of
the relation.
• A single cell in a table called field value, attribute value or
data element.
• For example, for the entity person, attributes could include
eye colour and height.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Key of a Relation
• Each row has a value of a data item (or set of items) that
uniquely identifies that row in the table
 Called the key
• Sometimes row-ids or sequential numbers are assigned as keys
to identify the rows in a table
 Called artificial key or surrogate key

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Relations (Tables)
• A table of values
• A relation may be thought of as a set of rows.
• A relation may alternately be thought of as a set of
columns.
• That is a table is perceived as a two-dimensional structure
composed of rows and columns.
• Each row represents a fact that corresponds to a real-world
entity or relationship.
• Each row has a value of an item or set of items that uniquely
identifies that row in the table
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• Sometimes row-ids or sequential numbers are assigned to

identify the rows in the table.
• Each column typically is called by its column name or
column header or attribute name.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Schema of a Relation
• It is basically an outline of how data is organized
• It is denoted by R (A1, A2, .....An)
▫ Here R is relation name and
▫ it has some attributes A1 to An
• Each attribute have some domain and it is represented by
dom(Ai)
• Relation schema is used to describe a relation and R is name
of the relation
• Each attribute has a domain or a set of valid values.
▫ For example, the domain of Cust-id is 6 digit numbers.

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Degree of a relation
• Degree of a relation is number of attributes in a relation
• Eg
▫ STUDENT(Id, Name, Age, Departmentno)
 Has degree 4
• Using datatype of each the definition can be written as
▫ STUDENT(Id:Integer, Name:String,Age:integer,
Departmentno:integer)
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Relation State
• The relation state is a subset of the Cartesian product of
the domains of its attributes
▫ each domain contains the set of all possible values the attribute
can take.
• Example: attribute Cust-name is defined over the domain of
character strings of maximum length 25
▫ dom(Cust-name) is varchar(25)
• The role these strings play in the CUSTOMER relation is
that of the name of a customer.

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• A relation state r(R) is a mathematical relation of degree n

on the domains dom(A1), dom(A2)…, dom(An) which is a
subset of Cartesian product(X) of domains that define R

• Cartesian product specifies all possible combination of

values from underlying domains

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Cardinality in domain D
• Cardinality in domain D by |D| then the total number of
tuples in cartesiean product is
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Current relation state

• Reflects only the that represent a particular state of real
world
• As the state of real world changes, so does the relation state,
by being transformed into another relation state

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Alternative Definition of a
Relation
• ordering of values in a tuple is unnecessary
• a relation schema R = {A1, A2, ..., An} is a set of attributes, and
• a relation state r(R) is a finite set of mappings r = {t1, t2, ...,
tm}, where each tuple ti is a mapping from R to D, and
• D is the union (denoted by ∪) of the attribute domains; that is,
D = dom(A1) ∪ dom(A2) ∪ ... ∪ dom(An).
• Here t[Ai] must be in dom(Ai) for 1 ≤ i ≤ n for each mapping t in
r.
• Each mapping ti is called a tuple.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• a tuple can be considered as a set of (<attribute>,

<value>) pairs, where each pair gives the value of the
mapping from an attribute Ai to a value vi from dom(Ai).
• The ordering of attributes is not important, because the
attribute name appears with its value.

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Formal Definitions - Summary

• Formally,
▫ Given R(A1, A2, .........., An)
▫ r(R)  dom (A1) X dom (A2) X ....X dom(An)
• R(A1, A2, …, An) is the schema of the relation
• R is the name of the relation
• A1, A2, …, An are the attributes of the relation
• r(R): a specific state (or "value" or “population”) of relation R – this
is a set of tuples (rows)
▫ r(R) = {t1, t2, …, tn} where each ti is an n-tuple
▫ ti = <v1, v2, …, vn> where each vj element-of dom(Aj)
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Formal Definitions - Example

• Let R(A1, A2) be a relation schema:
▫ Let dom(A1) = {0,1}
▫ Let dom(A2) = {a,b,c}
• Then: dom(A1) X dom(A2) is all possible combinations:
{<0,a> , <0,b> , <0,c>, <1,a>, <1,b>, <1,c> }
• The relation state r(R)  dom(A1) X dom(A2)
• For example: r(R) could be {<0,a> , <0,b> , <1,c> }
▫ this is one possible state (or “population” or “extension”) r of the relation
R, defined over A1 and A2.
▫ It has three 2-tuples: <0,a> , <0,b> , <1,c>

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Definition Summary
Informal Terms Formal Terms
Table Relation
Column Header Attribute
All possible Column Domain
Values
Row Tuple

Table Definition Schema of a Relation

Populated Table State of the Relation
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Characteristics of Relation
• Ordering of tuples in a relation r(R):
▫ The tuples are not considered to be ordered, even though
they appear to be in the tabular form.
• Ordering of attributes in a relation schema R (and of values
within each tuple):
▫ We will consider the attributes in R(A1, A2, ..., An) and the
values in t=<v1, v2, ..., vn> to be ordered .
 (However, a more general alternative definition of relation does
not require this ordering).
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• Values in a tuple:
▫ All values are considered atomic (indivisible).
▫ Each value in a tuple must be from the domain of the attribute
for that column
 If tuple t = <v1, v2, …, vn> is a tuple (row) in the relation state r of
R(A1, A2, …, An)
 Then each vi must be a value from dom(Ai)

▫ A special null value is used to represent values that are

unknown or inapplicable to certain tuples.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• Notation:
▫ We refer to component values of a tuple t by:
 t[Ai] or t.Ai
 This is the value vi of attribute Ai for tuple t
▫ Similarly, t[Au, Av, ..., Aw] refers to the subtuple of t
containing the values of attributes Au, Av, ..., Aw, respectively
in t

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Relational Integrity Constraints

• Constraints are conditions that must hold on all valid relation
states.
• There are three main types of constraints in the relational model:
▫ Key constraints
▫ Entity integrity constraints
▫ Referential integrity constraints
• Another implicit constraint is the domain constraint
▫ Every value in a tuple must be from the domain of its attribute (or it could
be null, if allowed for that attribute)

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Key Constraints
• Superkey of R:
▫ Is a set of attributes SK of R with the following condition:
 No two tuples in any valid relation state r(R) will have
the same value for SK
 That is, for any distinct tuples t1 and t2 in r(R), t1[SK] 
t2[SK]
 This condition must hold in any valid state r(R)
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• Key of R:
▫ A "minimal" superkey
▫ That is, a key is a superkey K such that removal of any
attribute from K results in a set of attributes that is not a
superkey (does not possess the superkey uniqueness
property)

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• Example: Consider the CAR relation schema:

▫ CAR(State, Reg#, SerialNo, Make, Model, Year)
▫ CAR has two keys:
 Key1 = {State, Reg#}
 Key2 = {SerialNo}
▫ Both are also superkeys of CAR
▫ {SerialNo, Make} is a superkey but not a key.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• In general:
▫ Any key is a superkey (but not vice versa)
▫ Any set of attributes that includes a key is a superkey
▫ A minimal superkey is also a key

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• If a relation has several candidate keys, one is chosen

arbitrarily to be the primary key.
▫ The primary key attributes are underlined.
• Example: Consider the CAR relation schema:
▫ CAR(State, Reg#, SerialNo, Make, Model, Year)
▫ We chose SerialNo as the primary key
• The primary key value is used to uniquely identify each tuple in
a relation
▫ Provides the tuple identity
• Also used to reference the tuple from another tuple
▫ General rule: Choose as primary key the smallest of the candidate keys
(in terms of size)
▫ Not always applicable – choice is sometimes subjective
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

CAR table with two candidate keys –

LicenseNumber chosen as Primary Key

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Entity Integrity
• Entity Integrity:
▫ The primary key attributes PK of each relation schema R in S
cannot have null values in any tuple of r(R).
 This is because primary key values are used to identify the
individual tuples.
 t[PK]  null for any tuple t in r(R)
 If PK has several attributes, null is not allowed in any of these
attributes
▫ Note: Other attributes of R may be constrained to disallow null
values, even though they are not members of the primary key.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Referential Integrity
• A constraint involving two relations
▫ The previous constraints involve a single relation.
• Used to specify a relationship among tuples in two
relations:
▫ The referencing relation and the referenced relation.

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• Tuples in the referencing relation R1 have

attributes FK (called foreign key attributes)
that reference the primary key attributes PK of
the referenced relation R2.
▫ A tuple t1 in R1 is said to reference a tuple t2 in
R2 if t1[FK] = t2[PK].
• A referential integrity constraint can be
displayed in a relational database schema as a
directed arc from R1.FK to R2.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• Statement of the constraint

▫ The value in the foreign key column (or columns) FK of the the
referencing relation R1 can be either:
 (1) a value of an existing primary key value of a corresponding
primary key PK in the referenced relation R2, or
 (2) a null.
• In case (2), the FK in R1 should not be a part of its own
primary key.

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Other Types of Constraints

• Semantic Integrity Constraints:
▫ based on application semantics and cannot be expressed by the
model per se
▫ Example: “the max. no. of hours per employee for all projects
he or she works on is 56 hrs per week”
• A constraint specification language may have to be used
to express these
• SQL-99 allows triggers and ASSERTIONS to express for
some of these
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Relational Database Schema

• Relational Database Schema:
▫ A set S of relation schemas that belong to the same database.
▫ S is the name of the whole database schema
▫ S = {R1, R2, ..., Rn}
▫ R1, R2, …, Rn are the names of the individual relation
schemas within the database S
• Following slide shows a COMPANY database schema with 6
relation schemas

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Displaying a relational database schema and its PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,

SNGCE

constraints
• Each relation schema can be displayed as a row of attribute
names
• The name of the relation is written above the attribute
names
• The primary key attribute (or attributes) will be underlined
• A foreign key (referential integrity) constraints is displayed
as a directed arc (arrow) from the foreign key attributes to
the referenced table
▫ Can also point the the primary key of the referenced relation for
clarity
• Next slide shows the COMPANY relational schema
diagram
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Populated database state

• Each relation will have many tuples in its current relation
state
• The relational database state is a union of all the individual
relation states
• Whenever the database is changed, a new state arises
• Basic operations for changing the database:
▫ INSERT a new tuple in a relation
▫ DELETE an existing tuple from a relation
▫ MODIFY an attribute of an existing tuple
• Next slide shows an example state for the COMPANY
database
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Update Operations on Relations

1. INSERT a tuple.
2. DELETE a tuple.
3. MODIFY a tuple.
• Integrity constraints should not be violated by the update
operations.
• Several update operations may have to be grouped together.
• Updates may propagate to cause other updates
automatically. This may be necessary to maintain integrity
constraints.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Update Operations on Relations

• In case of integrity violation, several actions can be taken:
▫ Cancel the operation that causes the violation (RESTRICT or
REJECT option)
▫ Perform the operation but inform the user of the violation
▫ Trigger additional updates so the violation is corrected
(CASCADE option, SET NULL option)
▫ Execute a user-specified error-correction routine

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Possible violations for each operation

• INSERT may violate any of the constraints:
▫ Domain constraint:
 if one of the attribute values provided for the new tuple is not of
the specified attribute domain
▫ Key constraint:
 if the value of a key attribute in the new tuple already exists in
another tuple in the relation
▫ Referential integrity:
 if a foreign key value in the new tuple references a primary key
value that does not exist in the referenced relation
▫ Entity integrity:
 if the primary key value is null in the new tuple
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• DELETE may violate only referential integrity:

▫ If the primary key value of the tuple being deleted is referenced
from other tuples in the database
 Can be remedied by several actions: RESTRICT, CASCADE,
SET NULL
 RESTRICT option: reject the deletion
 CASCADE option: propagate the new primary key value into
the foreign keys of the referencing tuples
 SET NULL option: set the foreign keys of the referencing
tuples to NULL
▫ One of the above options must be specified during database
design for each foreign key constraint

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• UPDATE may violate domain constraint and NOT NULL

constraint on an attribute being modified
• Any of the other constraints may also be violated, depending on
the attribute being updated:
▫ Updating the primary key (PK):
 Similar to a DELETE followed by an INSERT
 Need to specify similar options to DELETE
▫ Updating a foreign key (FK):
 May violate referential integrity
▫ Updating an ordinary attribute (neither PK nor FK):
 Can only violate domain constraints
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

homework
• Consider the following relations for a database that keeps track of student
enrollment in courses and the books adopted for each course:
• STUDENT(SSN, Name, Major, Bdate)
• COURSE(Course#, Cname, Dept)
• ENROLL(SSN, Course#, Quarter, Grade)
• BOOK_ADOPTION(Course#, Quarter, Book_ISBN)
• TEXT(Book_ISBN, Book_Title, Publisher, Author)
• Draw a relational schema diagram specifying the foreign keys for this
schema.

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Synthesizing ER Diagram to relational schema

Entities and Simple attributes
• An entity type within ER diagram is turned into a table.
• Each attribute turns into a column in the table.
• The key attribute of the entity is the primary key of the table
which is usually underlined.
• It is highly recommended that every table should start with
its primary key attribute conventionally named as
TablenameID.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• The initial relational schema is expressed in the following

format writing the table names with the attributes list inside a
parentheses as shown below for
▫ PERSONS( personid , name, dateOfBirth,
gender)
• personid is the primary key for the table : Persons

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Multivalued Attributes

• If you have a multi-valued attribute, take the attribute and turn it into a new entity or
table of its own.
• Then make a 1: N relationship between the new entity and the existing one.
• Create a table for the attribute.
▫ Add the primary (id) column of the parent entity as a foreign key within the new table
▫ PERSONS( personid , name, dateOfBirth, gender)
▫ PERSONS_PHONE(personid ,phone)
▫ personid within the table Phones is a foreign key referring to the personid of Persons
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,

1:1 Relationships SNGCE

• For cases when the Person is not married i.e. has no wifeID, the attribute can set to
NULL
PERSONS( personid , name, dateOfBirth, gender,wifeid)
PERSONS_PHONE(personid ,phone)
WIFE(wifeid , name )

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• For instance, the Person can have a House from

zero to many , but a House can have only one
1:N Relationships Person.
• To represent such relationship the personid as
the Parent node must be placed within the Child
table as a foreign key

PERSONS( personid , name,

dateOfBirth, gender)

PERSONS_PHONE(personid ,phone)

HOUSE(houseid, personid,
number, address)
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

M:N Relationships

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Weak Entity

BUILDING( Building_No, Building_name, Address)

APARTMENT(Buiding_No ,Door_No, floor )
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Homework

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Introduction to Relational Algebra

• select,
• project,
• cartesian product operations,
• join - Equi-join,
• natural join
• query examples

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Relational algebra
• Relational algebra is a procedural query language, which
takes instances of relations as input and yields instances of
relations as output.
• It uses operators to perform queries. An operator can be
either unary or binary.
• They accept relations as their input and yield relations as
their output.
• Relational algebra is performed recursively on a relation
and intermediate results are also considered relations.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• The basic set of operations for the relational model is the

relational algebra.
• These operations enable a user to specify basic retrieval
requests as relational algebra expressions.
• The result of a retrieval is a new relation, which may have
been formed from one or more relations.
• The algebra operations thus produce new relations, which
can be further manipulated using operations of the same
algebra.
• A sequence of relational algebra operations forms a
relational algebra expression, whose result will also be a
relation that represents the result of a database query

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Unary Relational Operations:

1. SELECT and
2. PROJECT

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

The SELECT Operation

• The SELECT operation is used to choose a subset of the tuples
from a relation that satisfies a selection condition
• SELECT operation restricts the tuples in a relation to only those
tuples that satisfy the condition
• horizontal partition of the relation into two sets of tuples
• those tuples that satisfy the condition and are selected, and those
tuples that do not satisfy the conditionand are discarded.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• Select the EMPLOYEE tuples whose department is 4, or

those whose salary is greater than $30,000
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• In general, the SELECT operation is denoted by

• R is generally a relational algebra expression whose result

is a relation—the simplest such expression is just the name
of a database relation.
• Therelation resulting from the SELECT operation has the
same attributes as R.

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• The Boolean expression specified in <selection condition> is

made up of a number of clauses of the form

• Clauses can be connected by the standard Boolean operators

and, or, and not to form a general selection condition
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• Select the tuples for all employees who either

work in department 4 and make over $25,000
per year, or work in department 5 and make over
$30,000,

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• the result of a SELECT operation can be determined as follows:

• The <selection condition> is applied independently to each
individual tuple t in R.
• This is done by substituting each occurrence of an attribute Ai in
the selection condition with its value in the tuple t[Ai].
• If the condition evaluates to TRUE, then tuple t is selected.
• All the selected tuples appear in the result of the SELECT
operation.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Interpretation of Boolean conditions AND, OR,

and NOT
• (cond1 AND cond2) is TRUE
▫ if both (cond1) and (cond2) are TRUE;
▫ otherwise, it is FALSE.
• (cond1 OR cond2) is TRUE
▫ if either (cond1) or (cond2) or both are TRUE;
▫ otherwise, it is FALSE.
• (NOT cond) is TRUE
▫ if cond is FALSE;
▫ otherwise, it is FALSE.

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Degree of the relation from SELECT operation

• its number of attributes
• is the same as the degree of R.
• The number of tuples in the resulting relation is always less
than or equal to the number of tuples in R.

• The fraction of tuples selected by a selection condition is

referred to as the selectivity of the condition.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Commutative Property of SELECT

• SELECT operation is commutative

• a sequence of SELECTs can be applied in any order.

• we can always combine a cascade (or sequence) of
SELECT operations into a single SELECT operation with a
conjunctive (AND) condition; that is,

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

PROJECT Operation
• PROJECT operation selects certain columns from the
table and discards the other columns.
• If we are interested in only certain attributes of a relation,
we use the PROJECT operation to project the relation over
these attributes only
• vertical partition of the relation into two relations
▫ one has the needed columns (attributes) and contains the
result of the operation, and
▫ the other contains the discarded columns.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

The general form of PROJECT

• Example: list each employee’s first and last name and salary

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• The result of the PROJECT operation has only the attributes

specified in <attribute list> in the same order as they
appear in the list.
• Hence, its degree is equal to the number of
attributes in <attribute list>.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Duplicate Elimination in PROJECT

• The PROJECT operation removes any duplicate tuples, so
the result of the PROJECT operation is a set of distinct
tuples, and hence a valid relation.
• This is known as duplicate elimination.

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Example
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• The number of tuples in a relation resulting from a

PROJECT operation is always less than or equal to the
number of tuples in R.

• as long as <list2> contains the attributes in <list1>;

• otherwise, the left-hand side is an incorrect expression.
• commutativity does not hold on PROJECT.

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Sequences of Operations and the RENAME

Operation
• for most queries, we need to apply several relational algebra
operations one after the other
▫ Either we can write the operations as a single relational
algebra expression by nesting the operations, or
▫ we can apply one operation at a time and create intermediate
result relations
 we must give names to the relations that hold the intermediate
results.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Example- In-Line relational algebra expression

• retrieve the first name, last name, and salary of all
employees who work in department number 5, we must
apply a SELECT and a PROJECT operation

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Example- Intermediate Relation

 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Rename
• The results of the operations that we are performing are saved
without any name.
• If we want to give some name to the result of any operation then we
can rename the result of the operations using the rename
operation.
• It can also be used to rename an old relation. It is denoted by
symbol rho (ρ).
• Notation 1: Naming the result of an operation ρh(E)
▫ where the result of expression E is stored as h.
• Notation 2: Renaming an already existing column
ρNew_Name/Old_Name(E)

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Rename

• To rename the attributes in a relation, we simply list

the new attribute names in parentheses,
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• If no renaming is applied, the names of the attributes in the

resulting relation of a SELECT operation are the same as
those in the original relation and in the same order.
• a PROJECT operation with no renaming, the resulting
relation has the same attribute names as those in the
projection list and in the same order in which they appear in
the list.

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,

RENAME Operation General form SNGCE

• RENAME operation when applied to a relation R of degree n is

denoted by any of the following three forms

• symbol ρ (rho) is used to denote the RENAME operator,

• S is the new relation name, and
• B1, B2, ..., Bn are the new attribute names.
▫ The first expression renames both the relation and its attributes,
▫ the second renames the relation only, and
▫ the third renames the attributes only.
• If the attributes of R are (A1, A2, ..., An) in that order, then each Ai
is renamed as Bi.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,

The UNION, INTERSECTION, and SNGCE

MINUS Operations
• UNION:
▫ The result of this operation, denoted by R ∪ S, is a relation that
includes all tuples that are either in R or in S or in both R and S.
▫ Duplicate tuples are eliminated.
• INTERSECTION:
▫ The result of this operation, denoted by R ∩ S, is a relation that
includes all tuples that are in both R and S.
• SET DIFFERENCE (or MINUS):
▫ The result of this operation, denoted by R – S, is a relation that
includes all tuples that are in R but not in S.

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Example
• retrieve the Social Security numbers of all employees who
either work in department 5 or directly supervise an employee
who works in department 5, we can use the UNION operation
as follows

• UNION operation produces the tuples that are in either

RESULT1 or RESULT2 or both, while eliminating any
duplicates.

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

DEP5_EMPS
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• UNION, INTERSECTION, and SET DIFFERENCE are

binary operations;
▫ that is, each is applied to two sets

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Union compatibility or Type compatibility

• Two relations R(A1, A2, ..., An) and S(B1, B2, ..., Bn) are
said to be union compatible (or type compatible)
▫ if they have the same degree n and if dom(Ai) = dom(Bi) for 1
<=i<=n.
▫ This means that the two relations have the same number of
attributes and each corresponding pair of attributes has the
same domain.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

(a) Two union-compatible relations.

(b) STUDENT ∪ INSTRUCTOR

(c) STUDENT ∩ INSTRUCTOR

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

(d) STUDENT − INSTRUCTOR

(e) INSTRUCTOR − STUDENT

 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

The UNION, INTERSECTION, and MINUS

Properties
• UNION and INTERSECTION are commutative operations

• Both UNION and INTERSECTION can be treated as n-ary

operations applicable to any number of relations because
both are also associative operations

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• The MINUS operation is not commutative; that is, in

general,

• INTERSECTION can be expressed in terms of union and set

difference as follows
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

CARTESIAN PRODUCT (CROSS PRODUCT) OR

CROSS JOIN
• denoted by ×
• This is also a binary set operation, but the relations on which it is
applied do not have to be union compatible
• the result of R(A1, A2, ..., An) × S(B1, B2, ..., Bm) is a relation Q
with degree n + m attributes Q(A1, A2, ..., An, B1, B2, ..., Bm), in
that order.
• The resulting relation Q has one tuple for each combination of
tuples—one from R and one from S.
• Hence, if R has nR tuples (denoted as |R| = nR), and S has nS
tuples, then R × S will have nR * nS tuples.

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

n-ary CARTESIAN PRODUCT

• produces new tuples by concatenating all possible
combinations of tuples from n underlying relations

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Example
• We want to retrieve a list of names of each female
employee’s dependents
Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• The CARTESIAN PRODUCT creates tuples with

the combined attributes of two relations.
• We can SELECT related tuples only from the
two relations by specifying an appropriate
selection condition after the Cartesian product,
as we did in the preceding example.
• Because this sequence of CARTESIAN
PRODUCT followed by SELECT is quite
commonly used to combine related tuples from
two relations, a special operation, called JOIN,
was created to specify this sequence as a single
operation
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

The JOIN Operation

• The JOIN operation, denoted by , is used to combine
related tuples from two relations into single “longer” tuples.
• This operation is very important for any relational database
with more than a single relation because it allows us to
process relationships among relations.

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Example
• Retrieve the name of the manager of each department.
▫ To get the manager’s name, we need to combine each
department tuple with the employee tuple whose Ssn value
matches the Mgr_ssn value in the department tuple.
▫ We do this by using the JOIN operation and then projecting the
result over the necessary attributes, as follows
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

RESULT
Dname Lname Fname
Research Wong Franklin
Administration Wallance Jennifer
Headquaters Borg James

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• The JOIN operation can be specified as a CARTESIAN

PRODUCT operation followed by a SELECT operation.

• These two operations can be replaced with a single JOIN

operation as follows
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

General form of a JOIN

• JOIN operation on two relations5 R(A1, A2, ..., An) and
S(B1, B2, ..., Bm) is

• The result of the JOIN is a relation Q with n + m attributes

Q(A1, A2, ..., An, B1, B2, ... , Bm) in that order;
• Q has one tuple for each combination of tuples—one from R
and one from S—whenever the combination satisfies the
join condition

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Difference between JOIN and CARTESIAN

PRODUCT
• In JOIN, only combinations of tuples satisfying the join
condition appear in the result,
• whereas in the CARTESIAN PRODUCT all combinations of
tuples are included in the result.
• The join condition is specified on attributes from the two
relations R and S and is evaluated for each combination of
tuples.
• Each tuple combination for which the join condition evaluates to
TRUE is included in the resulting relation Q as a single
combined tuple.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,

THETA JOIN
SNGCE

• where each <condition> is of the form Ai θ Bj,

▫ Ai is an attribute of R,
▫ Bj is an attribute of S,
▫ Ai and Bj have the same domain, and
▫ θ (theta) is one of the comparison operators {=, <, ≤, >, ≥, ≠}.
• Tuples whose join attributes are NULL or for which the join
condition is FALSE do not appear in the result
• the JOIN operation does not necessarily preserve all of the
information in the participating relations,
▫ because tuples that do not get combined with matching ones in the
other relation do not appear in the result.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

EQUIJOIN
• a JOIN, where the only comparison operator used is =, is
called an EQUIJOIN
• in the result of an EQUIJOIN we always have one or more
pairs of attributes that have identical values in every tuple

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

NATURAL JOIN
• NATURAL JOIN requires that the two join attributes (or
each pair of join attributes) have the same name in both
relations.
• If this is not the case, a renaming operation is applied first.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Example
• combine each PROJECT tuple with the DEPARTMENT tuple
that controls the project
▫ first we rename the Dnumber attribute of DEPARTMENT to Dnum
▫ so that it has the same name as the Dnum attribute in PROJECT—
and then we apply NATURAL JOIN

• The same query can be done in two steps by creating an

intermediate table DEPT

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• In the PROJ_DEPT relation, each tuple combines a

PROJECT tuple with the DEPARTMENT tuple for the
department that controls the project, but only one join
attribute value is kept.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• If the attributes on which the natural join is specified already

have the same names in both relations, renaming is
unnecessary
• to apply a natural join on the Dnumber attributes of
DEPARTMENT and DEPT_LOCATIONS

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• the join condition for NATURAL JOIN is constructed by

equating each pair of join attributes that have the same
name in the two relations and combining these conditions
with AND.
• There can be a list of join attributes from each relation, and
each corresponding pair must have the same name.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• more general, but nonstandard definition for NATURAL

JOIN is

• <list1> specifies a list of i attributes from R, and

• <list2> specifies a list of i attributes from S.
• The lists are used to form equality comparison conditions
between pairs of corresponding attributes, and
• the conditions are then ANDed together.

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Different Types of SQL JOINs

• INNER JOIN
▫ Returns records that have matching values in both tables
1. Theta join
2. EQUI join
3. Natural join
• OUTER JOIN
▫ In an outer join, along with tuples that satisfy the matching criteria, we
also include some or all tuples that do not match the criteria.
1. Left Outer JOIN
2. Right Outer Join
3. Full Outer Join

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Left Outer Join

• In the left outer join, operation allows keeping all tuple in the left
relation.
• if there is no matching tuple is found in right relation, then the
attributes of right relation in the join result are filled with null
values.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Right Outer Join

• In the right outer join, operation allows keeping all tuple
in the right relation.
• However, if there is no matching tuple is found in the left
relation, then the attributes of the left relation in the join
result are filled with null values.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Full Outer Join

• In a full outer join, all tuples from both relations are
included in the result, irrespective of the matching
condition.
Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Square Cube

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Homework
1. Retrieve the name and address of all employees who work
for the ‘Research’ department.

2. For every project located in ‘Stafford’, list the project

number, the controlling department number, and the
department manager’s last name, address, and birth date.

3. Make a list of project numbers for projects that involve an

employee whose last name is ‘Smith’, either as a worker or
as a manager of the department that controls the project.

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• Query 1. Retrieve the name and address of all employees

who work for the ‘Research’ department.

• This query could be specified in other ways; for example, the

order of the JOIN and
• SELECT operations could be reversed, or the JOIN could be
replaced by a NATURAL JOIN after renaming one of the join
attributes to match the other join attribute name.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,

• Query 2. For every project located in ‘Stafford’, list

SNGCE

the project number, the controlling department number,

and the department manager’s last name, address, and birth
date.

• we first select the projects located in Stafford, then join them

with their controlling departments, and then join the result
with the department managers.
• Finally, we apply a project operation on the desired attributes
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• Query 3. Make a list of project numbers for projects

that involve an employee whose last name is ‘Smith’, either
as a worker or as a manager of the department that controls the
project.

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

SYLLABUS
• Structure of Relational Databases - Integrity Constraints,
Synthesizing ER diagram to relational schema
• Introduction to Relational Algebra - select, project, cartesian
product operations, join - Equi-join, natural join. query
examples,
• Introduction to Structured Query Language (SQL), Data
Definition Language (DDL), Table definitions and
operations – CREATE, DROP, ALTER, INSERT, DELETE,
UPDATE.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

SQL HISTORY
• Structured Query Language(SQL) was developed at IBM by
Donald D. Chamberlin and Raymond F. Boyce in the early
1970s.
• This was initially called SEQUEL(Structured English QUEry
Language).
• The main objective of SQL is to update, store, manipulate
and retrieve data stored in a relational database.

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

SQL
• SQL provides
▫ A data definition language (DDL)
▫ A data manipulation language (DML)
▫ A data control language (DCL)
• In addition SQL
▫ Can be used from other languages
▫ Is often extended to provide common programming
constructs (such as if-then tests, loops, variables, etc.)
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Cont..
• SQL is a declarative (non-procedural) language
▫ Procedural - say exactly what the computer has to do
▫ Non-procedural – describe the required result (not the
way to compute it)
• SQL is based on the relational model
▫ It has many of the same ideas
▫ Databases that support SQL are often described as
relational databases
▫ It is not always true to the model

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Cont..
• E/R designs can be implemented in SQL
▫ Entities, attributes, and relationships can all be expressed
in terms of SQL
▫ Many-to-many relationships are a problem, so should be
removed
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Relations, Entities, Tables

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Implementing E/R Designs

• Given an E/R design
▫ The entities become SQL tables
▫ Attributes of an entity become columns in the
corresponding table
▫ Relationships may be represented by foreign keys
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• Each entity becomes a table

in the database
▫ The name of the table is
often the name of the
entity
▫ The attributes become
columns of the table with
the same name

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Schema and Catalog Concepts in SQL

• An SQL schema is identified by a schema name, and includes an
authorization identifier to indicate the user or account who owns
the schema, as well as descriptors for each element in the schema.
• Schema elements include tables, constraints, views, domains, and
other constructs that describe the schema
• A schema is created via the CREATE SCHEMA statement, which
can include all the schema elements definitions.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• Creates a schema called COMPANY, owned by the user with

authorization identifier ‘Jsmith’.

• not all users are authorized to create schemas and schema

elements.
• The privilege to create schemas, tables, and other constructs
must be explicitly granted to the relevant user accounts by the
system administrator or DBA.
• schema is synonymous with database. As the query is written to
create the database, similarly the query can be written to create
the schema.

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

SQL environment
• SQL environment is basically an installation of an SQL-
compliant RDBMS on a computer system
• SQL uses the concept of a catalog a named collection of
schemas in an SQL environment.
• A catalog always contains a special schema called
INFORMATION_SCHEMA,
▫ which provides information on all the schemas in the catalog
and all the element descriptors in these schemas
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Cont..
• Integrity constraints such as referential integrity can be
defined between relations only if they exist in schemas
within the same catalog.
• Schemas within the same catalog can also share certain
elements, such as domain definitions.

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

DATABASE LANGUAGES
1. Data Definition Language (DDL):
▫ It is used to specify a database conceptual schema using set of definitions.
▫ It supports the definition or declaration of database objects.
▫ The more common DDL commands are
 a.CREATE TABLE:
 ALTER TABLE
 DROP TABLE
 TRUNCATE
 COMMENT
 RENAME
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

2. Data Manipulation Language (DML)

▫ It provides a set of operations to support the basic data
manipulation operations on the data held in the database.
▫ It is used to query, update or retrieve data stored in a
database.
▫ Some of the tasks that come under DML are
 SELECT
 Used to query and display data from a database.
 INSERT
 Adds new rows to a table.
 UPDATE
 Changes an existing value in a column or group of columns
in a table.
 DELETE:
 Removes a specified row or set of rows from a table.
 MERGE.

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

SQL Data Definition

• The set of relations in a database are specified using a data-
definition language (DDL)
• The SQL DDL allows specification of not only a set of relations, but
also information about each relation, including:
▫ The schema for each relation.
▫ The types of values associated with each attribute.
▫ The integrity constraints.
▫ The set of indices to be maintained for each relation.
▫ The security and authorization information for each relation.
▫ The physical storage structure of each relation on disk.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Basic Schema Definition: CREATE TABLE

Command in SQL
• CREATE TABLE command is used to specify a new relation
by giving it a name and specifying its attributes and initial
constraints.
• The attributes are specified first, and each attribute is given
a name, a data type to specify its domain of values, and any
attribute constraints, such as NOT NULL.
• The key, entity integrity, and referential integrity
constraints can be specified within the CREATE TABLE
statement

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

CREATE TABLE
• Specifies a new base relation by giving it a name, and specifying
each of its attributes and their data types (INTEGER, FLOAT,
DECIMAL(i,j), CHAR(n), VARCHAR(n))
• A constraint NOT NULL may be specified on an attribute
CREATE TABLE DEPARTMENT (
DNAME VARCHAR(10) NOT NULL,
DNUMBER INTEGER NOT NULL,
MGRSSN CHAR(9),
MGRSTARTDATE CHAR(9) );
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• The relations declared through CREATE TABLE statements

are called base tables
• this means that the relation and its tuples are actually
created and stored as a file by the DBMS
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• In SQL2, can use the CREATE TABLE command for specifying the
primary key attributes, secondary keys, and referential integrity
constraints (foreign keys).
• Key attributes can be specified via the PRIMARY KEY and UNIQUE
phrases
CREATE TABLE DEPT (
DNAME VARCHAR(10) NOT NULL,
DNUMBER INTEGER NOT NULL,
MGRSSN CHAR(9),
MGRSTARTDATE CHAR(9),
PRIMARY KEY (DNUMBER),
UNIQUE (DNAME),
FOREIGN KEY (MGRSSN) REFERENCES EMP );

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Attribute Data Types and Domains in SQL

• The basic data types available for attributes include
▫ numeric,
▫ character string,
▫ bit string,
▫ Boolean,
▫ date, and time
▫ timestamp
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Domain Types in SQL

• char(n): Fixed length character string, with user-specified length n.
• varchar(n): Variable length character strings, with user-specified
maximum length n.
• int: Integer (a finite subset of the integers that is machine-dependent).
• smallint: Small integer (a machine-dependent subset of the integer
domain type).
• numeric(p,d): Fixed point number, with user-specified precision of p
digits, with d digits to the right of decimal point. (ex., numeric(3,1),
allows 44.5 to be stores exactly, but not 444.5 or 0.32)
• real, double precision: Floating point and double-precision floating
point numbers, with machine-dependent precision.
• float(n): Floating point number, with user-specified precision of at
least n digits.

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Specifying Constraints in SQL

• Specifying Attribute Constraints and Attribute Defaults
• Specifying Key and Referential Integrity Constraints
• Giving Names to Constraints
• Specifying Constraints on Tuples Using CHECK
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Specifying Attribute Constraints and Attribute

Defaults
• a constraint NOT NULL may be specified if NULL is not
permitted for a particular attribute.
• This is always implicitly specified for the attributes that are
part of the primary key of each relation,
▫ but it can be specified for any other attributes whose values are
required not to be NULL
• It is also possible to define a default value for an attribute by
appending the clause DEFAULT <value> to an attribute
definition.

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• If no default clause is specified, the default default value is

NULL for attributes that do not have the NOT NULL
constraint.
• Another type of constraint can restrict attribute or domain
values using the CHECK clause following an attribute or
domain definition.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• suppose that department numbers are restricted to integer

numbers between 1 and 20;
• then, we can change the attribute declaration of Dnumber in the
DEPARTMENT table

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Specifiying Key and Referiential

• PRIMARY KEY
▫ specifies one or more attributes that make up the primary key
of a relation.
▫ If a primary key has a single attribute, the clause can follow the
attribute directly
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• UNIQUE
▫ specifies alternate (secondary) keys
▫ can also be specified directly for a secondary key if the
secondary key is a single attribute

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• FOREIGN KEY
▫ a referential integrity constraint can be violated when tuples
are inserted or deleted, or when a foreign key or primary key
attribute value is modified
▫ the schema designer
 can specify an alternative action to be taken by attaching a
referential triggered action clause to any foreign key constraint.
The options include:
SET NULL,
CASCADE, and
SET DEFAULT.
 An option must be qualified with either
ON DELETE or
 ON UPDATE
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• ON DELETE SET NULL and ON UPDATE CASCADE for the foreign key
Super_ssn of EMPLOYEE means
• if the tuple for a supervising employee is deleted,
• the value of Super_ssn is automatically set to NULL for all employee
tuples that were referencing the deleted employee tuple
• if the Ssn value for a supervising employee is updated the new value is
cascaded to Super_ssn for all employee tuples referencing the
updated employee tuple

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Giving Names to Constraints

• a constraint may be given a constraint name, following the
keyword CONSTRAINT
• The names of all constraints within a particular schema
must be unique.
• A constraint name is used to identify a particular constraint
▫ in case the constraint must be dropped later and replaced with
another constraint
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Specifying Constraints on Tuples Using CHECK

• CHECK clauses is specified at the end of a CREATE TABLE
statement
• These can be called tuple-based constraints because they
apply to each tuple individually and are checked whenever a
tuple is inserted or modified
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• The following SQL creates a CHECK constraint on the

"Age" column when the "Persons" table is created. The
CHECK constraint ensures that the age of a person
must be 18, or older:

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

DROP TABLE
• The SQL DROP TABLE statement is used to remove a table
definition and all the data, indexes, triggers, constraints and
permission specifications for that table.
• You should be very careful while using this command
because once a table is deleted then all the information
available in that table will also be lost forever.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

ALTER TABLE
• The SQL ALTER TABLE command is used to add, delete or modify
columns in an existing table.
• You should also use the ALTER TABLE command to add and drop
various constraints on an existing table.
• The basic syntax of an ALTER TABLE command to add a New Column
in an existing table is as follows.

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• The basic syntax of an ALTER TABLE command

to DROP COLUMN in an existing table is as
follows.

• The basic syntax of an ALTER TABLE command

to change the DATA TYPE of a column in a table
is as follows.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• The basic syntax of an ALTER TABLE command

to add a NOT NULL constraint to a column in a
table is as follows.

• The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to ADD

UNIQUE CONSTRAINT to a table is as follows

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• The basic syntax of an ALTER TABLE command

to ADD CHECK CONSTRAINT to a table is as
follows.

• The basic syntax of an ALTER TABLE command

to ADD PRIMARY KEY constraint to a table is as
follows.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• The basic syntax of an ALTER TABLE command

to DROP CONSTRAINT from a table is as
follows.

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

INSERT Command
• INSERT is used to add a single tuple to a relation.
• We must specify the relation name and a list of values for
the tuple.
• The values should be listed in the same order in which the
corresponding attributes were specified in the CREATE
TABLE command.
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• A second form of the INSERT statement allows the user to

specify explicit attribute names that correspond to the values
provided in the INSERT command.
• This is useful if a relation has many attributes but only a few
of those attributes are assigned values in the new tuple.
• However, the values must include all attributes with NOT
NULL specification and no default value.
• Attributes with NULL allowed or DEFAULT values are the
ones that can be left out.
• For example, to enter a tuple for a new EMPLOYEE for whom
we know only the Fname, Lname, Dno, and Ssn attributes
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• Attributes not specified in U1A are set to their

DEFAULT or to NULL, and the values are listed
in the same order as the attributes are listed in
the INSERT command itself.
• It is also possible to insert into a relation
multiple tuples separated by commas in a single
INSERT command.
• The attribute values forming each tuple are
enclosed in parentheses.

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• A DBMS that fully implements SQL should

support and enforce all the integrity constraints
that can be specified in the DDL
no department
no 2 is available
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• A variation of the INSERT command inserts multiple

tuples into a relation in conjunction with creating the
relation and loading it with the result of a query.
• For example,
▫ to create a temporary table that has the employee last
name, project name, and hours per week for each
employee working on a project

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

The DELETE Command

• The DELETE command removes tuples from a relation.
• It includes a WHERE clause, similar to that used in an SQL
query, to select the tuples to be deleted.
• Tuples are explicitly deleted from only one table at a time.
• However, the deletion may propagate to tuples in other
relations if referential triggered actions are specified in the
referential integrity constraints of the DDL
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• Depending on the number of tuples selected by

the condition in the WHERE clause, zero, one,
or sev_x0002_eral tuples can be deleted by a
single DELETE command.
• A missing WHERE clause specifies that all
tuples in the relation are to be deleted; however,
the table remains in the database as an empty
table.
• We must use the DROP TABLE command to
remove the table definition
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

TRUNCATE TABLE COMMAND

• The SQL TRUNCATE TABLE command is used to delete
complete data from an existing table.
• You can also use DROP TABLE command to delete
complete table but it would remove complete table structure
form the database and you would need to re-create this table
once again if you wish you store some data.

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

The UPDATE Command

• The UPDATE command is used to modify attribute values of
one or more selected tuples.
• As in the DELETE command, a WHERE clause in the
UPDATE command selects the tuples to be modified from a
single relation
 Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

• updating a primary key value may propagate to

the foreign key values of tuples in other relations
if such a referential triggered action is specified
in the referential integrity constraints of the
DDL
• An additional SET clause in the UPDATE
command specifies the attributes to be modified
and their new values.
• It is also possible to specify NULL or DEFAULT
as the new attribute value
• each UPDATE command explicitly refers to a
single relation only.
• To modify multiple relations, we must issue
several UPDATE commands.
Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

Homework
Visit my YouTube Page: https://www.youtube.com/c/sharikatr

PREPARED BY SHARIKA T R,
SNGCE

MODULE 2 ENDS