1.

AGGREGATE:
Classification, Physical and mechanical properties, soundness, alkali-aggregate reaction,
thermal properties of aggregate
Aggregates are the important constituents of the concrete which give body to the concrete and
also reduce shrinkage. Aggregates occupy 70 to 80 % of total volume of concrete. So, we can
say that one should know definitely about the aggregates in depth to study more about concrete.

Classification of Aggregates as per Shape and Size:

Aggregates are classified based on so many considerations, but here we are going to discuss
about their shape and size classifications in detail.

i) Classification of Aggregates Based on Shape:

We know that aggregate is derived from naturally occurring rocks by blasting or crushing etc.,
so, it is difficult to attain required shape of aggregate. But, the shape of aggregate will affect
the workability of concrete. So, we should take care about the shape of aggregate. This care is
not only applicable to parent rock but also to the crushing machine used.

Aggregates are classified according to shape into the following types

 Rounded aggregates
 Irregular or partly rounded aggregates
 Angular aggregates
 Flaky aggregates
 Elongated aggregates
 Flaky and elongated aggregates
Rounded Aggregate:
The rounded aggregates are completely shaped by attrition (the resistance of a granular
material to wear) and available in the form of seashore gravel. Rounded aggregates result in
the minimum percentage of voids (32 – 33%) hence gives more workability. They require a
lesser amount of water-cement ratio. They are not considered for high-strength concrete
because of poor interlocking behavior and weak bond strength.

Irregular Aggregates:
The irregular or partly rounded aggregates are partly shaped by attrition and these are available
in the form of pit sands and gravel. Irregular aggregates may result 35- 37% of voids. These
will give lesser workability when compared to rounded aggregates. The bond strength is
slightly higher than rounded aggregates but not as required for high strength concrete.
Angular Aggregates:
The angular aggregates consist well defined edges formed at the intersection of roughly planar
surfaces and these are obtained by crushing the rocks. Angular aggregates result maximum
percentage of voids (38-45%) hence gives less workability. They give 10-20% more
compressive strength due to development of stronger aggregate-mortar bond. So, these are
useful in high strength concrete manufacturing.

Flaky Aggregates:
When the aggregate thickness is small when compared with width and length of that
aggregate it is said to be flaky aggregate, or on the other, when the least dimension of
aggregate is less than the 60% of its mean dimension then it is said to be flaky aggregate.

Elongated Aggregates:
When the length of aggregate is larger than the other two dimensions then it is called
elongated aggregate or the length of aggregate is greater than 180% of its mean dimension.
Flaky and Elongated Aggregates:
When the aggregate length is larger than its width and width is larger than its thickness then it
is said to be flaky and elongated aggregates. The above 3 types of aggregates are not suitable
for concrete mixing. These are generally obtained from the poorly crushed rocks.

ii) Classification of Aggregates Based on Size:

Aggregates are available in nature in different sizes. The size of aggregate used may be related
to the mix proportions, type of work etc. The size distribution of aggregates is called grading
of aggregates. Following are the classification of aggregates based on size:
Aggregates are classified into 2 types according to size

 Fine aggregate
 Coarse aggregate
Fine Aggregate:
When the aggregate is sieved through a 4.75mm sieve, the aggregate passed through it called
fine aggregate. Natural sand is generally used as fine aggregate, silt and clay also come under
this category. The soft deposit consisting of sand, silt, and clay is termed as loam. The purpose
of the fine aggregate is to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate and to act as a workability
agent.

Fine aggregate Size variation (mm)

Coarse Sand 2.0mm – 0.5mm

Medium sand 0.5mm – 0.25mm

Fine sand 0.25mm – 0.06mm

Silt 0.06mm – 0.002mm

Clay <0.002
Coarse Aggregate:
When the aggregate is sieved through 4.75mm sieve, the aggregate retained is called coarse
aggregate. Gravel, cobble and boulders come under this category. The maximum size
aggregate used may be dependent upon some conditions. In general, 40mm size aggregate
used for normal strengths, and 20mm size is used for high strength concrete. The size range
of various coarse aggregates given below.

Coarse aggregate Size variation (mm)

Fine gravel 4mm – 8mm

Medium gravel 8mm – 16mm

Coarse gravel 16mm – 64mm

Cobbles 64mm – 256mm

Boulders >256mm

1.1 Physical Prosperities of Aggregate:

1.1.1 Grading:
 Grading is the particle-size distribution of an aggregate as determined by a sieve
analysis using wire mesh sieves with square openings.

As per IS:2386(Part-1):
 Fine aggregate: 6 standard sieves with openings from 150 μm to 4.75 mm. (150 μm,
300 μm, 600 μm, 1.18mm, 2.36mm, 4.75mm)
  Coarse aggregate: 5 sieves with openings from 4.75mm to 80mm. (4.75mm, 10mm,
12.5mm, 20mm, 40mm)
 Grain size distribution for concrete mixes that will provide a dense strong mixture.
 Ensure that the voids between the larger particles are filled with medium particles.
The remaining voids are filled with still smaller particles until the smallest voids are
filled with a small amount of fines.

Grading Limit for Single Sized Coarse Aggregates:

(Based on Clause 4.1 and 4.2 of IS: 383- 1970)

IS Sieve Percentage passing for single sized aggregates of nominal size (mm)

63 mm 40 mm 20 mm 16 mm 12.5 mm 10 mm

80 mm 100 - - - - -

63 mm 85 – 100 100 - - - -

40 mm 0 - 30 85 - 100 100 - - -

20 mm 0-5 0 - 20 85 - 100 100 - -

16 mm - - - 85 - 100 100 -

12.5
- - - - 85 - 100 100
mm

10 mm 0-5 0-5 0 - 20 0 - 30 0 - 45 85 - 100

4.75
- - 0-5 0-5 0 - 10 0 - 20
mm

2.36
- - - - - 0-5
mm
Grading Limits for Fine Aggregates:

(Based on Clause 4.3 of IS: 383 - 1970)

Percentage Passing
IS Sieve
Designation Grading Zone Grading Zone Grading Zone Grading Zone
I II III IV

10 mm 100 100 100 100

4.75 mm 90 – 100 90 – 100 90 – 100 95 – 100

2.36 mm 60 – 95 75 – 100 85 – 100 95 – 100

1.18 mm 30 – 70 55 – 90 75 – 100 90 – 100

600 microns 15 – 34 35 – 59 60 – 79 80 – 100

300 microns 5 – 20 8 – 30 12 – 40 15 – 50

150 microns 0 – 10 0 – 10 0 – 10 0 – 15

1.1.2 Fineness Modulus:

 The results of aggregate sieve analysis is expressed by a number called Fineness
Modulus. Obtained by adding the sum of the cumulative percentages by mass of a
sample aggregate retained on each of a specified series of sieves and dividing the
sum by 100.
 The following limits may be taken as guidance:
 Fine sand: Fineness Modulus: 2.2 - 2.6
 Medium sand: F.M.: 2.6 - 2.9
 Coarse sand: F.M.: 2.9 - 3.2
 A sand having a fineness modulus more than 3.2 will be unsuitable for making
satisfactory concrete.

1.1.3 Flakiness Index:

 The flakiness index of aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles in it whose
least dimension (thickness) is less than three-fifths of their mean dimension.
 The test is not applicable to sizes smaller than 6.3 mm.
 The flakiness index is taken as the total weight of the material passing the various
thickness gauges expressed as a percentage of the total weight of the sample taken.
 The below table shows the standard dimensions of thickness and length gauges.
  The flakiness index of aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles in it whose
least dimension (thickness) is less than three-fifths of their mean dimension.

1.1.4 Elongation Index:

The elongation index on an aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles whose
greatest dimension (length) is greater than 1.8 times their mean dimension.
 The elongation index is not applicable to sizes smaller than 6.3 mm.
 The elongation index is the total weight of the material retained on the various length
gauges expressed as a percentage of the total weight of the sample gauged. The presence
of elongated particles in excess of 10 to 15 per cent is generally considered undesirable,
but no recognized limits are laid down.

1.2 Mechanical Properties of Aggregate

 Property # 1. Toughness:
 Property # 2. Hardness:
 Property # 3. Specific Gravity:
 Property # 4. Porosity and Absorption of Water by Aggregate:
 Property # 5. Bulking of Sand:

1.2.1 Toughness: It is defined as the resistance of aggregate to failure by impact. The impact
value of bulk aggregate can be determined as per I.S. 2386, 1963.
Procedure: The aggregate shall be taken as in the case of crushing strength value test i.e., the
aggregate should pass through 12.5 mm I.S. sieve and retained on 10 mm I.S. sieve. It should
be oven dried at 100°C to 110°C for four hours and then air cooled before test.

Now the prepared aggregate is filled upto 1/3rd height of the cylindrical cup of the equipment.
The diameter and depth of the cup are 102 mm and 50 mm respectively. After filling the cup
upto 1/3rd of its height, the aggregate is tamped with 25 strokes of the rounded end of the
tamping rod.

After this operation the cup shall be further filled upto 2/3rd of its height and a further tamping
of 25 strokes given. The cup finally shall be filled to over flowing and tamped with 25 strokes
and surplus aggregate removed and the weight of aggregate noted. The value of weight will be
useful to repeat the experiment.

Now the hammer of the equipment weighting 14.0 kg or 13.5 kg is raised till its lower face is
380 mm above the upper surface of the aggregate and., allowed to fall freely on the aggregate
and the process is repeated for 15 times.
The crushed aggregate is now removed from the cup and sieved through 2.36 mm I.S. sieve.
The fraction passing through the sieve is weighed accurately.

Let the weight of oven dry sample in the cup = W kg.

Weight of aggregate passing 2.36 mm sieve = W1 kg.

Then impact value = [(W1/W) x 100]

1.2.2 Hardness:
It is defined as the resistance to wear by abrasion, and the aggregate abrasion value is
defined as the percentage loss in weight on abrasion.

Deval Attrition Test:

This test has been covered by IS 2386 Part (IV)-1963. In this test particles of known weight
are subjected to wear in an iron cylinder rotated 10,000 (ten thousand) times at the rate of 30
to 33 revolutions per minute. After the specified revolution of the cylinder the material is taken
out and sieved on 1.7 mm sieve and the percentage of material finer than 1.7mm is determined.
This percentage is taken as the attrition value of the aggregate. The attrition value of about 7
to 8 usually is considered as permissible.

Dorry Abrasion Test:

This test has not been covered by Indian standard specifications. In this test a cylindrical
specimen having its diameter and height of 25 cm is subjected to abrasion against a rotating
metal disk sprinkled with quartz sand. The loss in weight of the cylinder after 1000 (one
thousand) revolutions is determined.

Then the hardness of rock sample is expressed by an empirical relation as follows:

Hardness or sample = 20 – Loss in weight in grams/3
For good rock this value should not be less the 17. The rock having this value of 14 is
considered poor.

Los-Angeles Test:
This test has been covered by IS 2386 (Part-IV) 1963. In this test, aggregate of the specified
grading is placed in a cylindrical drum of inside length and diameter of 500 mm and 700 mm
respectively. This cylinder is mounted horizontally on stub shafts. For abrasive charge, steel
balls or cast-iron balls of approximately 48 mm diameter and each weighting 390 grams to
445 gram are used. The numbers of balls used vary from 6 to 12 depending upon the grading
of the aggregate. For 10 mm size aggregate 6 balls are used and for aggregates bigger than
20 mm size usually 12 balls are used.
PROCEDURE: For the conduct of test, the sample and the abrasive charge are placed in the
Los-Angeles testing machine and it is rotated at a speed of 20 to 33 revolutions per minute. For
aggregates up to 40 mm size the machine is rotated for 500 revolutions and for bigger size
aggregate 1000 revolutions. The charge is taken out from the machine and sieved on 1.7 mm
sieve.
Let the weight of oven dry sample put in the drum = W Kg.

Weight of aggregate passing through 1.7 sieve = W1 Kg.

Then abrasion value = [(W1/W) x 100]
The abrasion value should not be more than 30% for wearing surfaces and not more than
50% for concrete used for other than wearing surface. The results of Los Angeles test show
good correlation not only the actual wear of aggregate when used in concrete, but also with the
compression and flexural strength of concrete made with the given aggregate.

1.2.3 Specific Gravity and Water Absorption:

The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of the weight of unit volume of the substance
to the unit volume of water at the stated temperature. In concrete making, aggregates generally
contain pores both permeable and impermeable hence the term specific gravity has to be
defined carefully. Actually, there are several types of specific gravity. In concrete technology
specific gravity is used for the calculation of quantities of ingredients. Usually, the specific
gravity of most aggregates varies between 2.6 and 2.8.

Specific gravity of certain materials as per concrete hand book CA-1 Bombay may be assumed
as shown in Table 4.9.

Absolute Specific Gravity:

It can be defined as the ratio of the weight of the solid, referred to vacuum, to the weight of
an equal volume of gas free distilled water both taken at the standard or a stated temperature,
usually it is not required in concrete technology. Actually, the absolute specific gravity and
particle density refer to the volume of solid material excluding all pores, while apparent
specific gravity and apparent particle density refer to the volume of solid material including
impermeable pores, but not the capillary pores. In concrete technology apparent specific
gravity is required.
Apparent Specific Gravity:
It can be defined as the ratio of the weight of the aggregate dried in an oven at 100°C to
110°C for 24 hours to the weight of water occupying a volume equal to that of the solid
including the impermeable pores. This can be determined by using pycno-meter for solids
less than 10 mm in size i.e., sand.

Bulk Specific Gravity:

It can be defined as the ratio of the weight in air of a given volume of material (including
both permeable and impermeable voids) at the standard temperature to the weight in air of an
equal volume of distilled water at the same standard temperature (20°C). The specific gravity
of a material multiplied by the unit weight of water gives the weight of 1 cubic metre of that
substance. Sometimes this weight is known as solid unit weight. The weight of a given quantity
of particles divided by the solid unit weight gives the solid volume of the particles.

Solid vol. in m3 = 3 wt. of substance in kg/specific gravity x 1000

Bulk Density:
The weight of aggregate that would fill a container of unit volume is known as bulk density of
aggregate.

Voids:
With respect to a mass of aggregate, the term voids refers to the space between the aggregate
particles. Numerically this voids space is the difference between the gross volume of aggregate
mass and the space occupied by the particles alone. The knowledge of voids of coarse and fine
aggregate is useful in the mix design of concrete.

Percentage voids = [(Gs – g)/Gs] x 100

where Gs = specific gravity of aggregate and g is bulk density in kg/litre.
Unit Weight:
The weight of a unit volume of aggregate is called as unit weight. For a given specific gravity,
greater the unit weight, the smaller the percentage of voids and better the gradation of the
particles, which affects the strength of concrete to a great extent.

Method of Determination of Specific Gravity of Aggregate:

Specific gravity test of aggregates is done to measure the strength or quality of the material
while water absorption test determines the water holding capacity of the coarse and fine
aggregates. The main objective of these test is to,

1. To measure the strength or quality of the material.

2. To determine the water absorption of aggregates
Specific Gravity is the ratio of the weight of a given volume of aggregate to the weight of an
equal volume of water. It is the measure of strength or quality of the specific material.
Aggregates having low specific gravity are generally weaker than those with higher specific
gravity values.

Observations of Test
Weight of saturated aggregate suspended in water with basket = W1g Weight of basket
suspended in water = W2 g Weight of saturated surface dry aggregate in air = W3g Weight of
oven dry aggregate = W4 g Weight of saturated aggregate in water = W1 – W2 g Weight of
water equal to the volume of the aggregate = W3–(W1–W2)g

Formulas:
(1) Specific gravity = W3 / (W3– (W1– W2))
(2) Apparent specific gravity = W4/ (W4– (W11– W2))
(3) Water Absorption = ((W3 – W4) / W4) X 100
The size of the aggregate and whether it has been artificially heated should be indicated.
Though high specific gravity is considered as an indication of high strength, it is not possible
to judge the suitability of a sample aggregate without finding the mechanical properties such
as aggregate crushing, impact and abrasion values.
1.2.4 Porosity and Absorption of Water by Aggregate:

All aggregates, particles have pores with in their body. The characteristics of these pores are
very important in the study of the properties of aggregate. The porosity, permeability, and
absorption of aggregates influence the resistance of concrete to freezing and thawing, bond
strength between aggregate and cement paste, resistance to abrasion of concrete etc.

The size of pores in the aggregate varies over a wide range, some being very large, which could
be seen even with naked eye. The smallest pore of aggregate is generally larger than the gel
pores in the cement paste, pores smaller than 4 microns are of special interest as they are
believed to affect the durability of aggregates subjected to alternate freezing and thawing.
Some of the pores are wholly within the body of the aggregate particles and some of them are
open upto the surface of the particle.

The cement paste due to its viscosity cannot penetrate to a great depth into the pores except the
largest of the aggregate pores. Therefore, for the purpose of calculating the aggregate content
in concrete, the gross volume of the aggregate particles is considered solid. However, water
can enter these pores, the amount and rate of penetration depends upon the size, continuity and
total volume of pores.

When all the pores in the aggregate are full with water, then the aggregate is said to be saturated
and surface dry. If this aggregate is allowed to stand in the laboratory, some of the moisture
will evaporate and the aggregate will be known as air dry aggregate. If aggregate is dried in
oven and no moisture is left in it, then it is known as bone dry aggregate. Thus the ratio of the
increase in weight to the dry weight of the sample, expressed as a percentage is known as
absorption.

The knowledge of absorption of aggregate is important in adjusting water-cement ratio of the

concrete. If water available in the aggregate is such that it contributes some water to the dilution
of cement paste, in that case the water-cement ratio will be more than the required and the
strength will go down.

On the other hand, if the aggregate is so dry that it will absorb some of the mixing water, in
that case the mix will have lower water-cement ratio and the mix may become unworkable.
Hence, while deciding the water-cement ratio, it is assumed that the aggregate is in saturated
but surface dry condition, i.e. neither it will add water to cement paste, nor it will absorb water
from the mix.

Surface Water:
While using aggregate in the concrete, water on the surface of the aggregate should be taken
into account, as it will contribute to the water in the mix and will affect the water-cement
ratio of the mix, causing lower strength of the concrete. It is difficult to measure surface
water of the aggregate.

1.2.5 Bulking of Sand:

The moisture present in fine aggregate causes increase in its volume, known as bulking of
sand. The moisture in the fine aggregate develops a film of moisture around the particles of
sand and due to surface tension pushes apart the sand particles, occupying greater volume.
The bulking of the sand affects the mix proportion, if mix is designed by volume batching.
Bulking results in smaller weight of sand occupying the fixed volume of the measuring box,
and the mix becomes deficient in sand and the resulting concrete becomes honeycombed and
its yield is also reduced.

The extent of bulking depends upon the percentage of moisture present in sand and its fineness.
The increase in volume relative to that occupied by a saturated and surface dry sand increases
with an increase in the moisture content of the sand upto a value of 5 to 8%, causing bulking
ranging from 20 to 40%.

As the moisture content increases, the film of water formed around the sand particles merge
and the water moves into the voids between the particles so that the total volume of sand
decreases, till the sand is fully saturated. The volume of fully saturated sand is same as that
of the dry sand for the same method of filling the container.
Soundness:
It is the percentage loss of material from an aggregate blend during the sodium or
magnesium sulfate soundness test. This test, which is specified in ASTM C88 and AASHTO
T104, estimates the resistance of aggregate to in-service weathering. It can be performed on
both coarse and fine aggregate.
Alkali-silica reaction (ASR):
In most concrete, aggregates are more or less chemically inert. However, some aggregates
react with the alkali hydroxides in concrete, causing expansion and cracking over a period of
many years. This alkali-aggregate reaction has two forms: alkali-silica reaction (ASR) and
alkali-carbonate reaction (ACR). Alkali-silica reaction (ASR) is the chemical reaction that
occurs between alkali cations and hydroxyl ions in the pore solution of hydrated cement
paste and certain reactive silica phases present in the aggregates used in concrete.

Alkali–silica reaction (ASR), more commonly known as "concrete cancer", is a deleterious

swelling reaction that occurs over time in concrete between the highly alkaline cement paste
and the reactive amorphous (i.e., non-crystalline) silica found in many common aggregates.

Alkali-silica reaction (ASR) is of more concern because aggregates containing reactive silica
materials are more common. In ASR, aggregates containing certain forms of silica will react
with alkali hydroxide in concrete to form a gel. These gels can induce enough expansive
pressure to damage concrete.

Typical indicators of ASR are random map cracking and, in advanced cases, closed joints and
attendant spalled concrete. Cracking usually appears in areas with a frequent supply of
moisture, such as close to the waterline in piers, near the ground behind retaining walls, near
joints and free edges in pavements, or in piers or columns subject to wicking action.
Petrographic examination can conclusively identify ASR.

Alkali-silica reaction can be controlled using certain supplementary cementitious materials. In-
proper proportions, silica fume, fly ash, and ground granulated blast-furnace slag have
significantly reduced or eliminated expansion due to alkali-silica reactivity. In addition, lithium
compounds have been used to reduce ASR. Although potentially reactive aggregates exist
throughout North America, alkali-silica reaction distress in concrete is not that common
because of the measures taken to control it. It is also important to note that not all ASR gel
reactions produce destructive swelling.

Alkali-carbonate reaction (ACR) is observed with certain dolomitic rocks. Dedolomitization,

the breaking down of dolomite, is normally associated with expansion. This reaction and
subsequent crystallization of brucite may cause considerable expansion. The deterioration
caused by alkali-carbonate reactions is similar to that caused by ASR; however, ACR is
relatively rare because aggregates susceptible to this phenomenon are less common and are
usually unsuitable for use in concrete for other reasons. Aggregates susceptible to ACR tend to
have a characteristic texture that can be identified by petrographers. Unlike alkali carbonate
reaction, the use of supplementary cementing materials does not prevent deleterious expansion
due to ACR. It is recommended that ACR susceptible aggregates not be used in concrete.
Prevention of Alkali-Silica Reaction in New Concrete

Follow the steps in the flowchart below to determine if potential for ASR exists and to select
materials to control it. For more information move your mouse over the individual flowchart
boxes.

1.3 Thermal Properties of Aggregates

The properties of concrete that are needed for fire-resistance analysis are thermal, mechanical,
deformation, and special properties, such as fire-induced spalling. Thermal properties include:

 Thermal conductivity,
 Specific heat,
 Thermal diffusivity,
 Thermal expansion, and

1.3.1 Thermal conductivity:

The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of its ability to conduct heat. Heat
transfer occurs at a lower rate in materials of low thermal conductivity than in materials of
high thermal conductivity. For instance, metals typically have high thermal conductivity and
are very efficient at conducting heat, while the opposite is true for insulating
materials like Styrofoam. Correspondingly, materials of high thermal conductivity are widely
used in heat sink applications, and materials of low thermal conductivity are used as thermal
insulation.

1.3.2 Specific heat:

Specific heat, the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a
substance by one Celsius degree. The units of specific heat are usually calories or joules per
gram per Celsius degree. For example, the specific heat of water is 1 calorie (or 4,186 joules)
per gram per Celsius degree. It is the heat capacity of a sample of the substance divided by
the mass of the sample. The heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water
by 1 Kelvin is 4184 joules, so the specific heat capacity of water is 4184 J⋅kg−1⋅K−1.

1.3.3 Thermal diffusivity:

The concept of Thermal diffusivity is frequently confused with that of thermal conductivity.
They are closely related concepts; however, thermal conductivity appears to be more prevalent
in the scientific community. Even as the less popular of the two heat transfer measurements,
thermal diffusivity still plays an important role in influencing the movement and behavior of
heat.
Thermal diffusivity is a measure of the rate at which heat disperses throughout an object or
body. Thermal conductivity is a measure of how easily one atom or molecule of a material
accepts or gives away heat. The main idea behind thermal diffusivity is the rate at which heat
diffuses throughout a material.

1.3.4 Thermal expansion:

Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change its shape, area, volume,
and density in response to a change in temperature, usually not including phase transitions.
When a substance is heated, molecules begin to vibrate and move more, usually creating more
distance between themselves. Substances which contract with increasing temperature are
unusual, and only occur within limited temperature ranges (see examples below). The relative
expansion (also called strain) divided by the change in temperature is called the
material's coefficient of linear thermal expansion and generally varies with temperature. As
energy in particles increases, they start moving faster and faster weakening the intermolecular
forces between them, therefore expanding the substance.

Following are three thermal properties of aggregate relevant to the performance of concrete:

 Coefficient of thermal expansion

 Specific heat
 conductivity

 Specific heat and conductivity of aggregate are of interest in mass concrete to which
insulation is applied, but usually not in ordinary structural work
 The difference between coefficients of thermal expansion of aggregate and cement
paste is important for the durability of concrete
 If the difference between coefficients of thermal expansion of aggregate and cement
paste is smaller, durability of concrete is not adversely affected within a temperature
range of 4 to 60 °C
 If the difference between coefficients of thermal expansion of aggregate and cement
paste is more than 5.5 x 10-6/oC , durability of concrete subjected to freezing and
thawing may be adversely affected
 The coefficient of thermal expansion for: hydrated cement paste lies between 11 and
16 x 10-6/oC and rocks commonly used for aggregate lies between 5 and 13 x 10-
6 o
/C

2 BRICKS AND MASONRY BLOCKS:

Types, properties and field and laboratory tests to evaluate quality
BRICK:
A brick is a type of block used to build walls, pavements and other elements in masonry
construction. Properly, the term brick denotes a block composed of dried clay, but is now also
used informally to denote other chemically cured construction blocks. Bricks can be joined
using mortar, adhesives or by interlocking them. In India, standard brick size is 190 mm x 90
mm x 90 mm as per the recommendation of BIS. With mortar thickness, the dimension of the
brick becomes 200 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm which is also known as the nominal size of the
modular brick.
Block is a similar term referring to a rectangular building unit composed of similar materials,
but is usually larger than a brick. Lightweight bricks (also called lightweight blocks) are
made from expanded clay aggregate. In India, most commonly used, rectangular, standard size
of solid concrete block is 4″(100 mm), 6″(150 mm) and 8″ (200 mm) thick CMU.
2.1 Types of Bricks:
a) Classification of Bricks Based on Quality:

1. First Class Brick: The size is standard. The color of these bricks is uniform yellow or red.
It is well burnt, regular texture, uniform shape. The absorption capacity is less
than 10%, crushing strength is, 280 kg/cm2 (mean) where it is 245 kg/cm2 (minimum).
It doesn’t have efflorescence. It emits a metallic sound when struck by another similar
brick or struck by a hammer. It is hard enough to resist any fingernail expression on the
brick surface if one tries to do with a thumbnail. It is free from pebbles, gravels or
organic matters. It is generally used-

 in a building of long durability, say 100 years

 for building exposes to a corrosive environment;
 for making coarse aggregates of concrete.
2. Second Class Brick: The size is standard, color is uniform yellow or red. It is well burnt,
slightly over burnt is acceptable. It has a regular shape; efflorescence is not appreciable.
The absorption capacity is more than 10% but less than 15%. Crushing strength is
175kg/cm2(mean) where the minimum is 154 kg/cm2. It emits a metallic sound when
struck by another similar brick or struck by a hammer. It is hard enough to resist any
fingernail expression on the brick surface if one tries to do with a thumbnail. It is used
for the construction of one-storied buildings, temporary shed when intended durability
is not more than 15 years.
3. Third Class Brick: The shape and size are not regular. The color is soft and light red
colored. It is under burnt, slightly over burnt is acceptable. It has extensive
efflorescence. The texture is non-uniform. The absorption capacity is more than 15%
but less than 20%. The crushing strength is 140kg/cm2(mean) where the minimum
crushing strength is 105kg/cm2. It emits a dull or blunt sound when struck by another
similar brick or struck by a hammer. It leaves fingernail expression when one tries to
do with the thumbnail.

First Class 1. Cement of lime mortar is used,

2. The surface and edges of bricks are sharp,
3. And the thickness of mortar joints doesn’t exceed 10mm
Second Class 1. Ground moulded bricks are used,
2. Bricks are rough and shape is slightly irregular,
3. The thickness of mortar joint is 12 mm
Third Class 1. Bricks are not hard, rough surface with distorted shape,
2. Used for temporary structures,
3. Used in places where rainfall is not heavy
 b) Classification of Bricks Based on Building Process:

1. Unburnt Bricks: These are half burnt bricks. The color is yellow. The strength is low. They
are used as surki in lime terracing. They are used as soiling under RCC footing or
basement. Such bricks should not be exposed to rainwater.
2. Burnt Bricks: Burnt bricks are made by burning them in the kiln. First class, Second-Class,
Third-Class bricks are burnt bricks.
3. Over Burnt or Jhama Brick: It is often known as the vitrified brick as it is fired at high
temperature and for a longer period of time than conventional bricks. As a result, the
shape is distorted. The absorption capacity is high. The strength is higher or equivalent
to first class bricks. It is used as lime concrete for the foundation. It is also used as
coarse aggregate in the concrete of slab and beam which will not come in contact with
water.

c) Classification of Bricks Based on Manufacturing Method:

1. Extruded Brick: It is created by forcing clay and water into a steel die, with a very regular
shape and size, then cutting the resulting column into shorter units with wires before
firing. It is used in constructions with limited budgets. It has three or four holes
constituting up to 25% volume of the brick.
2. Molded Brick: It is shaped in molds by hand rather being in the machine. Molded bricks
between 50-65mm are available instantly. Other size and shapes are available in 6-8
weeks after the order.
3. Dry pressed Brick: It is the traditional types of bricks which are made by compressing clay
into molds. It has a deep frog in one bedding surface and shallow frog in another.

d) Classification of Bricks Based on Raw Materials:

1. Burnt Clay Brick: It is obtained by pressing the clay in molds and fried and dried in kilns.
It is the most used bricks. It requires plastering when used in construction works.
2. Fly ash clay Brick: It is manufactured when fly ash and clay are molded in 1000 degree
Celsius. It contains a high volume of calcium oxide in fly ash. That is why usually
described as self-cementing. It usually expands when coming into contact with
moisture. It is less porous than clay bricks. It proved a smooth surface so it doesn’t need
plastering.
3. Concrete Brick: It is made of concrete. It is the least used bricks. It has low compression
strength and is of low quality. These bricks are used above and below the damp proof
course. These bricks are used can be used for facades, fences and internal brickworks
because of their sound reductions and heat resistance qualities. It is also
called mortar brick. It can be of different colors if the pigment is added during
manufacturing. It should not be used below ground.
4. Sand-lime Brick: Sand, fly ash and lime are mixed and molded under pressure. During wet
mixing, a chemical reaction takes place to bond the mixtures. Then they are placed in
the molds. The color is greyish as it offers something of an aesthetic view. It offers a
smoother finish and uniform appearance than the clay bricks. As a result, it also doesn’t
require plastering. It is used as a load bearing members as it is immensely strong.
5. Firebrick: It is also known as refractory bricks. It is manufactured from a specially designed
earth. After burning, it can withstand very high temperature without affecting its shape,
 size, and strength. It is used for the lining of chimney and furnaces where the usual
temperature is expected to be very high.

e) Classification of Bricks Based on Using Location:

1. Facing Brick: The façade material of any building is known as facing brick. Facings bricks
are standard in size, are stronger than other bricks and also have better durability. The
color is red or brown shades to provide a more aesthetic look to the building. There are
many types of facing bricks which use different techniques and technology. Facing
bricks should be weather resistant as they are most generally used on the
exterior wall of buildings.
2. Backing Brick: These types of brick don’t have any special features. They are just used
behind the facing bricks to provide support.

f) Classification of Bricks Based on Weather-resisting Capability:

1. Severe Weather Grade: These types of bricks are used in the countries which are covered
in snow most of the time of year. These bricks are resistant to any kind of freeze-thaw
actions.
2. Moderate Weather Grade: These types of bricks are used in tropical countries. They can
withstand any high temperature.
3. No Weather Grade: These bricks do not have any weather resisting capabilities and used
on the inside walls.

g) Classification of Bricks Based on Their Using:

1. Common Bricks: These bricks are the most common bricks used. They don’t have any
special features or requirements. They have low resistance, low quality, low
compressive strength. They are usually used on the interior walls.
2. Engineering Bricks: These bricks are known for many reasons. They have high
compressive strength and low absorption capacity. They are very strong and dense.
They have good load bearing capacity, damp proof, and chemical resistance properties.
They have a uniform red color. They are classified as Class A, class B, class C. Class
A is the strongest but Class B is most used. They are used for mainly civil engineering
works like sewers, manholes, ground works, retaining walls, damp proof courses, etc.

h) Classification of Bricks Based on Shape:

1. Bullnose Brick: These bricks are molded into round angles. They are used for rounded
quoin.
2. Airbricks: These bricks contain holes to circulate air. They are used on suspended floors
and cavity walls.
3. Channel Bricks: They are molded into the shape of a gutter or channel. They are used in
drains.
4. Coping Bricks: They can be half round, chamfered, Saddleback, angled varied according
to the thickness of the wall.
5. Cow Nose Bricks: Bricks having double bullnose known as Cow Nose Bricks.
6. Capping Bricks: These bricks are used to cap the tops of parapets or freestanding walls.
7. Brick Veneers: These bricks are thin and used for cladding.
8. Curved Sector Bricks: These are curved in shape. They are used in arcs, pavements, etc.
9. Hollow Bricks: These bricks are around one-third of the weight of the normal bricks. They
are also called cellular or cavity bricks. Their thickness is from 20-25mm. These bricks
pave the way to quicker construction as they can be laid quickly compared to the normal
bricks. They are used in partitioning.
10. Paving Bricks: These bricks contain a good amount of iron. Iron vitrifies bricks at low
temperature. They are used in garden park floors, pavements. These bricks withstand
the abrasive action of traffic thus making the floor less slippery.
11. Perforated Bricks: These bricks contain cylindrical holes. They are very light in weight.
Their preparation method is also easy. They consume less clay than the other bricks.
They can be of different shapes like round, square, rectangular. They are used in the
construction of the panels for lightweight, structures, and multistoried frame structures.
12. Purpose Made Bricks: For specific purposes, these bricks are made. Splay and can’t
bricks are made for doors and window jambs. Engineering bricks are made for civil
engineering constructions such as sewers, manholes, retaining walls. Fire bricks are
made for chimneys and fireworks. Ornamental bricks are made to use for cornices,
corbels. Arch bricks are used in arcs.

i) Classification of Bricks Based on Region:

1. Cream City Bricks: These bricks are from Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

2. London Stock: These bricks are used in London.
3. Dutch: These are from the Netherlands.
4. Nanak Shahi Bricks: These are from India.
5. Roman: These are used in Roman constructions,
6. Staffordshire Blue Brick: These are from England.

MASONRY BLOCKS:
Masonry block is an important component in construction and building materials in many parts
of the world. Concrete block is made from Portland Cement, aggregates and water. It is also
known as a concrete masonry unit (CMU). As a building material, concrete offers several
attractive characteristics to designers and builders. Standard size of
Brick—A solid or hollow manufactured masonry unit of either concrete, clay or stone.
Concrete brick—A concrete hollow or solid unit smaller in size than a concrete block
Concrete block—A hollow or solid concrete masonry unit. Larger in size than a concrete brick.

Block walls have higher density as compared to brick constructions and hence they offer more
soundproofing. Their efficient acoustic insulation is a big help if your home is constantly
surrounded by noise that could keep you from getting a sound sleep.

Types of Concrete Blocks or Concrete Masonry Units (CMU) Used in Construction:

 Types of Hollow Concrete Blocks:
 Concrete Stretcher Blocks.
 Concrete Corner Blocks.
 Concrete Pillar Blocks.
 Jamb Concrete Blocks.
  Partition Concrete Block.
 Lintel Blocks.
 Frogged Brick Blocks.

2.2 Field Tests on Brick:

A field test on bricks gives the idea about its basic quality based on its shape, size and colour
at first observation without any big appliances. They are the very common and easiest way to
check the quality of brick. Field tests of brick are very helpful on the site. Some very common
tests of brick that is followed to find if brick is good at first observation are as follows:
 Shape and Size of Clay Bricks:
The clay bricks should have a uniform rectangular plan surface, as per standard size and sharp
straight edges. BSI recommends the standard size of brick is 190 mm x 90 mm x 90 mm and
constructional size is 200 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm.

 Visual inspection:

In this test bricks are closely inspected for its shape. The bricks of good quality should be
uniform in shape and should have truly rectangular shape with sharp edges.

 Hardness of Clay Bricks:

The clay bricks should be sufficiently hard when scratched by a finger-nail no impression
should be left on the brick surface.
 Colour of Clay Bricks:

The clay bricks should have a uniform deep red colour throughout. It indicates the uniformity
of chemical composition and the quality of burning of the bricks.

 Texture and compactness of Clay Bricks:

The surfaces should not be so smooth to cause skidding of mortar. The clay brick should have
a pre-compact, homogeneous and uniform texture. A broken surface should be free form
cracks, holes grits or lumps of lime.

 Soundness of Clay Bricks: When two clay bricks are stuck together, a metallic ringing sound
should come.
 Structure:
A brick is broken and its structure is examined. It should be homogeneous, compact and
free from any defects such as holes, lumps etc.
 Thermal Conductivity of Clay Bricks:

Generally, we are not conducting any test for thermal conductivity because the thermal
conductivity of clay brick is low, i.e., it protects from heat.

 Basic Strength of Clay Bricks:

When dropped flat on the hard ground from a height of about one meter, clay bricks should
not break.

2.3 Laboratory Tests on Brick:

Laboratory tests on brick determine the mechanical properties of brick and give a scientific
approach to ensure the quality of bricks. It is essential while purchasing the brick and examine
the properties for the quality of construction.

Followings brick tests are performed in the laboratory to determine the quality of brick.

1. Water Absorption of Bricks:

The brick is porous by nature and Porosity is the ability to release and absorb moisture.
Therefore, it tends to absorb the water or moisture. It’s an important and useful property of
brick. But if brick absorbs more water than the recommended result, than it affects the strength
of brick as well as durability of the structure and of course will damage plaster and paint over
walls.

(a) Use of Water Absorption of Bricks:

Water absorption test is performed to know the percentage of water absorption of bricks.
(b) Recommended Result of Water Absorption of Bricks:
Water absorption of bricks should not more than 20 % by its dry weight.
(c) Why Bricks Fails in Water Absorption? & What if Test Fails?
 If brick fails in the water absorption test, possible reasons are like manufacturing error,
insufficient burning, error in clay composition etc. and If brick fails in water absorption as well
as efflorescence than never never never use those bricks because you will land in permanent
problems and it will be very difficult to solve them.
(d) Standard Guidelines for Water Absorption Test of Bricks:
There various standard guidelines available for water absorption test of bricks such as IS 3495
(Part 2) 1992, ASTM C 67, BS 3921:1985.
(e) Apparatus of Water Absorption Test of Brick:
Water bath, weight balance, and oven are required for performing this test

2. Compressive Strength of Brick:

The compressive strength of the brick is the most essential property of the bricks because in
the construction, bricks are widely used in masonry and it also plays a significant role as a load
bearing component.
When bricks are used in any structure, the bottom-most layer of the brick will be subjected to
the highest compressive stress. Therefore, it is essential to know that any particular brick will
be able to withstand that load or not.
(a) Use of Compressive Strength of Brick:
This test is performed to know the strength of bricksbecause it affects the overall structure in
the way of quality, durability and serviceability.
(b) Recommended Result of Compressive Strength Test of Brick:
Test result recommendations are as follows:
 For first class bricks, it should not less than 10 N/mm2 (102 kg/cm2).
 For second class bricks, it should not less than 7 N/mm2 (71 kg/cm2).
 For third class bricks, it should not less than 3.5 N/mm2 (36 kg/cm2).
In India, the northern and the eastern region produce bricks having good compressive strength
than the western region because the western region has black cotton soil, while the soil is good
in Gangetic region.
Why Compressive Strength Test Fails? & What if Test Fails?
If the test result is not as per recommendation, there are many reasons behind it such as the
clay composition, degree of burning like over burning or insufficient burning, error in the
testing appliance or testing procedure etc.
If bricks fail in strength as well as water absorption test than do not use it.If bricks are irregular
in some minor shape/size than it can be corrected with mortar. If not then you can consult your
brick supplier or brick manufacturer for replacing it.

3. Efflorescence:

This test should be conducted in a well-ventilated room. The brick is placed vertically in a dish
30 cm x 20 cm approximately in size with 2.5 cm immersed in distilled water. The whole water
is allowed to be absorbed by the brick and evaporated through it. After the bricks appear dry,
a similar quantity of water is placed in the dish, and the water is allowed to evaporate as
before. The brick is to be examined after the second evaporation and reported as follows:
  Nil: When there is no perceptible deposit of salt
 Slight: When not more than 10% of the area of brick is covered with salt
 Moderate: When there is heavy deposit covering 50% of the area of the brick but
unaccompanied by powdering or flaking of the surface.
 Heavy: When there is heavy deposit covering more than 50% of the area of the brick
accompanied by powdering or flaking of the surface.
 Serious: When there is heavy deposit of salts accompanied by powdering and/or flaking
of the surface and this deposition tends to increase in the repeated wetting of the specimen.
Bricks for general construction should not have more than slight to moderate efflorescence.

4. Dimension tolerance:

Twenty bricks are selected at random to check measurement of length, width and height.
These dimensions are to be measured in one or two lots of ten each as shown in figure.
Variation in dimensions is allowed only within narrow limits, ±3% for class one and ±8% for
other classes.

2.3 Properties of Brick:

The essential properties of bricks may be conveniently discussed under the following four
headings: physical, mechanical, thermal and durability properties.

(1) Physical Properties of Bricks:

These properties of bricks include shape, size, color, and density of a brick.
(i) Shape:
The standard shape of an ideal brick is truly rectangular. It has Well defined and sharp edges.
The surface of the bricks is regular and even.

(ii) Size:
The size of brick used in construction varies from country to country and from place to place
in the same country.

In India, the recommended standard size of an ideal brick is 19 x 9 x 9 cm which with mortar
joint gives net dimensions of 20 x 10 x 10 cm.
These dimensions have been found very convenient in handling and making quantity
estimates. Five hundred such bricks will be required for completing 1 m3 brick masonry.

(iii) Color.
The most common color of building bricks falls under the class RED. It may vary from deep
red to light red to buff and purple.

Very dark shades of red indicate over burnt bricks whereas yellow color is often indicative
of under-burning.

(iv) Density.
The density of bricks or weight per unit volume depends mostly on the type of clay used and
the method of brick molding (soft-mud, Stiff-mud, hard-pressed etc.).
In the case of standard bricks, density varies from 1600 kg/m3 to 1900 kg/m3. A single brick
(19 x 9 x 9 cm) will weigh between 3.2 to 3.5 kg. depending upon its density.

(2) Mechanical Brick Properties.

(i) Compressive Strength of Bricks:

It is the most important property of bricks especially when they are used in load-bearing walls.

The compressive strength of a brick depends on the composition of the clay and degree of
burning. It may vary from 3.5 N/mm2 to more than 20 N/mm2 in India.
It is specified under the I.S. codes that an ordinary type building brick must possess a minimum
compressive strength of 3.5 N/mm2.
The first and 2nd class bricks shall have a compressive strength not less than 7 N/mm2 and 14
N/mm2 respectively.

(ii) Flexure Strength:

Bricks are often used in situations where bending loads are possible in a building. As such,
they should possess sufficient strength against transverse loads.
It is specified that the flexural strength of a common building brick shall not be less than 1
N/mm2. Best grade bricks often possess flexural strength over 2 N/mm2.
Similarly, it is required that a good building brick shall possess a shearing strength of 5-7
N/mm2.

(3) Thermal Properties of Building Bricks:

Besides being hard and strong, ideal bricks should also provide an adequate insulation against
heat, cold and noise.

The heat and sound conductivity of bricks vary greatly with their density and porosity.

Very dense and heavy bricks conduct heat and sound at a greater rate. They have,
therefore, poor thermal and acoustic (sound) insulation qualities.
For this reason, bricks should be so designed that they are light and strong and give adequate
insulation.

(4) Durability:

By durability of bricks, it is understood that the maximum time for which they remain
unaltered and strong when used in construction.

Experience has shown that properly manufactured bricks are among the most durable of
man-made materials of construction. Their life can be counted in hundreds of years.

The durability of bricks depends on some factors such as: absorption value, frost resistance,
and efflorescence.

(i) Absorption Value.

This property is related to the porosity of the brick.
True Porosity is defined as the ratio of the volume of pores to the gross volume of the sample
of the substance.
Apparent porosity, more often called Absorption value or simply absorption, is the quantity
of water absorbed by the (brick) sample. This is expressed in percentage terms of the dry
weight of the sample: Absorption=W2 – W1 / W1 x 100.
Where W2 is weight after 24 hours of immersion in water and W1 is the oven dry weight of
the sample.
The absorption values of bricks vary greatly.It is, however, recommended that for first class
bricks, they shall not be greater than 20 percent and for ordinary building bricks, not
greater than 25 percent.
The absorption characteristic of bricks effects their quality in many ways:
Firstly: higher porosity means fewer solid materials; hence, strength is reduced.
Secondly: higher absorption will lead to other water-related defects such as frost-action and
efflorescence.
Thirdly: higher absorption results in deeper penetration of water which becomes a source
of dampness.
(ii) Frost Resistance:
Water on freezing expands by about 10% in volume and exerts a pressure on the order of 14
N/mm2. When bricks are used in cold climates, their decay due to this phenomenon of “frost
action” may be a common process.
This is especially so because bricks are quite porous materials (apparent porosity = 20-25%).
It is, therefore, essential that bricks in these areas should be properly protected from rain to
minimize absorption.
(iii) Efflorescence:
It is a common disfiguring and deteriorating process of bricks in hot and humid climates. Brick
surface gets covered with white or grey coloured patches of salts. These salts are present in
the original brick clay.

When rain water penetrates into the bricks, the salts get easily dissolved. After the rains,
evaporation starts.

The salts move out along with the water and form thin encrustations on the surface of the
bricks.

Salts which are commonly precipitated during efflorescence are: sulphates of calcium,
magnesium, sodium and potassium.

It is why great emphasis should be laid while testing the chemical composition of the clay for
brick manufacturing.

SUMMARY (Properties of Bricks).

1. It should have a rectangular shape, regular surface and red colored appearance.
2. It should confirm in size to the specified dimensions (19 x 9 x 9 cm).
3. It should be properly burnt. This can be ascertained by holding two bricks freely, one in
each hand, and striking them. A sharp metallic sound indicates good burning whereas a dull
thud would indicate incomplete burning.
4. A good building brick should not absorb water more than 20 percent of its dry weight.
Absorption should not exceed 25 percent in any case.
5. A good building brick should possess requisite compressive strength, which in no case
should be less than 3.5 N/mm2. A rough test for the strength of the brick is to let it fall freely
from a height of about one meter on to a hard floor. It should not break.
6. Brick should be hard enough so that it is not scratched by a finger nail.
7. A good brick has a uniform colour and structure through its body. This can be checked by
taking a brick from the lot and breaking it into two parts. The broken surface in both the
halves should have same appearance and structure.
3. LIME: (A Building Material for use in Construction)

Classification, Properties

3.1 Classification:

Lime is the versatile mineral. Various forms of lime are used in environmental, metallurgical,
construction, and chemical/industrial applications, etc. Lime, or calcium oxide (CaO), is
derived from high quality natural deposits of limestone, or calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
Limestone is a sedimentary rock that formed millions of years ago as the result of the
accumulation of shell, coral, algal, and other ocean debris. Lime is produced when limestone
is subjected to extreme heat, changing calcium carbonate to calcium oxide.

Lime is commonly referred to by a number of terms including quicklime, calcium oxide, high
calcium lime, or dolomitic lime. All refer to the same material, lime. Dolomitic lime contains
magnesium oxide (MgO) derived from the presence of magnesium carbonate (MgCO3) in the
initial stone referred to as dolomitic limestone. Dolomitic limestone contains two forms of
carbonate, calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate. High calcium lime is almost pure
calcium carbonate. The use of lime surrounds our everyday life making the water we drink
safe, the air we breathe cleaner, our steel purer and construction projects more stable. It goes
into glass production, paper manufacturing, agricultural practices, chemical processes,
plaster, mortar and other building materials, to name a few.
In construction applications, lime and lime-based reagents can dry wet soils to eliminate
downtime, increase productivity and keep projects moving. They quickly modify weak soils to
make work cleaner, safer, faster and easier. Soil modification provides an improved working
platform that keeps materials coming to the job site. Lime derived products can also be used to
stabilize soils providing long term, permanent strength gains.
Lime is one of the basic building materials used mainly as lime mortar in construction. The
broad category of lime is non-hydraulic (quick lime, fat lime or white lime or as lump lime)
and hydraulic lime. Hydraulic lime sets under water and non-hydraulic lime do not set under
water. Quick Lime is a form of lime is manufactured by the burning of stone that has calcium
carbonate within it. The burning temperature varies, say 900 degrees Celsius and above for
several hours. This process is called as calcination. The solid product that remains after the
removal of carbon dioxide in the calcium carbonate is called as the quicklime.
CaCO3 (Calcium carbonate) --> CaO (Calcium Oxide – Quick Lime) + CO2
The quick lime is used as hydrated lime (quick lime with water). This is because it is unstable
and hazardous in nature. There is heat liberated when a small quantity of water is added to the
quicklime. After this hydration product, a fine dry white powder is obtained, which is called as
calcium hydroxide or slake lime. Now this process is defined as the slaking of lime. The
slaking of lime is a process that varies depending upon the extent and type of use. For example,
the use of lime in plasters or in mortars, make use of lime in dry or putty form.
Putty is formed by the addition of a large quantity of water (two to three times its weight). This
process promotes a chemical reaction that makes the whole system to boil. A semi-fluid mass
is obtained as a stiffened mass on cooling, which is called as the putty. This material after
proper screening is used as the material for construction.
Hydraulic lime is a factor-based product. These have natural pozzolana or added Pozzolana
in it that sets under water. The raw material for hydraulic lime is limestone which is impure,
that contains calcium carbonate and impurities of clay. These are also calcinated at 900 to
1000 degree Celsius. The reaction is as follows Calcium carbonate + clay impurities (Al2O3 +
Si2O3) --> CaO (calcium oxide) + carbon dioxide + Monocalcium silicate (CA), Monocalcium
aluminates dicalcium silicate (C2S), dicalcium alumino-ferrite (C2AF)

Products:
Lime can be manufactured in a number of different end products.
 Pebble Lime, with sizes ranging from 2-inch down to ¼-inch, is used in many
applications including steel manufacturers and other industrial areas as a fluxing agent
or slaked as part of a larger process.
 Pulverized Lime is a graded material with a controlled particle size distribution formed
from crushed pebble lime.
 Lime Fines, generally less than ¼-inch in size, are often used in construction markets.
The small particle size of this quicklime product helps to increase the speed at which it
can dry, modify and stabilize soils.
 Lime kiln dust, a co-product of lime manufacturing, is a mix of calcium and
magnesium oxides and pozzolans.
 Hydrated Lime is produced when quicklime is carefully mixed with water to yielding
hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2), also known as slaked lime or calcium hydroxide. This
 process forms a very fine white powder that is very useful in a number of applications,
especially asphalt.
 Quicklime slurry is a suspension of calcium hydroxide in water. This free-flowing
product offers a solution for customers requiring a liquid or if they are particularly
concerned with dusting.
Precautions:
If handled properly lime is a very safe product. There are several precautions working with
lime.

 Eye irritation: Safety glasses should be worn when working with lime-based products.
In dusty and/or windy conditions gasketed safety glasses or goggles should be worn.
 Skin irritation: When lime is exposed to moisture, or sweat, a very hot chemical
reaction take place that could cause chemical burns. Appropriate clothing covering
exposed skin is recommended.
 Respiratory Irritation: The use of a respirator can minimize breathing dust.

3.1.1 Four Different Types of Limes Used in Construction:

Different types of limes are used for building construction. It is not generally found in the free
state. Lime is a product which is obtained by burning lime stone, a raw material, found in lime
stone hills or lime stone boulders in the beds of old river, kankar found below ground level,
or shells of sea animals.

1. QUICK LIME
It is also known as caustic lime. It is obtained by calcination (i.e. heating to redness) of
comparatively pure lime stone. It is amorphous in nature, highly caustic and possesses great
affinity to moisture.
2. SLAKED LIME
It is also known as hydrate of lime. It is obtained by slaking (i.e. chemical combination of
quick lime with water) of quick lime. It is ordinary pure lime, in white powder form, available
in market. It has got the tendency of absorbing carbonic acid from the atmosphere in presence
of water.
3. FAT LIME
It is also known as high calcium lime or pure lime or rich lime or white lime. It is popularly
known as fat lime as it slakes vigorously and its volume is increased to about 2 to 2.5 times
that of quick lime. This lime is used for various purposes as white washing, plastering of
walls, as lime mortar with sand for pointing in masonry work, as a lime mortar with surkhi
for thick masonry walls, foundations, etc.
4. HYDRAULIC LIME
It is also known as water lime. This lime contains clay and some amount of ferrous oxide. It
sets under water and hence also known as water lime. Depending upon the percentage of
clay, IS has divided hydraulic lime in three classes namely:
 Class A – Eminently hydraulic
 Class B – Semi Hydraulic
 Class C – Non-hydraulic (or Fat lime)

CLASS A – EMINENTLY HYDRAULIC

This lime contains about 25% clay content and sets readily under water within a day or so.
This lime slakes with difficulty. The mortar and lime concrete prepared from this lime is very
useful for construction under water or in damp places.
CLASS B – SEMI HYDRAULIC

Semi-hydraulic lime contains about 15% clay content and sets under water at a slower rate
within a week or so. The mortar and concrete prepared from this lime is strong and used for
superior type of masonry work.
CLASS C – NON-HYDRAULIC (OR FAT LIME)

This lime contains about 7.5% of clay content and is prepared from pure lime stone. This
slakes vigorously within few minutes but does not set under water. This is used for white
washing and colour washing.
USES OF BUILDING LIME:
Lime in building industry is used for various purposes such as

 A matrix for lime concrete used in building foundations and filling where early setting is
not required
 For preparing mortar for bedding bricks and stones in masonry works
 As a cementing material in plaster for covering walls and pointing in preserving joints
 For white washing and colour washing

PREPARATION OF SLAKED LIME:

The procedure behind the making of slaked lime is described in the following steps:

 The required quantity of fat lime or quicklime is placed over a platform which is wooden
or masonry, free of moisture. The quicklime is produced by the burning of limestone and
shells.
 Water is then sprinkled over this heap of quick lime, till it gets reduced to powder form.
During the addition water, thorough mixing is done along with this, until no more water is
required to completely reduce the quicklime to the powdered form.
 The final mixture is allowed to pass through the sieve of 3.35mm dimension. The residue
is rejected. The final product is called the slaked lime.
Preparation of Lime Putty Before the use of quicklime in lime mortar, it is made into lime
putty. The procedure of lime putty preparation is explained in the following procedures:

 Initially, two tanks are made of 50 and 80 cm deep (Tank 1 and Tank 2 respectively). The
former tank is constructed at a higher level compared to the latter, to ensure proper flow of
fluid from tank 1 to tank 2.
 Initially, the tank 1 is filled with water to its half. Quick lime is then added to this, till the
half depth of the tank 1 is filled. It is kept in mind to add lime to the water and not water to
lime.
 Proper stirring is carried out, keeping in mind that no exposure to the air above the water
level is carried out. The mixing will be continued for few minutes (around 5 minutes), till
the moment the boiling ends and the whole mixture starts to thicken.
 The mixture is den allowed to flow to the tank 2, located at the lower height. For this to
happen with ease, more water can be added.
 The tank 2 takes this mixture for a minimum time of 72 hours. The lower tank (tank 2) is
made up of dry brick masonry, whose joints are filled with sand alone. This would facilitate
the absorption of water from the slurry. This is the way, how the excess water is removed
and lime putty is obtained in the paste form.
 If the exposure to the atmosphere is avoided, it can be stored for a period of say 2 weeks.

The addition of water in a gradual means will make the hydraulic lime slaked. When compared
to quicklime, the hydraulic lime requires lesser water. The fat quick lime is said to slake by an
amount of twice, in the powder form and by one and a half parts of paste. The hydraulic lime
slakes by an amount of one and half in the powder form and by the same quantity in the paste
form.

3.2 Properties of Lime for Use in Construction:

The white powdered slaked lime has a wide range of applications in construction. The
properties of lime are:

1. Cementing capability- This is obtained by their carbonation with carbon dioxide. Lime
is used as lime mortar for brick masonry construction.
2. Have a higher acid resistance- due to its alkaline nature
3. Gain Pozzolanic activity- this gives cementitious products
4. Sealing of micro cracks- This is done by the precipitation made by the calcium
carbonate when carbon dioxide passes through the lime mortar mix.
Properties of Lime
 It should possess good plasticity.
 It should be flexible and easily workable.
 When used in mortar, it should provide greater strength to the masonry.
 It should solidify in less time and become hard

Factors affecting Properties of Lime Mortar:

1. The free calcium amount present in the lime mortar
2. The free lime content and porosity are directly proportional
3. The fat lime or nonhydraulic lime does not set under water, it sets with time
4. The hydraulic lime sets after the addition of water. This rate depends on the type as well as
the characteristic composition of hydraulic lime.

Advantages of Lime in Construction:

1. Provides building breathing property- the lime was regarded as a material by the society
for protection against the depletion of ancient buildings. This material let the building to
be vapor permeable, thus allowing to breathe. This reduces the chances of trapped moisture
and the damage of the building.
2. Renders Comfortable Environment- Absorbing moisture by the lime, stabilize internal
humidity
3. Ecological Benefits- energy conservation than cement, small scale production of lime is
possible
4. Protection of adjacent materials- Porous texture of lime handle the moisture movement,
without affecting the adjacent materials
5. Provides good workability
6. Durability is high
7. Beautiful finish for the building
8. Self-healing properties- Any movement of the building made of lime, creates micro-
cracks. Presence of moisture make the free lime active to precipitate and heal these micro
cracks

4. CEMENT:
Types, Portland cement: Chemical composition of raw material, Bogue Compounds,
Hydration of cement, Role of water in hydration, Testing of cements

4.1 CEMENT:

A cement is a binder, a substance used for construction that sets, hardens, and adheres to
other materials to bind them together. Cement is seldom used on its own, but rather to bind fine
aggregate (sand) and coarse aggregate (gravel) together. Cement mixed with fine aggregate
produces mortar for masonry, or with fine aggregate and coarse aggregate, produces concrete.
Concrete is the most widely used material in existence and is behind only water as the planet's
most-consumed resource.
Cements used in construction are usually inorganic, often lime or calcium silicate based,
which can be characterized as non-hydraulic or hydraulic respectively, depending on the
ability of the cement to set in the presence of water.
Non-hydraulic cement does not set in wet conditions or under water. Rather, it sets as it dries
and reacts with carbon dioxide in the air. It is resistant to attack by chemicals after setting.
Hydraulic cements (e.g., Portland cement) set and become adhesive due to a chemical
reaction between the dry ingredients and water. The chemical reaction results in
mineral hydrates that are not very water-soluble and so are quite durable in water and safe
from chemical attack. This allows setting in wet conditions or under water and further protects
the hardened material from chemical attack. The chemical process for hydraulic cement was
found by ancient Romans who used volcanic ash (pozzolana) with added lime (calcium oxide).
The word "cement" can be traced back to the Ancient Roman term opus caementicium (Roman
concrete, also called opus caementicium, was a material used in construction in Ancient Rome.
Roman concrete was based on a hydraulic-setting cement. It is durable due to its incorporation
of pozzolanic ash, which prevents cracks from spreading), used to describe masonry
resembling modern concrete that was made from crushed rock with burnt lime as binder. The
volcanic ash and pulverized (reduce to fine particles) brick supplements that were added to the
burnt lime, to obtain a hydraulic binder, were later referred to as cementum, cimentum, cäment,
and cement. In modern times, organic polymers are sometimes used as cements in concrete.
World production is about four billion tonnes per year, of which about half is made in China. If
the cement industry were a country, it would be the third largest carbon dioxide emitter in the
world with up to 2.8 billion tonnes, surpassed only by China and the United States. The
initial calcination reaction (at or above the thermal decomposition temperature) in the
production of cement is responsible for about 4% of global CO2 emissions. The overall process
is responsible for about 8% of global CO2 emissions, as the cement kiln in which the reaction
occurs is typically fired by coal or petroleum coke due to the luminous flame required to heat
the kiln by radiant heat transfer. As a result, the production of cement is a major contributor
to climate change.
HYDRAULIC CEMENT:
By far the most common type of cement is hydraulic cement, which hardens by hydration
of the clinker minerals when water is added. Hydraulic cements (such as Portland cement)
are made of a mixture of silicates and oxides. The four main mineral phases of the clinker,
abbreviated in the cement chemist notation, being:
C3S: Tri Calcium Silicate (Alite) (3CaO·SiO2);
C2S: Di Calcium Silicate (Belite) (2CaO·SiO2);
C3A: Tri Calcium Aluminate (celite) (3CaO·Al2O3);
C4AF: Tetra Calcium Alumino Ferrite (Brownmillerite) (4CaO·Al2O3·Fe2O3).
The silicates are responsible for the cement's mechanical properties — the tricalcium
aluminate and Tetra Calcium Alumino Ferrite are essential for the formation of the liquid
phase during the sintering (firing) process of clinker at high temperature in the kiln. The
chemistry of these reactions is not completely clear and is still the object of research.
First, the limestone (calcium carbonate) is burned to remove its carbon,
producing lime (calcium oxide) in what is known as a calcination reaction. This single
chemical reaction is a major emitter of global carbon dioxide emissions.
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
The lime reacts with silicon dioxide to produce dicalcium silicate and tricalcium silicate.
2CaO + SiO2 → 2CaO·SiO2
3CaO + SiO2 → 3CaO·SiO2
The lime also reacts with aluminum oxide to form tricalcium aluminate.
3CaO + Al2O3 → 3CaO·Al2O3
The lime also reacts together with aluminum oxide, and ferric oxide to form cement.
4CaO + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 → 4CaO·Al2O3·Fe2O3 (cement)

NON-HYDRAULIC CEMENT:
A less common form of cement is non-hydraulic cement, such as slaked lime (calcium
oxide mixed with water), hardens by carbonation in contact with carbon dioxide, which is
present in the air (~ 412 vol. ppm ≃ 0.04 vol. %). First calcium oxide (lime) is produced
from calcium carbonate (limestone or chalk) by calcination at temperatures above 825 °C
(1,517 °F) for about 10 hours at atmospheric pressure:
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
The calcium oxide is then spent (slaked) mixing it with water to make slaked lime (calcium
hydroxide):
CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2
Once the excess water is completely evaporated (this process is technically called setting), the
carbonation starts:
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O
This reaction is slow, because the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the air is low
(~ 0.4 millibar). The carbonation reaction requires that the dry cement be exposed to air, so the
slaked lime is a non-hydraulic cement and cannot be used under water. This process is
called the lime cycle.

4.2 PORTLAND CEMENT:

Portland cement, a form of hydraulic cement, is by far the most common type of cement in
general use around the world. This cement is made by heating limestone (calcium carbonate)
with other materials (such as clay) to 1,450 °C (2,640 °F) in a KILN, in a process known
as calcination that liberates a molecule of carbon dioxide from the calcium carbonate to
form calcium oxide, or quicklime, which then chemically combines with the other materials
in the mix to form calcium silicates and other cementitious compounds. The resulting hard
substance, called 'clinker', is then ground with a small amount of gypsum into a powder to
make ordinary Portland cement, the most commonly used type of cement (often referred to as
OPC). Portland cement is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar, and most non-
specialty grout. The most common use for Portland cement is to make concrete. Concrete is a
composite material made of cement, aggregate (gravel and sand), and water. As a construction
material, concrete can be cast in almost any shape, and once it hardens, can be a structural (load
bearing) element. Portland cement may be grey or white.
PORTLAND CEMENT BLEND:
Portland cement blends are often available as inter-ground mixtures from cement producers,
but similar formulations are often also mixed from the ground components at the concrete
mixing plant.
Portland blast-furnace slag cement, or blast furnace cement (ASTM C595 and EN 197-1
nomenclature respectively), contains up to 95% ground granulated blast furnace slag, with
the rest Portland clinker and a little gypsum. All compositions produce high ultimate strength,
but as slag content is increased, early strength is reduced, while sulfate resistance increases
and heat evolution diminishes. Used as an economic alternative to Portland sulfate-resisting
and low-heat cements.
Portland-fly ash cement contains up to 40% fly ash under ASTM standards (ASTM C595),
or 35% under EN standards (EN 197–1). The fly ash is pozzolanic, [Pozzolans are a broad
class of siliceous and aluminous materials which, in themselves, possess little or
no cementitious value but which will, in finely divided form and in the presence of water, react
chemically with calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) at ordinary temperature to form compounds
possessing cementitious properties. The quantification of the capacity of a pozzolan to react
with calcium hydroxide and water is given by measuring its pozzolanic activity. Pozzolana are
naturally occurring pozzolans of volcanic origin. A siliceous volcanic ash used to produce
hydraulic cement / Any of various powdered substances that react with lime to form
strengthening or enhancing compounds in cement. Both natural (Volcanic ashes and pumices)
and artificial (man-made, eg. metakaolin, fly ash, silica fume, rice husk ash, etc) materials
show pozzolanic activity and are used as supplementary cementitious materials (SCM)], so
that ultimate strength is maintained. Because fly ash addition allows a lower concrete water
content, early strength can also be maintained. Where good quality cheap fly ash is available,
this can be an economic alternative to ordinary Portland cement.
Portland pozzolan cement includes fly ash cement, since fly ash is a pozzolan, but also
includes cements made from other natural or artificial pozzolans. In countries where volcanic
ashes are available (e.g., Italy, Chile, Mexico, the Philippines), these cements are often the
most common form in use. The maximum replacement ratios are generally defined as for
Portland-fly ash cement.
Portland silica fume cement. Addition of silica fume can yield exceptionally high strengths,
and cements containing 5–20% silica fume are occasionally produced, with 10% being the
maximum allowed addition under EN 197–1. However, silica fume is more usually added to
Portland cement at the concrete mixer.[45]
Masonry cements are used for preparing brick laying mortars and stuccos (decorative coating
for walls and ceilings, exterior walls), and must not be used in concrete. They are usually
complex proprietary formulations containing Portland clinker and a number of other
ingredients that may include limestone, hydrated lime, air entrainers, retarders, water proofers,
and coloring agents. They are formulated to yield workable mortars that allow rapid and
consistent masonry work. Subtle variations of masonry cement in North America are plastic
cements and stucco cements. These are designed to produce a controlled bond with masonry
blocks.
Expansive cements contain, in addition to Portland clinker, expansive clinkers (usually sulfo-
aluminate clinkers), and are designed to offset the effects of drying shrinkage normally
encountered in hydraulic cements. This cement can make concrete for floor slabs (up to 60 m
square) without contraction joints.
White blended cements may be made using white clinker (containing little or no iron) and
white supplementary materials such as high-purity metakaolin.
Colored cements serve decorative purposes. Some standards allow the addition of pigments
to produce colored Portland cement. Other standards (e.g., ASTM) do not allow pigments in
Portland cement, and colored cements are sold as blended hydraulic cements.
Very finely ground cements are cement mixed with sand or with slag or other pozzolan type
minerals that are extremely finely ground together. Such cements can have the same physical
characteristics as normal cement but with 50% less cement, particularly due to their increased
surface area for the chemical reaction. Even with intensive grinding they can use up to 50%
less energy (and thus less carbon emissions) to fabricate than ordinary Portland cements.[
4.3 TYPES OF CEMENT (Other cements)

1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

2. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
3. Rapid Hardening Cement
4. Quick setting cement
5. Low Heat Cement
6. Sulfates resisting cement
7. Blast Furnace Slag Cement
8. High Alumina Cement
9. White Cement
10. Colored cement
11. Air Entraining Cement
12. Expansive cement
13. Hydrographic cement

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

The principal raw materials used in the manufacture of Ordinary Portland Cement are:

1. Argillaceous or silicates of alumina in the form of clays and shales.

2. Calcareous or calcium carbonate, in the form of limestone, chalk and marl which is a
mixture of clay and calcium carbonate.
The ingredients are mixed in the proportion of about two parts of calcareous materials to one
part of argillaceous materials and then crushed and ground in ball mills in a dry state or mixed
in wet state. The dry powder or the wet slurry is then burnt in a rotary kiln at a temperature
between 1400 degree C to 1500-degree C. the clinker obtained from the kiln is first cooled and
then passed on to ball mills where gypsum is added and it is ground to the requisite fineness
according to the class of product.
Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC):
Portland Pozzolana cement is integrated cement which is formed by synthesising
(combining) OPC cement with pozzolanic materials in a certain proportion. It is commonly
known as PPC cement. In this article we discuss about the properties, manufacture,
characteristics, advantages and disadvantages of Portland Pozzolana cement.
Rapid Hardening Cement:
Rapid hardening cement is a particular type of cement that is used in exceptional cases of
concrete pouring. As the name implies, rapid hardening cement needs the shortest time
to set up and consolidate. It achieves higher strength on lesser days. With such, it can attain
seven days strength in only three days.
Quick setting cement:
Quick Setting Cement (QSC) is a special cement formulation that develops a rapid
compressive strength and significantly reduces the waiting on cement (WOC)
time compared to traditional cement systems. This cement loses its plasticity quicker than
ordinary Portland cement, but does not achieve a higher rate of strength.
Low Heat Cement:
Low heat cement is a special tailored cement which generates low heat of hydration
during setting. It is manufactured by modifying the chemical composition of normal
Portland cement. In this article we discuss about the composition, properties,
characteristics, uses and advantages of low heat cement.
Sulphate resisting cement:
The sulphate resisting cement is the cement which has the capability to resist against
sulphate attack by introducing low C3A and relatively low C4AF content in the
cement. The specification for sulphate cement content should not allow C3A content more
than 5 percent.
Blast Furnace Slag Cement:
Blast furnace slag cement is the mixture of ordinary Portland cement and fine
granulated blast furnace slag obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of steel with
percent under 70% to that of cement. Ground granulated blast furnace slag cement
(GGBFS) is a fine glassy granule which contain cementitious properties.

High Alumina Cement:

High alumina cement refers to a fast-hardening, high-strength, heat-resistant and
corrosion-resistant cementitious material. All clinker based on calcium aluminate and
alumina content of about 50% and ground hydraulic cementitious material are called high
alumina cement.

White Cement:

The manufacturing process of white cement is same as that of grey cement, but the
selection of raw material is an important part in the manufacturing process. The oxides
of chromium, manganese, iron, copper, vanadium, nickel and titanium imparts the grey
colour to the cement. In white cement manufacture, these raw materials are kept to least
percentage. Limestone and clay are used as a prominent raw material for the manufacture
 of white cement. The manufacture process is same as that of OPC cement, the only
differences are the heat required for the burning of raw material is more and fineness is
more.

Coloured cement:
Coloured Cement may be obtained by intimately mixing mineral pigments with
ordinary cement. The amount of colouring material may vary from 5 to 10 per cent. If this
percentage exceeds 10 per cent, the strength of cement is affected.
1. The chromium oxide gives green colour.
2. The cobalt imparts blue colour.
3. The ton oxide in different proportions gives brown, red or yellow colour
4. The manganese oxide is used to produce black brown coloured cement
The coloured cements are widely used for finishing of floors, external surfaces. artificial
marble, window sill slabs, textured panel faces, stair treads, etc.
Air Entraining Cement:
Air-entrained portland cement is a special cement which has air bubbles introduced in the
cement or concrete that provides the space for expansion of minute droplets of waters in
the concrete due to freezing and thawing and protects from cracks and damage of concrete.
In this article we discuss about manufacture, air entraining agents, properties, advantages
and disadvantages.
Advantages of Air-Entrained Cement
 Workability of concrete increases.
 Use of air entraining agent reduces the effect of freezing and thawing.
 Bleeding, segregation and laitance in concrete reduces.
 Entrained air improves the sulphate resisting capacity of concrete.
 Reduces the possibility of shrinkage and crack formation in the concrete surface.

Expansive cement:
Expansive cement is special type of cement when mixed with water, which forms a paste
that tends to increase in volume to a significantly greater degree than Portland cement
paste after setting. The expansion of the cement mortar or concrete is compensated for the
shrinkage losses. In this article we study about the manufacture, properties, types and uses
of expansive cement.
Hydrographic cement:

Hydrographic cement Hydrographic cement prepares by mixing water-repelling

chemicals and has high workability and strength. It has the property of repelling water
and unaffected during monsoon or rains. Hydrophobic cement mainly uses for the
construction of water structures such as dams, water tanks, spillways, water retaining
structures, etc.

4.4 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PORTLAND CEMENT ARE AS FOLLOWS:

Lime (CaO) 60 to 67%

 Silica (SiO2) 17 to 25%

Alumina (Al2O3) 3 to 8%

Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 0.5 to 6%

Magnesia (MgO) 0.1 to 4%

Sulphur trioxide (SO3) 1 to 3%

Soda and/or Potash (Na2O+K2O) 0.5 to 1.3%

Physical Properties of Ordinary Portland Cement

Properties Values

Specific Gravity 3.16

Normal Consistency 29%

Initial Setting time 65min

Final Setting time 275 min

Fineness 330 kg/m2

Soundness 2.5mm

Bulk Density 830-1650 kg/m3

BOGUES COMPOUNDS:
When water is added to cement, it react with the ingredients of the cement chemically and
results in the formation of complex chemical compounds terms as BOGUES compounds.
1. Tri-Calcium Aluminate (3CaO.Al2O3 or C3A) ---------------------------8-12%
2. Tetra Calcium Alumino Ferrate (4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 or C4AF)--------6-10%
3. Tri-Calcium Silicate (3CaO.SiO2 or C3S)---------------------------------30-50%
4. Di-Calcium Silicate (2CaO.SiO2 or C2S)----------------------------------20-45%

1. Tri-Calcium Aluminate (3CaO.Al2O3 or C3A)

Formed in 24 hrs of addition of water
Maximum evolution of heat of hydration
Check setting time of cement
2. Tetra Calcium Alumino Ferrate (4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 or C4AF)
Formed within 24 hrs of addition of water
High heat of hydration in initial periods
3. Tri-Calcium Silicate (3CaO.SiO2 or C3S)
Formed within week
Responsible for initial strength of cement
Contribute about 50-60% of strength
Content increase for the pre-fabricated concrete construction, Cold weathering construction.
4. Di-Calcium Silicate (2CaO.SiO2 or C2S)
Last compound formed during hydration of cement
Responsible for progressive later stage strength
Structure requires later stages strength proportion of this component increase
e.g. hydraulic structures, bridges.
HYDRATION OF CEMENT:
When cement, water, aggregate, and additives are mixed together, a significant heat increase
occurs. This is due to the exothermic process in the reaction between cement and water (called
hydration).
Measuring the concrete temperature over time enables you to know how far the concrete is in
the hydration process (Concrete Maturity) and thereby also an estimated concrete strength. The
hydration process is divided into five phases:

Phase 1: Initial Mixing Reaction

Initial after mixing the cement and water comes into contact with each other, a peak in
temperature happens. The aluminate (C3A) reacts with H2O (Calcium and sulfate ions) to form
ettringite (aluminate hydrate). The release of the energy from these reactions causes the initial
peak.
Phase 2: Dormancy
A result of the reaction described in phase 1 is a surface coating of the cement particles. This
coating keeps increases, but also slows down the reaction (hydration) as the access to H2O isn’t
as good as when the concrete was mixed. The amount of hydrated concrete keeps increasing
on a steady level while the surface of the concrete keeps fluid.
This is why this phase is used for transporting and pouring the concrete, as the concrete stays
on a fluid level. The length of this period depends on each individual concrete mix and can,
therefore, be optimized depending on the application like winter concreting, length of transport,
etc.
This phase ends with an initial set of the concrete.
Phase 3: Strength Acceleration
A heat increase happens due to the reaction between calcium silicate (C3S and C2S) which
creates the silicate hydrate CSH (heat increase also caused by other minor reactions). The
creation of CSH also has a major impact on the concrete strength during this phase.
In the case of for example mass concrete application, it can be very important to monitor the
internal temperature variances, as the concrete temperature during this phase can increase
rapidly to reach internal temperatures like 70-80C (in some cases even higher). It is normally
not recommended to exceed temperatures at around 70C.
Phase 4: Speed reduction
A maximum temperature has now been reached and the availability of free particles is now
reduced and therefore slows down the temperature increase.
This phase often ends with the desired strength and the formwork around the concrete can now
be removed. Monitoring of concrete maturity and temperature and therefore enable the user
with the exact time where this is possible.
Phase 5: Steady Development / Post Formwork
The hydration process is now slowed down and will continue slowly to finish the remaining
available cement and water particles. The formwork is now often removed and the concrete
will now over time (can take a long time) finish the hydration process and reach final strengths
(can take weeks or months).
Testing of cements:
Laboratory Tests of Cement:
1. Fineness Test
2. Consistency Test
3. Setting Time Test
4. Strength Test
5. Soundness Test
6. Heat of Hydration Test
7. Tensile Strength Test
8. Chemical Composition Test
Fineness test on cement
The fineness of cement is responsible for the rate of hydration, rate of evolution of heat and the
rate of gain of strength. Finer the grains more is the surface area and faster the development of
strength.
The fineness of cement can be determined by Sieve Test or Air Permeability test.
Sieve Test: Air-set lumps are broken, and the cement is sieved continuously in a circular and
vertical motion for a period of 15 minutes. The residue left on the sieve is weighed, and
it should not exceed 10% for ordinary cement. This test is rarely used for fineness.
Air Permeability Test: Blaine's Air Permeability Test is used to find the specific surface, which
is expressed as the total surface area in sq.cm/g. of cement. The surface area is more for finer
particles.
Consistency test on cement
This test is conducted to find the setting times of cement using a standard consistency test
apparatus, Vicat's apparatus.
Standard consistency of cement paste is defined as that water content which will permit a Vicat
plunger of 10 mm diameter and 50 mm length to penetrate depths of 33-35 mm within 3-5
minutes of mixing.

The test has to undergo three times, each time the cement is mixed with water varying from 24
to 27% of the weight of cement.

This test should be conducted at a constant temperature of 25°C or 29°C and at a constant
humidity of 20%.
Setting Time of cement
Vicat's apparatus is used to find the setting times of cement i.e., initial setting time and final
setting time.
Initial Setting Time: For this test, a needle of 1 mm square size is used. The needle is allowed
to penetrate into the paste (a mixture of water and cement as per the consistency test). The time
taken to penetrate 33-35 mm depth is recorded as the initial setting time.
Final Setting Time: After the paste has attained hardness, the needle does not penetrate the
paste more than 0.5 mm. The time at which the needle does not penetrate more than 0.5 mm is
taken as the final setting time.

Strength test of cement

The strength of cement cannot be defined directly on the cement. Instead the strength of cement
is indirectly defined on cement-mortar of 1:3. The compressive strength of this mortar is the
strength of cement at a specific period.
Soundness test of cement

This test is conducted in Le Chatelier's apparatus to detect the presence of uncombined lime
and magnesia in cement.

Heat of Hydration Test

During the hydration of cement, heat is produced due to chemical reactions. This heat may
raise the temperature of concrete to a high temperature of 50°C. To avoid these, in large scale
constructions low-heat cement has to be used.

This test is carried out using a calorimeter adopting the principle of determining heat gain. It
is concluded that Low-heat cement should not generate 65 calories per gram of cement in 7
days and 75 calories per gram of cement in 28 days.
Tensile Strength of Cement
This test is carried out using a cement-mortar briquette in a tensile testing machine. A 1:3
cement-sand mortar with the water content of 8% is mixed and moulded into a briquette in the
mould.

This mixture is cured for 24 hours at a temperature of 25°C or 29°C and in an atmosphere at
90% relative humidity.

The average strength for six briquettes tested after 3 and 7 days is recorded.

Chemical Composition Test

Different tests are conducted to determine the amount of various constituents of cement. The
requirements are based on IS: 269-1998, is as follows:

 The ratio of the percentage of alumina to that of iron oxide should not be less than 0.66.
 Lime Saturation Factor (LSF), i.e., the ratio of the percentage to that of alumina, iron
oxide and silica should not be less than 0.66 and not be greater than 1.02.
 Total loss on ignition should not be greater than 4%.
 Total sulphur content should not be greater than 2.75%.
 Weight of insoluble residue should not be greater than 1.50%.
 Weight of magnesia should not be greater than 5%.
Field Tests of Cement

The following tests should undergo before mixing the cement at construction sites:

Colour Test of Cement

The colour of the cement should not be uneven. It should be a uniform grey colour with a light
greenish shade.
Presence of Lumps
The cement should not contain any hard lumps. These lumps are formed by the absorption of
moisture content from the atmosphere. The cement bags with lumps should be avoided in
construction.
Cement Adulteration Test
The cement should be smooth if you rubbed it between fingers. If not, then it is because of
adulteration with sand.

Float Test
The particles of cement should flow freely in water for some time before it sinks.
Date of Manufacturing
It is very important to check the manufacturing date because the strength of cement decreases
with time. It's better to use cement before 3 months from the date of manufacturing.

5. FLY ASH:
Properties and use in manufacturing of bricks and cement
Fly ash is a heterogeneous by-product material produced in the combustion process of coal
used in power stations. It is a fine grey coloured powder having spherical glassy particles
that rise with the flue gases. As fly ash contains pozzolanic materials components which reach
with lime to form cementitious materials. Thus, FLY ASH is used in concrete, mines, landfills
and dams.
Chemical Composition of Fly Ash:
The chemical composition of fly ash depends upon the type of coal used and the methods used
for combustion of coal.
 Chemical composition of fly ash of different coals

Component Bituminous Coal Sub bituminous Coal Lignite Coal

SiO2 (%) 20-60 40-60 15-45

Al2O3 (%) 5-35 20-30 20-25

Fe2O3 (%) 10-40 4-10 4-15

CaO (%) 1-12 5-30 15-40

LOI (%) 0-15 0-3 0-5

5.1 Physical Properties of Fly Ash:

Fineness of Fly Ash
As per ASTM, the fineness of the fly ash is to be checked in both dry and wet sieving. The fly
ash sample is sieved in 45 micron sieve and the percentage of retained on the 45 micron sieve
is calculated. Further fineness is also measured by LeChatelier method and Blaine Specific
Surface method.
Specific Gravity of Fly Ash
The specific gravity of fly ash ranges from a low value of 1.90 for a sub-bituminous ash to a
high value of 2.96 for an iron-rich bituminous ash.
Size and Shape of Fly Ash
As the flyash is a very fine material, the particle size ranges in between 10 to 100 micron. The
shape of the fly ash is usually spherical glassy shaped.
Color
The color of the fly ash depends upon the chemical and mineral constituents. Lime content in
the fly ash gives tan and light colors whereas brownish color is imparted by the presence of
iron content. A dark grey to black color is typically attributed to an elevated un-burned content.
5.2 Fly ash Bricks:
Fly Ash Bricks are manufactured using Major percentage of fly ash generated from Thermal
Power stations. Other raw materials used along with Fly Ash are lime and calcined gypsum.
Fly ash is a fine, glass-like powder recovered from coal-fired electric power generation.
They consist mostly of silicon dioxide (SiO2), aluminum oxide (Al2O3) and iron oxide (Fe2O3).
Products and Its Application
Fly ash lime bricks are chemically bonded bricks manufactured by utilizing 80- 82% of fly ash,
which is a major waste bye-product of pulverized coal fired in Thermal Power Stations, 9-10%
of lime, 9-10% of sand and accelerator. The process know-how has been developed by
Central Fuel Research Institute.
Various special features of fly ash lime bricks are:
 Being machine finished these are uniform in size and shape.
 Consumes 20-25 percent less cement mortar.
 Stronger than Class-I, burnt clay building bricks.
 Outside wall plastering is not essential as these bricks have cement gray color, smooth
surface and low water absorption capacity.
 Resistance to salinity.
 Being lighter in weight in comparison to the conventional red bricks, the dead building
load and the transportation cost will be less.
 Adoption of this process helps to conserve invaluable top soil of agricultural land.
 By consuming 80-82% fly ash, the cause of environmental pollution and hazards due
to disposal is minimized.
 As firing of the bricks is not needed thus pollution due to firing is eliminated.

Raw Material Requirements

Fly ash forms the major component of the raw materials for Fly ash bricks. Therefore, it
controls to a large extent the properties of the finished product. As the ash is non-plastic, a
binder must be added either plastic clay or Portland cement. Fly ash content ranges from 60
to 80%. Lime is another raw material required for the production of fly ash bricks. It is
generally desirable to use a high calcium lime of reasonable purity as it is the most important
constituent which reacts with silica and alumina etc. present in the fly ash to form the binder
under hydrothermal conditions. Lime content range from 20 to 30%.
Manufacturing Process
Lime is finely ground in a ball mill. Fly ash, finely ground quick lime and sand in requisite
proportions are fed in double roll paddle mixer or U-shaft mixer (Double shaft mixer) by means
of a feeder. Then 4% water is added and intimate mixing is done. The mixing proportion is
generally 40-50% Fly Ash, 50-40% Sand 10% lime and 4% water. Fly ash reacts with lime in
the presence of moisture to form calcium silicate hydrate which is the binder material. The
raw mix is molded in the molding press/machine, pressed under a pressure into bricks. The
bricks are then with drawn from the molding machine and they are air dried under the sun and
kept for 1 day. The bricks are autoclaved in which curing is done by steam at normal pressure
and cured for 6 - 8 hours.
5.3 Cement-Fly Ash Based:
The Portland Pozzolana Cement is a kind of Blended Cement which is produced by either
inter-grinding of OPC clinker along with gypsum and pozzolanic materials in certain
proportions or grinding the OPC clinker, gypsum and Pozzolanic materials separately and
thoroughly blending them in certain proportions. Pozzolana such as fly ash is essentially a
siliceous material which while in itself possessing little or no cementitious properties will, in
finely divided form and in the presence of water, react with calcium hydroxide at ambient
temperature to form compounds possessing cementitious properties. The manufacture, physical
and chemical requirements of Portland pozzolana cement using only fly ash pozzolana shall
conform to the IS: 1489-1 (1991) as given below.
1. Raw Materials:
 Pozzolana: Fly ash used in the manufacture of Portland-pozzolana cement shall
conform to IS 3812: 1981
 Portland Cement Clinker: The Portland cement clinker used in the manufacture of
Portland-pozzolana cement shall comply in all respects with the chemical requirements
of IS 269: 1989
 Portland Cement: Portland cement for blending with fly ash shall conform to IS 269:
1989
 Other admixtures: Not more than 1 percent may be added
2. Manufacture:
Portland-pozzolana cement shall be manufactured either by intimately inter-grinding
Portland cement clinker and fly ash or by intimately and uniformly blending Portland
cement and fine fly ash. The fly ash constituent shall not be less than 10 percent and not
more than 25 percent by mass of Portland-pozzolana cement.
3. Chemical Requirements:
Portland-pozzolana cement, shall comply with the chemical requirements given below.
Chemical requirement as per IS: 1489-1 (1991)

4. Physical Requirements:

a. Fineness: When tested by the air permeability method described in IS 4031 (Part 2):
1988, the specific surface of Portland-pozzolana cement shall be not less than 300
m2/kg.
b. Soundness: When tested by ‘Le Chatelier’ method and autoclave test described in IS
4031 (Part 3): 1988, unaerated Portland-pozzolana cement The average drying
shrinkage of mortar bars shall not have an expansion of more than 10 mm and 0.8
percent respectively.
c. Setting Time: The setting time of Portland-pozzolana cement, when tested by the Vicat
apparatus method described in IS 4031 (Part 5): 1988, shall be 30min (Minimum) for
initial setting time and 600min (Maximum) for final setting time
d. Compressive strength: The average compressive strength tested in the manner as
described in IS 4031 (Part 6): 1988 shall be as follows:
At 72 ±1hr 16 MPa, Min
At 168 ± 2hrs 22 MPa, Min
At 672 ±4hrs 33 MPa, Min
e. Drying shrinkage: The average drying shrinkage of mortar bars prepared and tested in
accordance with IS 4031 (Part 10): 1988 shall not be more than 0.15 percent.

############################
1. MORTAR

(Types and tests on mortars)

Several different tests are needed to estimate the stability and strength of a structure, from the
soil it will stand on to the bricks or concrete that will form it. But what about mortar, the material
that binds it all together? There are a variety of ways to perform mortar testing, many of which
are similar to how you would test aggregates, concrete or cement.

1.1 Types of Mortar:

1. Cement Mortar
2. Lime Mortar
3. Surki Mortar
4. Gauged Mortar
5. Mud Mortar

Cement Mortar
Cement mortar is a type of mortar where cement is used as binding material and sand is used as
fine aggregate. Depending upon the desired strength, the cement to the sand proportion of
cement mortar varies from 1:2 to 1:6.
Lime Mortar
Lime mortar is a type of mortar where lime (fat lime or hydraulic lime) is used as binding
material and sand is used as fine aggregate. The lime to the sand proportion of cement mortar is
kept 1:2. The pyramids at Giza are plastered with lime mortar.
Gauged Mortar
Gauged mortar is a type of mortar where cement and lime both are used as binding material and
sand is used as fine aggregate. Basically, it is a lime mortar where cement is added to gain
higher strength. The process is known as gauging. The cement to the lime proportion varies
from 1:6 to 1:9. Gauged mortar is economical than cement concrete and also possess higher
strength than lime mortar.
Surki Mortar
Surkhi is an artificial pozzolanic material (i.e. Pozzolans are a broad class of siliceous or
siliceous and aluminous materials which, in themselves, possess little or no cementitious value
but which will, in finely divided form and in the presence of water, react chemically
with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperature to form compounds possessing cementitious
properties (The pozzolanic reaction is the chemical reaction that occurs in portland cement upon
the addition of pozzolans) made by powdering bricks or burnt clay balls. Surkhi is used for
making waterproof cement mortars and concrete. They also make the concrete more resistant
to alkalis and salt solutions. Surkhi is used as a substitute for sand for concrete and mortar, and
has almost the same function as of sand but it also imparts some strength and hydraulicity.
Surkhi is made by grinding to powder burnt bricks, brick-bats or burnt clay; under-burnt or over-
burnt bricks should not be used, nor bricks containing high proportion of sand. When clay is
especially burnt for making into surkhi, an addition of 10 to 20 per cent of quick lime will
improve its quality; small clay balls are made for burning.

Surki mortar is a type of mortar where lime is used as binding material and surki is used as fine
aggregate. Surki mortar is economic.
Mud Mortar
Mud mortar is a type of mortar where mud is used as binding material and sawdust, rice husk
or cow-dung is used as fine aggregate. Mud mortar is useful where lime or cement is not
available.

Is Mortar Testing Necessary?

While there are ASTM methods specifically designed for masonry mortar testing, there is not a
code requirement for testing mortar. Neither the International Building Code (IBC) nor the
Masonry Building Code call for mortar testing on job sites or in labs. Some specifiers will still
call for mortar strength testing, so it can be performed on a case-by-case basis. Mortar may only
play a small part in contributing to structural capacity, but it's still important to determine
whether it meets the physical property requirements of a project, including strength.

1.2 Types of Mortar Testing

There are several tests that can be performed on both plastic and hardened mortar to determine
ideal mix ratios and strength. The tests listed below are a high-level overview, so be sure to
consult ASTM C 780, which outlines the specifics of each, to help you learn more about a mortar
sample's physical properties.

1. Air Content
Air content tests are commonly specified for concrete and cement in areas that are prone to frost
they can also be specified for mortar. Repetitive tests using pressure meters or "roll-o-meters"
help determine if air content levels change due to mixing consistency and mixing time in order to
find the ideal level of air content both in the field and in the lab.

2. Board Life
Board life is an especially crucial form of mortar testing because it describes the time frame of
usability for mortar after it's removed from a mixer and placed on a mortarboard. Mortar begins
to lose moisture and stiffen once it's in open air, so it needs to be placed quickly to ensure it
bonds properly. While time frame determination is important, this test also reveals whether
mortar will be acceptable for use once completely hardened — if it's too stiff, it won't work.

3. Compressive Strength
Compressive strength tests are performed on mortar once it has hardened, and can help
determine the load a sample will be able to bear. These tests are better suited to a laboratory
since field testing may indicate less approximate mortar strengths.
4. Consistency
Consistency testing helps identify variations between batches of mortar mix, both in mix
materials and mix time. Mortar testing equipment, like a mortar penetrometer, is generally used
to determine consistency based on the depth it can penetrate into the mortar sample. While
inconsistent batches don't indicate that the materials used are improper, they can suggest that
poor control was exercised during mortar batching and mixing.

5. Mortar-Aggregate Ratio
This test helps determine whether cement, sand and water are added properly and consistently to
each batch of mortar, a bit like the consistency test. But, while the tests might be similar, mortar-
aggregate ratio testing is performed solely in a laboratory, after mortar mix samples are obtained
from a job site and sent in to be measured.

6. Water Retention
Water retention tests measure the plastic life of mortar. The longer the plastic life, the greater the
amount of time a mason has to lay and adjust the mortar/masonry unit before the mortar hardens.
These tests are performed in a laboratory.
2. CONCRETE

(Production, mix proportions and grades of concrete, fresh, mechanical and durability
properties of concrete, factors affecting properties of concrete, tests on concrete)

Concrete, in construction, structural material consisting of a hard, chemically inert particulate

substance, known as aggregate (usually sand and gravel), that is bonded together
by cement and water.

2.1 Production Process of Concrete:

A good quality concrete is essentially a heterogeneous mixture of cement, coarse and fine
aggregates and water which consolidates into a hard mass due to chemical action between the
cement and water. Each of the four constituents has a specific function. The coarser aggregate
acts as a filler. The fine aggregate fills up the voids between the paste and the coarse aggregate.
The cement in conjunction with water acts as a binder. The mobility of the mixture is aided by
the cement paste, fines and nowadays, increasingly by the use of admixtures.
Most of the properties of the hardened concrete depend on the care exercised at every stage of
the manufacture of concrete. A rational proportioning of the ingredients of concrete is the
essence of the mix design. However, it may not guarantee of having achieved the objective of th
e quality concrete work. The aim of quality control is to ensure the production of con crete of
uniform strength from batch to batch. This requires some rules to be followed in the various
stages of concrete production and are discussed as follows. The stages of concrete production
are:
1. Batching or measurement of materials
2. Mixing
3. Transporting
4. Placing
5. Compacting
6. Curing
7. Finishing

1. Batching of Materials
For good quality concrete a proper and accurate quantity of all the ingredients should be used.
The aggregates, cement and water should be measured with an accuracy of 3 percent of batch
quantity and the admixtures by 5 per cent of the batch quantity. There are two prevalent methods
of batching materials, the volume batching and the weigh batching. The factors affecting the
choice of batching method are the size of job, required production rate, and required standards
of batching performance. For most important works weigh batching is recommended.
a) Volume Batching
b) Weigh Batching
2. Mixing

 Hand Mixing
 Machine Mixing
 Tilting Mixers
 Non-tilting Mixer
 Reversing Drum Mixer
 Pan-type or Stirring Mixer
 Transit Mixer

3. Transporting
Concrete should be transported to the place of deposition at the earliest without the loss of
homogeneity obtained at the time of mixing. A maximum of 2 hours from the time of mixing is
permitted if trucks with agitator and 1 hour if trucks without agitators are used for
transporting concrete. Also it should be ensured that segregation does not take place during
transportation and placement. The methods adopted for transporting concrete depend upon the
size and importance of the job, the distance of the deposition place from the mixing place,
and the nature of the terrain. Some of the methods of transporting concrete are as below:

 Mortar Pan
 Wheel Barrow
 Chutes
 Dumper
 Bucket and Ropeway
  Belt conveyor
 Skip and Hoist
 Pumping

4. Placing

To achieve quality concrete, it should be placed with utmost care securing the uniformity
achieved during mixing and the avoidance of segregation in transporting. Research has shown
that a delayed placing of concrete results in a gain in ultimate compressive strength provided the
concrete can be adequately compacted. For dry mixes in hot weather delay of half to one hour
is allowed whereas for wet mixes in cold weather it may be several hours. The various
situations in which concrete is placed are discussed below.

 Foundations (Sub Structure)

Concrete foundations for walls and columns are provided below the ground surface.
Before placing the concrete in the foundation all the loose earth, roots of trees etc., are removed.
If the surface is found dry it is made wet so that earth does not absorb water from concrete. On
the other hand if the foundation bed is wet the water and mud is removed and cement is sprinkled
before placing concrete.

 Beams, Columns, and Slabs (Super Structure)

Before placing the concrete, the forms must be examined for correct alignment. They should
be adequately rigid to withstand the weight of concrete and construction loads without undue
deformation. Forms should be light enough to avoid any loss of mortar resulting in honeycombed
concrete. The insides of the forms should be cleaned and lubricated (oiled) before use to avoid
any sticking of concrete with the forms and making their stripping off difficult.

Concrete should not be dropped but placed in position to prevent segregation. It should be
dropped vertically from as small height as possible. It should be placed at one point in the
formwork and allowed to flow side ways to take care of honeycombing.

Laitance formation should be avoided. It can be checked by restricting thickness of layer of

concrete by 150-300 mm for R.C.C work. Laitance, however, if formed must be removed before
placing the next layer of concrete. Several such layers form a lift, provided they follow one
another quickly enough to avoid cold joints. The surface of the previous lift is kept rough and all
the laitance removed before placing the next lift.

The reinforcement should be checked for tightness and clean surface. The loose rust or scales
if any, are removed by wire brush. Paint, oil or grease if found should be removed. The
minimum cover for reinforcement should be checked before concreting.

 Mass Concreting
When the concrete is to be laid in mass as for raft foundation, dam, bridge, pier etc., concrete is
placed in layers of 350-450 mm thickness. Several such layers placed in quick succession form
a lift. Before placing the concrete in the next lift, the surface of the previous lift is cleaned
thoroughly with water jets and scrubbing by wire brush. In case of dams, sand blasting is done.
The laitance and loose materials are removed and cement slurry is applied. When the concrete is
subjected to lateral thrust, bond bars or bond stones are provided to form a key between different
layers.

 Concreting Highways and Runways

Concrete is laid in bays for highway, runway, or floor slabs. First the ground on which
concrete is to be laid is prepared and all the loose materials and grass etc., are removed. The
earth is wetted and compacted. The subgrades over which concrete is to be laid should be
properly compacted and damped to avoid any loss of moisture from concrete. Concrete is then
laid in alternate bays. This allows the concrete to undergo sufficient shrinkage and cracks do not
develop afterwards. Concrete is not placed in heap at one place and then dragged, instead it is
placed in uniform thickness.

 Concreting Underwater
Concrete may be placed underwater with the help of bottom dump buckets. The concrete is taken
through the water in water- tight bucket. On reaching the place of deposition the bottom of the
bucket is made to open and the concrete is dumped. In this process certain amount of cement is
washed away causing a reduction in strength of concrete. Another way of concreting underwater
is by filling cement bag with dry or semi-dry mix of cement and aggregates and lowering them to
the place of deposition. The drawback of this method is that the concrete will be full of voids
interspersed with participle gunny bags.

The best method of placing concrete underwater is by the use of termite pipe. The
concrete is poured into it through funnel. The bottom end of the pipe is closed with a thick
ploythene sheet, with the bottom end of the pipe at the place of deposition. The concrete (slump
150-200 mm) is poured into funnel till the whole pipe is filled with concrete. The pipe is slightly
lifted and given a jerk, the polythene sheet cover falls and concrete discharged. It should be
ensured that the end of pipe remains inside the concrete so that water does not enter the pipe. The
pipe is again filled with concrete through funnel and the process repeated till the concrete level
comes above the water level. No compaction is required for underwater concrete as it gets
compacted by the hydrostatic pressure of water. Concrete can also be placed underwater with the
help of pipes and pumps.

5. Compacting

After concrete is placed at the desired location, the next step in the process of concrete
production is its compaction. Compaction consolidates fresh concrete within the moulds or
frameworks and around embedded parts and reinforcement steel. Considerable quantity of air is
entrapped in concrete during its production and there is possible partial segregation also. Both
of these adversely affect the quality of concrete. Compaction of the concrete is the process to get
rid of the entrapped air and voids, elimination of segregation occurred and to form a uniform
dense mass. It has been found that 5 per cent voids in hardened concrete reduce the strength by
over 30 per cent and 10 per cent voids reduce the strength by over 50 per cent. Therefore, the
density and consequently the strength and durability of concrete largely depend upon the
degree of compaction. For maximum strength driest possible concrete should be compacted 100
per cent.

The voids increase the permeability of concrete. Loss of impermeability creates easy
passage of moisture, oxygen, chlorides, and other aggressive chemicals into the concrete. This
causes rusting of steel and spalling (disintegration) of concrete i.e., loss of durability. Easy
entry of sulphates from the environment causes expansive reaction with the tricalcium
aluminate (C3A) present in cement. This causes disintegration of concrete and loss of
durability. Entry of carbon dioxide causes carbonation of concrete i.e., loss of alkalinity of
concrete or loss of the protective power that concrete gives to the reinforcement or other steel
embedded in it. Once the carbonation depth exceeds the thickness of concrete cover to the
embedded steel, steel becomes vulnerable to the attack of moisture. This expedites rusting of
steel as the protective concrete cover remains no longer alkaline in nature.

Voids also reduce the contact between embedded steel and concrete. This results in loss of
bond strength of reinforced concrete member and thus the member loses strength. Voids such
as honeycombs and blowholes on the exposed surface produce visual blemish. Concrete surface
is not good to look with all such blemishes. Concrete with smooth and perfect, surface finish not
only looks good but is also stronger and more durable.

Compaction is achieved by imparting external work over the concrete to overcome the internal
friction between the particles forming the concrete, between concrete and reinforcement and
between concrete and forms and by reducing the air voids to a minimum. The compaction of
concrete can be achieved by the following methods.
1. Hand Compaction
2. Compaction by Vibration
a. Needle Vibrator:
b. Formwork Vibrator
3. Compaction by Spinning
4. Compaction by Jolting
5. Compaction by Rolling

6. Curing

Cement gains strength and hardness because of the chemical action between cement and
water. This chemical reaction requires moisture, favorable temperature and time referred to as
the curing period. The variation of compressive strength with curing period is shown in Fig.
10.11 (a, b). Curing of freshly placed concrete is very important for optimum strength and
durability. The major part of the strength in the initial period is contributed by the clinker
compound C3S and partly by C2S, and is completed in about three weeks. The later strength
contributed by C2S is gradual and takes long time. As such sufficient water should be made
available to concrete to allow it to gain full strength. The process of keeping concrete damp
for this purpose is known as curing. The object is to prevent the loss of moisture from
concrete due to evaporation or any other reason, supply additional moisture or heat and moisture
to accelerate the gain of strength. Curing must be done for at least three weeks and in no case
for less than ten days.
Approximately 14 liters of water is required to hydrate each bag of cement. Soon after the
concrete is placed, the increase in strength is very rapid (3 to 7 days) and continues slowly
thereafter for an indefinite period. Concrete moist cured for 7 days is about 50 per cent stronger
than that which is exposed to dry air for the entire period. If the concrete is kept damp for one
month, the strength is about double than that of concrete exposed only to dry air.

 Methods of Curing
Concrete may be kept moist by a number of ways. The methods consist in either supplying
additional moisture to concrete during early hardening period by ponding, spraying, sprinkling,
etc. or by preventing loss of moisture from concrete by sealing the surface of concrete by
membrane formed by curing compounds. Following are some of the prevalent methods of
curing.

 Water Curing
 Steam Curing
 Curing by Infra-Red Radiation
 Electrical Curing
 Chemical Curing
7. Finishing
Concrete is basically used because of its high compressive strength. However, the finish of the
ultimate product is not that pleasant. In past couple of decades efforts have been made to develop
surface finishes to give a better appearance to concrete surfaces and are as follows.

 Formwork Finishes
 Surface Treatments
 Applied Finishes

2.2 Mix Proportions and Grades of Concrete

 Nominal Concrete Mix Ratios

In the past the specifications for concrete prescribed the proportions of cement, fine and coarse
aggregates. These mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio which ensures adequate strength are
termed nominal mixes. Nominal mixes offer simplicity and under normal circumstances, have a
margin of strength above that specified. However, due to the variability of mix ingredients the
nominal concrete for a given workability varies widely in strength. Nominal mix ratios for
concrete are 1:2:4 for M15, 1:1.5:3 for M20 etc.

Standard Mixes or Ratio

The nominal mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio (by volume) vary widely in strength and
may result in under or over-rich mixes. For this reason, the minimum compressive strength has
been included in many specifications. These mixes are termed standard mixes. IS 456-2000 has
designated the concrete mixes into a number of grades as M10, M15, M20, M25, M30, M35
and M40. In this designation the letter M refers to the mix and the number to the specified 28
day cube strength of mix in N/mm2. The mixes of grades M10, M15, M20 and M25 correspond
approximately to the mix proportions (1:3:6), (1:2:4), (1:1.5:3) and (1:1:2) respectively.

 Designed Mix Ratio of Concrete (IS 10262: 2019)

In these mixes the performance of the concrete is specified by the designer but the mix
proportions are determined by the producer of concrete, except that the minimum cement content
can be laid down. This is most rational approach to the selection of mix proportions with specific
materials in mind possessing more or less unique characteristics. The approach results in the
production of concrete with the appropriate properties most economically. However, the
designed mix does not serve as a guide since this does not guarantee the correct mix proportions
for the prescribed performance. For the concrete with undemanding performance nominal or
standard mixes (prescribed in the codes by quantities of dry ingredients per cubic meter and by
slump) may be used only for very small jobs, when the 28-day strength of concrete does not
exceed 30 N/mm2. No control testing is necessary reliance being placed on the masses of the
ingredients. Following table provides details of different types of concrete mix ratios and their
strengths.

Compressive Strength
Concrete Grade
Mix Ratio
(Nominal Mix)
MPa (N/mm2) psi

Normal Grade of Concrete

M5 1 : 5 : 10 5 MPa 725 psi

M7.5 1:4:8 7.5 MPa 1087 psi

M10 1:3:6 10 MPa 1450 psi

M15 1:2:4 15 MPa 2175 psi

M20 1 : 1.5 : 3 20 MPa 2900 psi

 Standard Grade of Concrete

M25 1:1:2 25 MPa 3625 psi

M30 Design Mix 30 MPa 4350 psi

M35 Design Mix 35 MPa 5075 psi

M40 Design Mix 40 MPa 5800 psi

M45 Design Mix 45 MPa 6525 psi

High Strength Concrete Grades

M50 Design Mix 50 MPa 7250 psi

M55 Design Mix 55 MPa 7975 psi

M60 Design Mix 60 MPa 8700 psi

M65 Design Mix 65 MPa 9425 psi

M70 Design Mix 70 MPa 10150 psi

2.3 Properties of Fresh Concrete:

Concrete remains in its fresh state from the time it is mixed until it sets. During this time the
concrete is handled, transported, placed and compacted. Properties of concrete in its fresh state
are very important because the influence the quality of the hardened concrete.
The fresh concrete has the following procedure.

1. Consistency
2. Workability
 3. Settlement & Bleeding
4. Plastic shrinkage
5. Loss of consistency
1. Consistency
Consistency of a concrete mix is a measure of the stiffness or sloppiness or fluidity of the mix.
For effective handling, placing and compacting the concrete, consistency must be the same for
each batch. It is therefore necessary to measure consistency of concrete at regular
intervals. Slump test is commonly used to measure consistency of concrete.

2. Workability
The workability of a concrete mix is the relative ease with which concrete can be placed,
compacted and finished without separation or segregation of the individual materials.
Workability is not the same thing as consistency. Mixes with the same consistency can have
different workabilities, if they are made with different sizes of stone – the smaller the stone the
more workable the concrete.
It is not possible to measure workability but the slump test, together with an assessment of
properties like stone content, cohesiveness and plasticity, gives a useful indication.

3. Settlement and Bleeding

Cement and aggregate particles have densities about three times that of water. In fresh concrete
they consequently tend to settle and displace mixing water which migrates upward and may
collect on the top surface of the concrete. This upward movement of mixing water is known as
bleeding; water that separates from the rest of the concrete is called bleed water.

4. Plastic Shrinkage
If water is removed from the compacted concrete before it sets, the volume of the concrete is
reduced by the amount of water removed. This volume reduction is called plastic shrinkage.
Water may be removed from the plastic concrete by evaporation or by being absorbed by dry
surfaces such as soil or old concrete or by the dry wooden form work.

5. Slump Loss
From the time of mixing, fresh concrete gradually loses consistency. This gives rise to the
problems only if the concrete becomes too stiff to handle, place and compact properly.
Slump loss in concrete is caused due to the following reasons.
 Hydration of cement (generating more heat)
 Loss of water by evaporation
 Absorption of water by dry aggregates
  Absorption of water by surfaces in contact with the concrete.
2.4 Mechanical properties of concrete
Performance of concrete is evaluated from mechanical properties which include shrinkage and
creep, compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural strength, and modulus of elasticity.

 Shrinkage and Creep

When concrete is subjected to compressive loading it deforms instantaneously. This immediate
deformation is called instantaneous strain. Now, if the load is maintained for a considerable
period of time, concrete undergoes additional deformations even without any increase in the
load. This time-dependent strain is termed as creep.
Shrinkage is the reduction in the volume of hardened concrete due to loss of moisture by
evaporation.
There are several similarities and dissimilarities between creep and shrinkage. First, the source
for both the effects are the same, which is loss of adsorbed moisture from the hydrated cement
paste. In shrinkage, the loss is due to difference in the relative humidity of concrete and the
environment, in creep it is due to sustained applied stress. Second, the strain-time curves of both
the phenomenon are very similar.
The factors that affect creep also effects shrinkage. They both increase with:
higher cement content, higher water content, lower aggregate content, low relative humidity,
high temperature, small thickness of the member, etc.

 Compressive strength
Compressive strength is the maximum compressive stress that, under a gradually applied load, a
given solid material can sustain without fracture. The formula for calculating compressive
strength is:
CS = F / A
Where in compressive strength (CS) is equal to the force (F) at the point of failure divided by the
cross sectional area. Compressive strength tests must be performed with equal opposing forces
on the test material. Test materials are normally in cylinders, cubes or spheres.
Tensile strength
Tensile strength, maximum load that a material can support without fracture when being
stretched, divided by the original cross-sectional area of the material. Tensile strengths have
dimensions of force per unit area and in the English system of measurement are commonly
expressed in units of pounds per square inch, often abbreviated to psi. When stresses less than
the tensile strength are removed, a material returns either completely or partially to its original
shape and size. As the stress reaches the value of the tensile strength, however, a material, if
ductile, that has already begun to flow plastically rapidly forms a constricted region called a
neck, where it then fractures.

Flexural strength
The flexural strength of a material is defined as the maximum bending stress that can be applied
to that material before it yields. The most common way of obtaining the flexural strength of a
material is by employing a transverse bending test using a three-point flexural test technique.
Flexural strength is also known as bending strength, modulus of rupture or transverse rupture
strength.

Modulus of elasticity
The ratio of the stress in a body to the corresponding strain.

Quality Tests on concrete

Each quality test conducted on concrete determines their respective quality result of concrete.
Hence, it is not possible to conduct all the test to determine the quality of concrete. We have to
choose the best tests that can give good judgment of the concrete quality. The primary quality
test determines the variation of the concrete specification from the required and standard
concrete specification. The quality tests ensure that the best quality concrete is placed at the
site so that concrete structural members of desired strength are obtained. Below mentioned are
the quality tests conducted on fresh and hardened concretes.

Fresh Concrete
Most Common Quality Tests on Fresh concrete are:

1. Workability Tests
Workability of concrete mixture is measured by, Vee-bee consistometer test, Compaction factor
Test, and Slump test.

2. Air content
Air content measures the total air content in a sample of fresh concrete but does not indicate
what the final in-place air content is, because a certain amount of air is lost in transportation
Consolidating, placement, and finishing.
3. Setting Time
The action of changing mixed cement from a fluid state to a solid state is called “Setting of
Cement”. Initial Setting Time is defined as the period elapsing between the time when water is
added to the cement and the time at which the needle of 1 mm square section fails to pierce the
test block to a depth of about 5 mm from the bottom of the mold. Final Setting Time is defined
as the period elapsing between the time when water is added to cement and the time at which the
needle of 1 mm square section with 5 mm diameter attachment makes an impression on the test
block.
Other tests conducted on fresh concrete are:
1. Segregation resistance
2. Unit weight
3. Wet analysis
4. Temperature
5. Heat generation
6. Bleeding

Hardened Concrete
Most Common Quality Tests on hardened concrete are:

1. Compressive strength (MECHANICAL PROPERTY)

The compressive strength of concrete cube test provides an idea about all the characteristics of
concrete. Compressive strength is the ability of material or structure to carry the loads on its
surface without any crack or deflection. A material under compression tends to reduce the size,
while in tension, size elongates.

Compressive Strength = Load / Cross-sectional Area

Calculations of Compressive Strength
Size of the cube =15cmx15cmx15cm
Area of the specimen (calculated from the mean size of the specimen) =225 cm2
Characteristic compressive strength (f ck) at 7 days =
Expected maximum load =fck x area x f.s
Range to be selected is.......................
Similar calculation should be done for 28 day compressive strength
Maximum load applied =..........tones = .............N
Compressive strength = (Load in N/ Area in mm2)=...............N/mm2
=............................N/mm2

2. Tensile strength (MECHANICAL PROPERTY)

The tensile strength of concrete is one of the basic and important properties which greatly affect
the extent and size of cracking in structures. Moreover, the concrete is very weak in tension due
to its brittle nature. Hence. It is not expected to resist the direct tension. So, concrete develops
cracks when tensile forces exceed its tensile strength. Therefore, it is necessary to determine the
tensile strength of concrete to determine the load at which the concrete members may crack.
Furthermore, splitting tensile strength test on concrete cylinder is a method to determine the
tensile strength of concrete. The procedure based on the ASTM C496 (Standard Test Method of
Cylindrical Concrete Specimen) which similar to other codes lik IS 5816 1999. Finally, different
aspects split cylinder test of concrete specimen will be discussed in the following sections.

Calculations
Calculate the splitting tensile strength of the specimen as follows: T= 2P/ pi LD Where: T =
splitting tensile strength, MPa P: maximum applied load indicated by the testing machine D:
diameter of the specimen, mm L: length of the specimen, mm.
3. Modulus of elasticity (MECHANICAL PROPERTY)
Modulus of elasticity of concrete is defined as the ratio of stress applied on the concrete to the
respective strain caused. The accurate value of modulus of elasticity of concrete can be
determined by conducting a laboratory test called compression test on a cylindrical concrete
specimen.
In the test, the deformation of the specimen with respect to different load variation is analyzed.
These observations produce Stress-Strain graph (load-deflection graph) from which the modulus
of elasticity of concrete is determined. The slope of a line that is drawn in the stress-strain curve
from a stress value of zero to the compressive stress value of 0.45f'ck (working stress) gives the
modulus of elasticity of concrete.

Calculation
Slope of Initial Tangent gives:

Initial tangent modulus = stress/strain

Slope of tangent at working stress gives:

Tangent modulus at working stress= stress/strain

Slope of Line joining initial tangent point and point of working stress gives:

Secant modulus = stress/strain

2.5 Durability Property
a) Permeability Tests on Concrete
When concrete is permeable it can cause corrosion in reinforcement in presence of oxygen,
moisture, CO2, SO3- and Cl- etc. This formation of rust due to corrosion becomes nearly 6
times the volume of steel oxide layer, due to which cracking develops in reinforced concrete
and spalling of concrete starts.
The durability of concrete structures depends on the permeability of reinforcement cover by
concrete. It is this thin layer of concrete over reinforcement on which life of a structure depends.
The permeability tester for concrete cover is a non-destructive instrument for the
determination of air permeability of cover concrete. The permeability of concrete
cover depends on the condition of concreting at site such as segregation and bleeding, finishing
and curing, the formulation of micro-cracks, etc. The composition and properties of the cover
concrete may differ very considerably from those of the good quality of cover concrete. In
addition, the concrete test specimens used for quality controls can never represent the quality and
properties of the cover concrete since they are produced and stored in a completely different
manner. Durability of concrete structure under aggressive environmental influences depends
essentially on the quality of a relatively thin surface layer (20 – 50 mm). This layer is intended to
protect the reinforcement from corrosion which may occur as a result of carbonation or due to
ingress of chlorides or other chemical effects. The influence mentioned is enhanced by damage
due to frost/thaw or frost/thaw/salt. There is no generally accepted method to characterize the
pore structure of concrete and to relate it to its durability. However, several investigations have
indicated that concrete permeability both with respect to air and to water is an excellent measure
for the resistance of concrete against the ingress of aggressive media in the gaseous or in the
liquid state and thus is a measure of the potential durability of a particular concrete. There is at
present no generally accepted method for a rapid determination of concrete permeability and of
limiting values for the permeability of concrete exposed to different environmental
conditions. The Permeability Tester permits a rapid and non-destructive measurement of the
quality of the cover concrete with respect its durability. The general arrangement of the
permeability tester is shown in fig below:

b) Acid Attack (Acid resistance of concrete was determined in terms of weight loss and residual
compressive strength. For this test, concrete cubes of size 150 mm x 150 mm x 150 mm were
cast and stored in a place at a temperature of 27°C for 24 hrs and then the specimens were water
cured for 28 days.)
c) Sulphate attack (As regards chemical reactions, the only test that indirectly determines the
resistance of a cement to sulfate is ASTM C 1012 through measuring the expansion of a
specimen immersed in a sulfate solution (usually sodium sulfate). This test requires
measurements for 6 months to a year.)
d) Chloride attack: (When considering durability of concrete, chloride attack is the most
imminent enemy. It is responsible for almost 40% of failure of concrete structures. In the
presence of oxygen and water, chloride attack corrodes the steel reducing the strength of the
structure drastically)
e) Sorptivity: (Ability of concrete to absorb and transmit water through it via capillary suction
and provides an engineering measure of microstructure)
f) RCPT (Rapid chloride permeability test): Used to determine the resistance to penetration
of chloride ions
g) Water permeability test: determines the resistance of concrete against water under hydrostatic
pressure
2.6 Other quality tests are conducted to test the following:
1. Modulus of rupture
2. Density
3. Shrinkage
4. Creep
5. Freeze/thaw resistance
6. Resistance to aggressive chemicals
7. Resistance to abrasion
8. Bond to reinforcement
9. Absorption

2.7 Factors affecting properties of concrete:

Concrete strength is affected by many factors, such as quality of raw materials, water/cement
ratio, coarse/fine aggregate ratio, and age of concrete, compaction of concrete, temperature,
relative humidity and curing of concrete.

 Quality of Raw Materials

 Cement: Provided the cement conforms to the appropriate standard and it has been stored
correctly (i.e. in dry conditions), it should be suitable for use in concrete.
 Aggregates: Quality of aggregates, its size, shape, texture, strength etc. determines the
strength of concrete. The presence of salts (chlorides and sulphates), silt and clay also reduces
the strength of concrete.
 Water: frequently the quality of the water is covered by a clause stating “The water should be
fit for drinking”. This criterion though is not absolute and reference should be made to
respective codes for testing of water construction purpose.
 Water / Cement Ratio: The relation between water cement ratio and strength of concrete is
shown in the plot as shown below:

The higher the water/cement ratio, the greater the initial spacing between the cement grains and
the greater the volume of residual voids not filled by hydration products. There is one thing
missing on the graph. For a given cement content, the workability of the concrete is reduced if
the water/cement ratio is reduced. A lower water cement ratio means less water, or more cement
and lower workability. However if the workability becomes too low the concrete becomes
difficult to compact and the strength reduces. For a given set of materials and environment
conditions, the strength at any age depends only on the water-cement ratio, providing full
compaction can be achieved.

 Coarse / fine aggregate ratio

Following points should be noted for coarse/fine aggregate ratio:

 If the proportion of fines is increased in relation to the coarse aggregate, the overall
aggregate surface area will increase.

 If the surface area of the aggregate has increased, the water demand will also increase.

 Assuming the water demand has increased, the water cement ratio will increase.
  Since the water cement ratio has increased, the compressive strength will decrease.

 Aggregate / Cement Ratio

Following points must be noted for aggregate cement ratio:

If the volume remains the same and the proportion of cement in relation to that of sand is
increased the surface area of the solid will increase.

If the surface area of the solids has increased, the water demand will stay the same for the
constant workability.

Assuming an increase in cement content for no increase in water demand, the water cement ratio
will decrease.

If the water cement ratio reduces, the strength of the concrete will increase.

The influence of cement content on workability and strength is an important one to remember
and can be summarized as follows:

1. For a given workability an increase in the proportion of cement in a mix has little effect
on the water demand and results in a reduction in the water/cement ratio.

2. The reduction in water/cement ratio leads to an increase in strength of concrete.

3. Therefore, for a given workability an increase in the cement content results in an increase
in strength of concrete.

 Age of concrete

The degree of hydration is synonymous with the age of concrete provided the concrete has not
been allowed to dry out or the temperature is too low. In theory, provided the concrete is not
allowed to dry out, then it will always be increasing albeit at an ever reducing rate. For
convenience and for most practical applications, it is generally accepted that the majority of the
strength has been achieved by 28 days.
 Compaction of concrete

Any entrapped air resulting from inadequate compaction of the plastic concrete will lead to a
reduction in strength. If there was 10% trapped air in the concrete, the strength will fall down in
the range of 30 to 40%.

 Temperature

The rate of hydration reaction is temperature dependent. If the temperature increases the reaction
also increases. This means that the concrete kept at higher temperature will gain strength more
quickly than a similar concrete kept at a lower temperature. However, the final strength of the
concrete kept at the higher temperature will be lower. This is because the physical form of the
hardened cement paste is less well-structured and more porous when hydration proceeds at faster
rate. This is an important point to remember because temperature has a similar but more
pronounced detrimental effect on permeability of the concrete.

 Relative humidity
If the concrete is allowed to dry out, the hydration reaction will stop. The hydration reaction
cannot proceed without moisture. The three curves shows the strength development of similar
concretes exposed to different conditions.
 Curing
It should be clear from what has been said above that the detrimental effects of storage of
concrete in a dry environment can be reduced if the concrete is adequately cured to prevent
excessive moisture loss.

3. CONCRETE ADMIXTURES

They are natural or manufactured chemicals or additives added during concrete mixing to
enhance specific properties of the fresh or hardened concrete, such as workability, durability, or
early and final strength.

a Chemical Admixtures:
ASTM C494 specifies the requirements for seven chemical admixture types.

They are:
 Type A: Water-reducing admixtures:
 Type B: Retarding admixtures
 Type C: Accelerating admixtures
 Type D: Water-reducing and retarding admixtures
 Type E: Water-reducing and accelerating admixtures
 Type F: Water-reducing, high range admixtures
 Type G: Water-reducing, high range, and retarding admixtures

b Mineral Admixtures:
Mineral admixtures make mixtures more economical, reduce permeability, increase strength, and
influence other concrete properties.
Mineral admixtures affect the nature of the hardened concrete through hydraulic or pozzolanic
activity. Pozzolans are cementitious materials and include natural pozzolans (such as the
volcanic ash used in Roman concrete), fly ash and silica fume.
They can be used with Portland cement, or blended cement either individually or in
combinations
Types of Admixtures (according to function) There are five distinct classes of chemical
admixtures:

 Air-Entraining Admixtures:
 Water-Reducing Admixtures:
 Retarding Admixtures:
 Accelerating Admixtures:
1. BUILDING STONES:

(Classifications, properties and structural requirements)

A building stone is a piece of rock quarried and worked into a required size and shape for a
particular purpose. A building stone may be defined as a sound rock that can be safely used in
some situation in the construction as a massive dressed or undressed unit. Granites and marbles
used in the form of finely dressed blocks or slabs or columns in monumental and costly
buildings, are good building stones.
Similarly, sandstones and limestones used in forts, retaining walls and boundary walls and also
as blocks in stone houses and bungalows are typical building stones. Slates used in many areas
as roofing material for ordinary constructions and in pavements also fall in the category of
building stones.
Stone masonry is an engineering art that is preserved in many historical buildings in all
parts of the world. This skill is still used, though on a lesser scale (because of the advent of
concrete) in the construction of common residential houses and palatial buildings in many
places. The Taj Mahal at Agra, the Red Fort in Delhi and temples of Lord Jagannath puri
are some of the best known stone marvels of India. Such examples may be compiled from
all countries of the world and the number may run into many hundreds.

1.1 Classification of Building Stone:

 Physical classification
o Stratified stone
o Unstratified stone
 Geological classification
o Igneous Rocks
o Sedimentary Rocks
o Metamorphic Rocks
 Scientific or engineering classification
o Silicious Rocks
o Argillaceous Rocks
o Calcareous Rocks
 A particle of stone Classification
o Granite
o Sandstone
o Limestone
o Slate
Physical classification:
Stratified Stones
These stones are derived from sedimentary rocks. These stones are found in layers, one above
another Limestone and sandstones are the stratified stone.
Unstratified Stones
These stones do not show any types of layers. Granite, marble, trap, etc. are the unstratified
stones.
Geological classification:
Igneous Rocks
These are formed by the cooling of molten lava. The structure of stone depends upon the rate
of cooling of lava. This lava becomes hard on cooling and formed igneous rocks. These rocks
are durable, hard, massive and stronger than other stones. Example: Basalt, Trap, Andesite,
Rhyolite, Diorite, Granite.
Sedimentary Rocks
These are formed by the deposition of sediments due to the action of air and water. Due to
the action of high-speed wind and heavy rain, igneous rocks are disintegrated and deposited in
layers, one the earth crust and formed sedimentary rocks. Example: Limestone, Sandstone,
Dolomite and Slate are the sedimentary rocks.
Metamorphic rocks
These rocks are either the sedimentary rocks or the igneous rocks whose physical and chemical
properties are changed due to the action of high temperature and pressure. Dolomite, slate,
marble, gneiss are the metamorphic rocks. Example: Gneiss, Quartzite, Marble, Slate.
Scientific or engineering classification:
Silicious Rocks
These have silica as the principal constituent. These rocks are hardly affected by weathering
action. These are very hard and also durable. Granite, sandstone, gneiss, basalt, trap syenite
are the siliceous rocks.
Argillaceous rocks
These have clay as the principal constituent. These stones are hard and durable but brittle in
nature. Slate and laterite are the argillaceous rocks.
Calcareous Rocks
These have carbonate of lime as the principal constituent. Limestone, marble, kankar, dolomite,
and gravel are the calcareous rocks.
A particle of stone Classification:
Granite
The formation of minerals of granite is quartz, feldspar, and mica. It’s also having specific
gravity 2.63 to 2.75. They also having light or dark grey, pink or reddish color. It’s also having
a crushing strength of 1000 to 1400 kg/m2.
It also having light or dark grey, pink or reddish color. They also have a crushing strength of
1000 to 1400 kg/m2. It is very strong heavy, hard durable. It contains silica 60 to 80%.
Sandstone
Sandstone is composed of sand grains, cemented together by calcium or magnesium carbonate
or silicic acid, alumina, and also oxide of iron. It also has a specific gravity 2.25. They are also
white, grey, brown, or red in color. It’s having a crushing strength of 400 to 800 kg/m2.
These strong under pressure, but it is flaky when it contains mica. These are hard, non-
absorbent, strong, and heavy. They are easily workable and also resists the weathering in a
better way. They use to face work and ornamental work.
Limestone
These are carbonate of lime intermixed with other minerals and impurities such as silica,
magnesium carbonate, aluminum, and iron. It’s also having yellow, brown, grey or violet color.
It’s also having specific gravity 2.56. They having crushing strength 300 to 500 kg/m2.
These are soft and absorbent and so they do not resist the weathering action well. Chalk,
marbles are examples of limestone.
Slate
These are also composed of silica and alumina. These are also usually grey-black or dark blue.
It’s also having specific gravity 2.8. It’s also having crushing strength 700 to 2100 kg/m2.
When these are hard and tough, laminar in nature. It’s useful for roofing as well as flooring.

Some of the common building stones which are used for different purposes in India.
1. Granite
It is a deep-seated igneous rock, which is hard, durable and available in various
colours.
 It has a high value of crushing strength and is capable of bearing high weathering.
 Granite is used for bridge components, retaining walls, stone columns, road
metal, and ballast for railways, foundation, stone work and for coarse aggregates
in concrete. These stones can also be cut into slabs and polished to be used as
floor slabs and stone facing slabs.
 Granite is found in Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Punjab, Assam, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala.
2. Basalt and Trap
 They are originated from igneous rocks in the absence of pressure by the rapid
cooling of the magma.
  They have the same uses as granite. Deccan trap is a popular stone of this group
in South India.
3. Limestone
 It is a sedimentary rock formed by remnants of seaweeds and living organisms
consolidated and cemented together.
 It contains a high percentage of calcium carbonate.
 Limestone is used for flooring, roofing, and pavements and as a base material
for cement.
 It is found in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and
Tamil Nadu.
4. Sandstone
 This stone is another form of sedimentary rock formed by the action of mechanical
sediments.
 It has a sandy structure which is low in strength and easy to dress.
 They are used for ornamental works, paving and as road metal. It is available in
Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
5. Gneiss
 It can be recognised by its elongated platy minerals usually mixed with mica and used
in the same way as granite.
 They can be used for flooring, pavement and not for major purposes because of its
weakness.
 It is found in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Gujarat.

6. Marble
 It is a metamorphic rock which can be easily cut and carved into different shapes.
 It is used for ornamental purposes, stone facing slabs, flooring, facing works etc.
 It is found in Rajasthan, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh.
7. Slate
 It is a metamorphic rock which can be split easily and available in black colour.
 It is used for damp-proofing flooring and roofing.
8. Quartzite
 It is a metamorphic rock which is hard, brittle, crystalline and durable.
 It is difficult to work with and used in the same way as granite but not recommended
for ornamental works as it is brittle.
9. Laterite
 It is decomposed from igneous rocks; occur in soft and hard varieties.
 It contains a high percentage of iron oxide and can be easily cut into blocks.
 The soft variety is used for walls after curing while the hard blocks are used for
paving the pathways.

1.2 Properties and Structural requirements of building stone:

The following properties of the stones should be looked into before selecting them for
engineering works:

i. Strength
ii. Hardness
 iii. Durability
iv. Toughness
v. Percentage Wear
vi. Porosity and Absorption
vii. Weathering
viii. Seasoning
ix. Workability
x. Resistance to Fire
xi. Density/specific gravity
xii. Structure
xiii. Texture
xiv. Appearance
xv. Ease in Dressing
xvi. Cost

I) STRENGTH
Strength is an important property to be looked into before selecting stone as a building block.
Indian standard code recommends, a minimum crushing strength of 3.5 N/mm2 for any
building block.
Table below shows the crushing strength of various stones. Due to the non-uniformity of the
material, usually, a factor of safety of 10 is used to find the permissible stress in a stone.
Hence, even laterite can be used safely for a single storey building because in such structures
expected load can hardly give stress of 0.15 N/mm2.
However, in stone masonry buildings, care should be taken to check the stresses when the
beams (Concentrated Loads) are placed on laterite wall.
Generally, most of the building stones have high strength to resist the load coming on it.
Therefore, it is not of prime concern when it comes to check the quality of stones.
Table 1: Crushing strength of common building stone

Name of Stone Crushing Strength in N/mm2

Trap 300 to 350

Basalt 153 to 189

Granite 104 to 140

 Slate 70 to 210

Marble 72

Sand Stone 65

Lime Stone 55

Laterite 1.8 to 3.2

II) HARDNESS
It is an important property to be considered when a stone is used for flooring, pavement or
aprons of bridges, they become subjected to wearing and abrasive forces caused by movement
of men or machine over them.
The coefficient of hardness is to be found by conducting a test on a standard specimen in
Dory’s testing machine.
For road works coefficient of hardness should be at least 17. For building works stones with
a coefficient of hardness less than 14 should not be used.
III) DURABILITY
Building stones should be capable to resist the adverse effects of natural forces like wind, rain
and heat.
It must be durable and should not deteriorate due to the adverse effects of the above natural
forces.
IV) TOUGHNESS
Toughness of stones means it ability to resist impact forces. It is determined by the impact
test. Stones with toughness index more than 19 are preferred for road works.
The vibrations may be due to the machinery mounted over them or due to the loads moving
over them. The stone aggregates used in the road constructions should be tough. Building
stones should be tough enough to sustain stresses developed due to vibrations.

V) PERCENTAGE WEAR
It is measured by the attrition test. It is an important property to be considered in selecting
aggregate for road works and railway ballast. A good stone should not show the wear of more
than 2%.
VI) POROSITY AND ABSORPTION
All stones have pores and hence absorb water. The reaction of water with a material of stone
cause disintegration. The absorption test is specified as the percentage of water absorbed by
the stone when it is immersed underwater for 24 hours.
For a good stone it should be as small as possible and in no case more than 5.
Porosity of building stones depend upon the mineral constituent and structural formation
of the parent rock.
If stones used in building construction are porous then rain water can easily enter into the
pore spaces and cause damage to the stones. Therefore, building stone should not be porous.
Water absorption of stone is directly proportional to the porosity of rock. If a stone is more
porous then it will absorb more water and cause more damage to stone.
In higher altitudes, the freezing of water in pores takes place and it results into the
disintegration of the stone.
VII) WEATHERING
Rain and wind cause loss of the good appearance of stones. Hence stones with good weather
resistance should be used for face works.
VIII) SEASONING
The stones obtained from the quarry contain moisture in the pores. The strength of the stone
improves if this moisture is removed before using the stone.
The process of removing moisture from pores is called seasoning. The best way
of seasoning is to allow it to the action of nature for 6 to 12 months. This is very much
required in the case of laterite stones.
Good stones should be free from the quarry sap. Lateritic stones should not be used for 6 to 12
months after quarrying. They are allowed to get rid of quarry sap by the action of nature. This
process of removing quarry sap is called seasoning.
IX) WORKABILITY
Stone is said to be workable when the work involved in stone working (such as cutting, dressing
& shaping) is economical and easy to conduct.
X) FIRE RESISTANCE
Stones should be free from calcium carbonate, oxides of iron, and minerals having different
coefficients of thermal expansion.
Igneous rock show marked disintegration principally because of quartz which disintegrates
into small particles at a temperature of about 575°C.
Limestone, however, can withstand a little higher temperature; i.e. up to 800°C after which
they disintegrate.
Sand-stones resist fire better. Argillaceous materials, though poor in strength, are good in
resisting fire.
XI) DENSITY / SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Denser stones are stronger. Light-weight stones are weak. Hence stones with a specific gravity
less than 2.4 are considered unsuitable for buildings.
The more the specific gravity of stone, the heavier and stronger the stone.
Therefore, stones having higher specific gravity values should be used for the construction
of dams, retaining walls, docks and harbours.
The specific gravity of good building stone is between 2.4 and 2.8.
XII) STRUCTURE
The structure of the stone may be stratified (layered) or unstratified. Structured stones should
be easily dressed and suitable for super-structure. Unstratified stones are hard and difficult
to dress. They are preferred for the foundation works.
XIII) TEXTURE
Fine grained stones with homogeneous distribution look attractive and hence they are used
for carving. Such stones are usually strong and durable.
XIV) APPEARANCE
A stone with uniform and attractive colour is durable if grains are compact. Marble and
granite get a very good appearance, when polished. Hence, they are used for face works in
buildings.
In case of the stones to be used for face works, where appearance is a primary requirement, its
colour and ability to receive polish is an important factor.
Light colour stones are more preferred than dark colour stones as the colour are likely to
fade out with time.

XV) EASE IN DRESSING

Giving required shape to the stone is called dressing.
The cost of dressing contributes to cost of stone masonry to a great extent. The dressing is easy
in stones with lesser strength.
Hence an engineer should look into sufficient strength rather than high strength while selecting
stones for building works.
XVI) COST
Cost is an important consideration in selecting a building material. The proximity of the
quarry to the building site brings down the cost of transportation and hence the cost of stones
comes down.

2. WOOD AND WOOD PRODUCTS

(Introduction to wood macrostructure, sap wood and heart wood, defects and decay of
timber, seasoning and preservation of timber, fire resisting treatment, introduction to wood
products- veneers, plywoods, fibre board, particle board, block board, batten boards)