Scanned by CamScanner

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Session one - introduction .......................................................................................................... 2

aim and objectives of the training course ............................................................................... 2
1.1. What is translation? ..................................................................................................... 2
1.2. Why is translation? ...................................................................................................... 2
1.3. History of translation ................................................................................................... 3
1.4. The dynamics of translation (peter newmark) ............................................................. 3
1.5. Translation theory ........................................................................................................ 4
1.6. Pre-translation considerations ..................................................................................... 4
1.6.1. Reading the text .................................................................................................... 4
1.6.2. The intention of the text........................................................................................ 5
1.6.3. The intention of the translator .............................................................................. 5
1.6.4. Text styles ............................................................................................................. 5
1.6.5. The readership ...................................................................................................... 5
1.6.6. The quality of the writing ..................................................................................... 5
session two.................................................................................................................................. 6
2.1. Process of translating ................................................................................................... 6
2.1.1. The approach ........................................................................................................ 6
2.1.2. The unit of translation .......................................................................................... 7
2.2. Translation methods .................................................................................................... 7
2.2.1. Word-for-word translation.................................................................................... 8
2.2.2. Literal translation .................................................................................................. 8
2.2.3. Faithful translation ................................................................................................ 8
2.2.4. Adaptation ............................................................................................................ 8
2.2.5. Free translation ..................................................................................................... 8
2.2.6. Idiomatic translation ............................................................................................. 9
session three.............................................................................................................................. 10
3.1. About language .......................................................................................................... 10
3.2. Strategies for translators ............................................................................................ 10
session four ............................................................................................................................... 18
4.1. What is interpreting? ................................................................................................. 18
4.2. Modes of interpreting ................................................................................................ 18
4.2.1. Consecutive interpreting (dịch đuổi) .................................................................. 18
4.2.2. Simultaneous interpreting (dịch song song, dịch cabin) .................................... 19
4.3. Interpreting process ................................................................................................... 19
session five ............................................................................................................................... 21
helpful skills/attributes for interpreting .................................................................................... 21
5.1. Hearing ability ........................................................................................................... 21
5.2. Public speaking skills ................................................................................................ 21
5.3. Conversion skills ....................................................................................................... 21
5.4. Memory skills ............................................................................................................ 21
5.5. Note-taking skills....................................................................................................... 22
session six ................................................................................................................................. 23
code of ethics for interpreters ............................................................................................... 23
6.1. Some practical techniques for on-site interpreting .................................................... 23
6.2. Putting your role into practice ................................................................................... 24
6.3. Interpreting in specialised areas ................................................................................ 24
6.3.1. Legal interpreting ............................................................................................... 24
6.3.2. Business interpreting .............................................................................................. 24
6.3.3. Medical interpreting ............................................................................................... 25
references .................................................................................................................................. 27

1
 SESSION ONE
INTRODUCTION
When studying interpreting and translation (I/T) at university, students often meet with a
lot of difficulties such as how to remember what has been said, how to express an idea clearly
and quickly in the target language, how to translate from the source language (SL) into the target
language (TL) and so on. In order to help students to become better interpreters and translators
and enjoy the subject, the theory of interpreting and translation is introduced.
It is important for prospective interpreters/translators to understand the process of I/T, to
identify the problems in doing I/T and then to find efficient and feasible solutions. These issues
are also the main content of this short course. It is hoped that participants will find the course
practical, useful and enjoyable.
AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE TRAINING COURSE
By the end of the course, participants will be able to:
 know their role as interpreters/translators,
 have increased self-awareness and confidence,
 use I/T techniques and skills,
 understand the ethics of the profession of I/T,
 recognize non-verbal communication,
 understand cultural concerns in I/T,
 solve problem situations,
 use specialized terminology in some areas, and
 assess and evaluate I/T.
As can be seen from the Content page, the first three sessions focus on translation. And
the last three sessions are about interpreting. There is a small part about the ways to assess I/T at
the end of the course.
Teaching & Learning Methods
Classroom lectures, interpreting/translation activities, and self-study.
Assessment
Students are required to take a written test based on the content of this programme.
 Test: 80%
 Attendance: 20%
Recommended Reading:
1. I/T Handouts of Auckland Institute of Technology (supplied by Dr. Sabine Fenton).
2. Newmark, Peter. (1988) A Textbook of Translation. Prentice Hall.
3. Newmark, Peter. (1982) Approaches to Translation. Pergamon Press.
4. Nida, Eugene & Taber, Charles (1982). The Theory and Practice of Translation.
1.1. WHAT IS TRANSLATION?
Translation is rendering a written text into another language in the way that the author
intended the text.
Translators are concerned with the written word. They render written texts from one
language into another. Translators are required to undertake assignments, which range from
simple items, such as birth certificates and driving licenses, to more complex written material,
such as articles in specialized professional journals, business contracts, and legal documents.
1.2. WHY IS TRANSLATION?
Even with the most up-to-date and sophisticated communication system, we can never
know how many languages man uses today in the world, let alone how many languages man has
2
used during the course of his development. Some sources say there are some two or three
thousand languages being used in the world, but some others say the number may be as large as
eight thousand. What a habit man has, that of speaking different tongues! And thus he offers
himself difficulties and obstacles.
Since communication within only one speech community is not enough, certainly there
has a great number of times arisen a situation in which some individuals are unable to understand
the words or expressions of some others. This phenomenon creates a barrier to understanding
whenever man tries to communicate across a great distance of space or across a great interval of
time. Something has to be done to overcome this restriction. One way to cope with the restriction
is for individuals to know the foreign language. But this is not the final solution because
apparently, no individual in the world can know all the languages in use. The best polyglot so far
knows only about twenty-five languages, and still, people want to read what other people write
and what other people say. Translation and interpreting may be considered as the most
universally accepted solution for surmounting the obstacle. And thus there is a need for
professional translators and interpreters.
1.3. HISTORY OF TRANSLATION
Translation has always been done by somebody for somebody. The first trace of
translation dates from 3000 B.C, during the Egyptian Old Kingdom, the area of the First
Cataract, Elephantine, where inscriptions in two languages have been found. It became a
significant factor in the West in 300 BC Luther's Bible translation in 1522 laid the foundations of
modem German. In the 19th century translation was mainly a one-way means of communication
between prominent men of letters and, to a lesser degree, philosophers and scientists and their
educated readers abroad, whilst trade was conducted in the language of the dominant nation, and
diplomacy, previously in Latin, was in French.
The 20th century has been called the "age of translation" to which one may add "and
interpreting". International agreements between states, between state, public and private
organizations are now translated for all interested parties, whether or not the signatories
understand each other's language. The setting up of a new international body, the constitution of
an independent state, the formation of a multinational company, gives translation enhanced
importance. The exponential increase in technology (patents, specifications, documentation), the
attempt to bring it to developing countries, the simultaneous publication of the same book in
various languages, the increase in world communication, has correspondingly increased
requirements. That the very survival of such bodies as the United Nations is crucially dependent
on interpreting and translation can be taken as a good example of the importance of translation
and interpreting.
1.4. THE DYNAMICS OF TRANSLATION (PETER NEWMARK)
There are some participants/actors in the translation process:

9. The truth (The facts of the matter)

1. SL writer 5. TL readership

2. SL norms TEXT 6. TL norms

3. SL culture 7. TL culture

4. SL setting + tradition 8. TL setting +

10. Translator tradition

3
A text is pulled in ten different directions as follows:
1. The individual style or idiolect of the SL author. When should it be (a) preserved, (b)
normalized?
2. The conventional grammatical and lexical usage for this type of text, depending on the
topic and the situation.
3. Content items referring specifically to the SL, or third language (i.e. not SL or TL)
cultures.
4. The typical format of a text in a book, periodical, newspaper, etc., as influenced by
tradition at the time.
5. The expectations of the putative readership, bearing in mind their estimated knowledge
of the topic and the style of language they use, expressed in terms of the largest common factor,
since one should not translate down (or up) to the readership.
6, 7, 8. As for 2, 3 and 4 respectively, but related to the TL.
9. What is being described or reported, ascertained or verified (the referential truth),
where possible independently of the SL text and the expectations of the readership.
10. The views and prejudices of the translator, which may be personal and subjective, or
may be social and cultural, involving the translator's "group loyalty factor", which may reflect
the national, political, ethnic, religious, social class, sex, etc. assumptions of the translator.
1.5. TRANSLATION THEORY
Since the mid-1980s there have been some major translation theories in the world.
 Linguistic Theory of Translation (by Catford, Nida) focuses on finding the equivalence (of
meaning, grammar, content...)
 Functionalist Theories of Translation (German school) (by K. Reiss, Neubart, Wilses,
Vermeer, Skopco) do not pay attention to source texts. Their main aim is what we do with the
translation.
 Translation as Cultural Events Theory (by Mary Snell Hornby) sets up an integrated approach
to translation.
 Manipulation School of Translation (by Susan Bassnett) (School of UK and Holland) points
out the power of translation.
 Deconstructionist Theories (by Edwin Gentzler) (USA) forget source texts and regard
translation as the second original.
 Culture and Context Theories (by Peter Newmark) focus on culture and context during the
translation process. As this is the most suitable for undergraduate students, the theory which is
introduced below is based on Peter Newmark's.
Translation theory, in a narrow sense, is concerned with the translation method
appropriately used for a certain type of text, and it is, therefore, dependent on a functional theory
of language. However, in a wider sense, translation theory is the body of knowledge that we have
about translating, extending from general principles to guidelines, suggestions, and hints.
What translation theory does is, first, to identify and define a translation problem (no
problem: no translation theory!); second, to indicate all the factors that have to be taken into
account in solving the problem; third, to list all the possible translation procedures; finally, to
recommend the most suitable translation procedure, plus the appropriate translation.
1.6. PRE-TRANSLATION CONSIDERATIONS

1.6.1. READING THE TEXT

You begin the job by reading the original for two purposes: first, to understand what it is
about; second, to analyze it from a "translator's" point of view. Understanding the text requires
both general and close reading. General reading is to get the gist. Close reading is required, in
any challenging text, of the words both out of and in context.

4
1.6.2. THE INTENTION OF THE TEXT
The intention of the text represents the SL (source language) writer's attitude to the
subject matter. Two texts may describe a battle or a riot or a debate, stating the same facts and
figures, but the type of language used and even the grammatical structures (passive voice,
impersonal verbs often used to disclaim responsibility) in each case may be evidence of different
points of view.

1.6.3. THE INTENTION OF THE TRANSLATOR

Usually, the translator's intention is identical with that of the author of the SL text. But he
may be translating an advertisement, a notice, or a set 'of instructions to show his client how such
matters are formulated and written in the source language, rather than how to adapt them in order
to persuade or instruct a new TL (target language) readership. And again, he may be translating a
manual of instructions for a less educated readership, so that the explanation in his translation
may be much larger than the "reproduction".

1.6.4. TEXT STYLES

Following Nida, we distinguish four types of (literary or non-literary) text:
1. Narrative: a dynamic sequence of events, where the emphasis is on the verbs or, for English,
"dummy" or "empty" verbs plus verb-nouns or phrasal verbs.
2. Description, which is static, with emphasis on linking verbs, adjectives, adjectival nouns.
3. Discussion, a treatment of ideas, with emphasis on abstract nouns (concepts), verbs of thought,
mental activity ("consider", "argue", etc.), logical argument and connectives.
4. Dialogue, with emphasis on colloquialisms and phaticisms.

1.6.5. THE READERSHIP

You should characterize the readership of the original and then of the translation, and to
decide how much attention you have to pay to the TL readers. You may try to assess the level of
education, the class, age and sex of the readership. The average text for translation tends to be
for an educated, middle-class readership in an informal, not colloquial style. All this will help
you to decide on the degree of formality, generality (or specificity) and emotional tone you must
express when you work on the text.

1.6.6. THE QUALITY OF THE WRITING

The quality of the writing has to be judged in relation to the author's intention and/or the
requirements of the subject matter. If the text is well written, i.e., the right words are in the right
places, with a minimum of redundancy, you have to regard every nuance of the author's meaning
as having precedence over the reader's response. If a text is well written, the syntax will reflect
the writer's personality – Complex syntax will reflect subtlety; and plain syntax, simplicity. A
badly written text will be cluttered with stereotyped phrases, recently fashionable general words
and probably poorly structured. In this case, you have to correct the text.

5
 SESSION TWO
2.1. PROCESS OF TRANSLATING

2.1.1. THE APPROACH

There are two approaches to translating:
(1) You start translating sentence by sentence, for say the first paragraph or chapter, to
get the feel and the feeling tone of the text, and then you deliberately sit back, review the
position, and read the rest of the SL text;
(2) You read the whole text two or three times and find the intention, register, tone, mark
the difficult words and passages and start translating only when you have taken your bearings.
Which of the two methods you choose may depend on your temperament, or on whether
you trust your intuition (for the first method) or your powers of analysis (for the second). You
may think the first method more suitable for a literary and the second for a technical or an
institutional text.
The danger of the first method is that it may leave you with too much revision to do in
the early part, and is, therefore, time wasting. The second method (usually preferable) can be
mechanical.
Translating process begins with choosing a method of approach. Secondly, when we are
translating, we translate with four levels in mind: the SL text level, the referential level, the
cohesive level, and the level of naturalness.
a. The Textual Level
You transpose the SL grammar (clauses and groups) into their "ready" TL equivalents
and you translate the lexical units into the sense that appears immediately appropriate in the
context of the sentence.
Your base level when you translate is the text. This is the level of the literal translation of
the source language into the target language, the level of the translation you have to eliminate,
but it also acts as a corrective of paraphrase and the pare-down of synonyms. So a part of your
mind may be on the text level whilst another is elsewhere. Translation is preeminently the
occupation in which you have to be thinking of several things at the same time.
b. The Referential Level
Whether a text is technical or literary or institutional, you have to make up your mind
summarily and continuously, what it is about, what it is in aid of, what the writer's peculiar slant
on it is. For each sentence, when it is not clear, when there is an ambiguity, when the writing is
abstract or figurative, you have to ask yourself: What is actually happening here? and why? For
what reason, on what purpose? Can you see it in your mind? Can you visualize it? If you cannot,
you have to "supplement" the linguistic level, the text level with the referential level, the factual
level with the necessary additional information from this level of reality, the facts of the matter.
c. The Cohesive Level
This level follows both the structure and the moods of the text: the structure through the
connective words (conjunctions, enumeration, reiterations, definite article, general words,
referential synonyms, punctuation marks) linking the sentences, usually proceeding from known
information (theme) to new information (rheme).
The second factor in the cohesive level is mood moving between positive and negative,
emotive and neutral. For example, you have to spot the difference between positive and neutral
in, say, "passed away" and "died", "appreciate" and "evaluate", etc.

6
d. The Level of Naturalness
For the vast majority of texts, you have to ensure: (a) that your translation makes sense;
(b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms
and words that meet that kind of situation. Normally, you can only do this by temporarily
disengaging yourself from the SL text, by reading your own translation as though no original
existed. You have to ask yourself: Would you ever see this in The Times, The Economist, in a
textbook…? Is it common usage in that kind of writing? How frequent is it? Check and
crosscheck words and expressions in an up-to-date dictionary. Note any word you are suspicious
of.
Combining the four levels: You should keep in parallel the four levels. They are distinct
from but frequently impinge on and may be in conflict with each other. Your first and last level
is the text; then you have to continually bear in mind the level of reality, but you let it filter into
the text only when this is necessary to complete or secure the readership's understanding of the
text, and then normally only within informative and vocative texts.

2.1.2. THE UNIT OF TRANSLATION

The unit of translation can vary. It is what you are translating at that moment. It can range
from a word, a sentence to a paragraph or whole passage.
However, normally you translate sentence by sentence, running the risk of not paying
enough attention to the sentence-joins. If the translation of a sentence has no problem, it is based
firmly on literal translation. Since the sentence is the basic unit of thought, presenting an object
and what it does, is, or is affected by, so the sentence is your common limit of translation. In
each sentence, it is the object and what happens to it that you sort out first. Below the sentence,
you go to the clause, both finite and non-finite. Within the clause, you may take next the two
obviously cohesive types of collocations, adjective-plus-noun or verb-plus-object, or the various
groups that are less context-bound.
2.2. TRANSLATION METHODS
In this session, it is important to introduce the two main methods: semantic and
communicative translation with their striking features as follows:

SEMANTIC TRANSLATION COMMUNICATIVE TRANSLATION

The stress lies on: The stress lies on:
Meaning Message
Author Reader
Thought process Utterance
Mostly inferior to its original Often better than its original
Wide and universal, responds to the author "Tailor-made" for one category of readership,
and addresses itself to all readers does one job
Right to:
correct or improve logic
replace clumsy with elegant
remove obscurities
No such rights
eliminate repetition & tautology
modify & clarify jargon
normalize idiolect
correct mistakes of facts
Secure truth Secure truth
Reduce unit of translation Extend unit of translation
Text will be: Text will be:
more idiosyncratic smoother
more "sensitive" more idiomatic
7
 easier to read
Text categories: Text categories:
texts of original expression most non-literary writing
any important statement journalism
autobiographies informative articles & books
private correspondence textbooks
any personal effusion reports
high literature scientific & technological writing
drama (Shakespeare…) non-personal correspondence
propaganda
publicity
public notices
popular fiction
religious/philosophical/artistic/scientific/legal
texts

There are other translation methods.

SL emphasis TL emphasis
Word-for-word translation Adaptation
Literal translation Free translation
Faithful translation Idiomatic translation
Semantic translation Communicative translation

2.2.1. WORD-FOR-WORD TRANSLATION

This is often demonstrated as interlinear translation, with the TL immediately below the
SL words. The SL word order is preserved and the words translated singly by their most
common meanings, out of context. Cultural words are translated literally. The main use of word-
for-word translation is either to understand the mechanics of the source language or to construe a
difficult text as a pre-translation process.

2.2.2. LITERAL TRANSLATION

The SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents but the
lexical words are again translated singly, out of context. As a pre-translation process, this
indicates the problems to be solved.

2.2.3. FAITHFUL TRANSLATION

A faithful translation attempts to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the original
within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures. It "transfers" cultural words and
preserves the degree of grammatical and lexical "abnormality" (deviation from SL norms) in the
translation. It attempts to be completely faithful to the intentions and the text-realization of the
SL writer.

2.2.4. ADAPTATION
This is the "freest" form of translation. It is used mainly for plays and poetry; the themes,
characters, plots are usually preserved, the SL culture converted to the TL culture and the text
rewritten.

2.2.5. FREE TRANSLATION

Free translation reproduces the matter without the manner or the content without the form
of the original. Usually, it is a paraphrase much longer than the original, a so-called "intralingual
translation", not a translation at all.

8
2.2.6. IDIOMATIC TRANSLATION
Idiomatic translation reproduces the "message" of the original but tends to distort nuances
of meaning by preferring colloquialism and idioms where there do not exist in the original.

9
 SESSION THREE

3.1. ABOUT LANGUAGE

WORDS
When people get together, they talk to each other. All our talk comes in words, which we
use with their unchangeable meanings. In English, we know that the idea of 1 is expressed as
"one", in French "un", and in Vietnamese "một".
SYNTAX
Then there are rules which tell us how to put the words together, their sequence. I can say
in English: I have a red book, but the Vietnamese would say: I have a book red. Every language
has its own order of words in the sentence and we must respect that. Once we know a language,
we can use the rules, we can make new sentences and phrases.
IDIOLECT
All native speakers of a language have a particular way of speaking, which depends on
their age, sex, mood, education, etc. This very personal way of speaking is called-- IDIOLECT.
It allows us to recognize a person by his voice, even if we do not see him. There are about 400,
000,000 English speakers in the world. Each of them, we might say, speaks a different idiolect of
English.
DIALECTS
Regional variations of a language are called DIALECTS. New Zealand and Australian
and US English can be considered dialects of English. It is very difficult, however, to define a
dialect as such, i.e. to decide when two tongues are to be classified as separate languages instead
of one being a dialect of the other. There is a rule of thumb, which states that two dialects
become different languages when they are mutually unintelligible or when people of one
language group can no longer understand members of the other group.
SLANG
SLANG WORDS occur frequently in speech. Although we use slang on many occasions,
it is rather difficult to define it. The use of slang, or colloquial language, creates new forms by
combining existing words, (beat it, rip-off) giving new meaning to words (grass, pig) or
introducing completely new words into the language
JARGON
All professions, sciences, trades, and occupations, including the less honourable ones
have a language, which includes words known only to their members. These "languages" are
called JARGON.
A doctor was being examined as a witness for the defense in an assault case. The police
prosecutor asked the doctor: "Did you notice anything special regarding the defendant, when he
came to see you on 29 July?" "The defendant?" asked the doctor, "he had a peri-orbital
haematoma", and to the prosecutor's staring look he added, "a black eye" to each of his own
jargon.
IDIOMS
Finally, in addition to single or compound words that we know in a language, there are
phrases, called IDIOMS, the meaning of which cannot be inferred from the individual words
they consist of. Here are some examples of English idioms: to take for a ride, to give a piece of
one's mind, to bite one's tongue.
3.2. STRATEGIES FOR TRANSLATORS
The following strategies have been suggested by translators, commissioners of
translations, and others involved in translating as ways to approach difficulties in translation
10
from English to Vietnamese. This list reflects only the main issues.
STRATEGY 1. How to deal with non-equivalence at the word level
It is often the case that no direct equivalents can be found in Vietnamese for English
words. It may be that the concept or idea is new to Vietnam, as is the case with "gender", which
is, in fact, a relatively new concept in general, and a difficult one to understand and explain in
many languages. Or, it may be that the concept is known or readily understood but there is no
specific word in Vietnamese to express it. Another difficulty is that, in addition to their concrete
meaning, some words have special connotations that are not conveyed by the Vietnamese word
for the same thing. The strategies listed below can be used to handle cases of nonequivalence.
1.1. Translation by a more specific word
In some cases, it may be appropriate or necessary to use a more specific word to translate
an English word into Vietnamese. This usually involves choosing among several different words,
as there may be many Vietnamese words that correspond to the general category or meaning
expressed by the English term. For example, Vietnamese has many words that mean "to carry"
with distinctions being made depending on the size and shape of the object; its animacy (e.g. a
child as opposed to a box); and how it is carried (e.g. in the hand, in both arms, etc.). Similarly,
the English word for "rice" can be translated by many different Vietnamese words, depending on
whether one is planting it, harvesting it, cooking it, or eating it. In these cases, the English word
alone is not enough to determine the appropriate Vietnamese translation, and it is necessary to
examine the English context in deciding which Vietnamese word is to be used.
1.2. Translation by a more general word
In other cases, it may be appropriate to use a more general word to translate an English
word with no specific Vietnamese equivalent. For instance, English makes distinctions among
mopeds, scooters, and motorcycles, the latter having larger wheels and engines than both mopeds
and scooters; Vietnamese, on the other hand, refers to all two-wheel, motorized vehicles as xe
máy. Similarly, the English "paw", "foot", and "leg" may all be translated by the Vietnamese
"chân", which does not present problems of comprehension in Vietnamese, as it should be clear
from the context which of these words is meant. Another example can be found in a manual on
community development, which translates "matrix" by the Vietnamese "ma trận". However, in
Vietnamese, "ma trận" has a specific use in mathematics only, and does not have the additional
sense of a model or plan according to which something is developed. In this instance, "matrix" is
better translated as "bảng", which is a more general word used to classify a written plan or
formula.
1.3. Translation by cultural substitution
This strategy involves replacing a culture-specific item or expression with one of
different meaning but similar impact in the translated text. Because of their self-described
"respect" for the original text, most Vietnamese translators object to this strategy and tend to
translate directly, even when it may be highly inappropriate. For example, a farmers' manual that
has been translated into Vietnamese suggests the planting of different types of fruit and fuel trees
that are not even grown in Vietnam. The original manual, which was developed in other parts of
Asia, was not modified at all for the Vietnamese context. Though some translators argue that it is
not the responsibility of the translator to change the text in this way, the translator is, in fact, an
important role here. Translators should be encouraged to question the appropriateness of the
documents they are translating and suggest changes to make them more culturally appropriate.
However, this is not only the burden of the translator but also of the commissioner of the
translation and the editor. In addition, field testing of documents will elicit useful feedback on
cultural appropriateness.

11
1.4. Translation using a loan word plus explanation
There is some resistance to this strategy in Vietnam, as many translators prefer to create
new Vietnamese words rather than borrow English words. However, this strategy can be useful
when dealing with concepts or ideas that are new to Vietnam, culture-specific items, and proper
names of diseases or medicines that are widely known by their English names. For example, HIV
and AIDS are two loan words that are frequently used in Vietnamese, as they are referred to by
their English names in most of the world. Because these words have been in common use in
Vietnam for some time now, they are often used without any accompanying explanation, which
is not advisable. Whenever a loan word is used, it is best to offer an explanation either in
parentheses or a footnote. Another example is the acronym for oral dehydration salts, or ORS,
which is printed on every package and hence easily recognized; this is usually written in its
English form with an explanation in parentheses as follows: ORS (muối bù mất nước).
1.5 Translation by paraphrase
This strategy can be used when translating an English word or concept that does not exist
in Vietnamese, or when the Vietnamese term for it does not include all the meanings conveyed
by the English term for the same concept. For example, in the sentence, "pregnant women should
avoid alcohol," the English word includes all alcoholic beverages in its meaning. The
Vietnamese word for alcohol, "rượu", does not include beer in its definition, so the Vietnamese
translation should add the word beer to reflect the full meaning of the English. To cite another
example, the English terms "abuse" and "neglect" signify a whole range of behaviours, some of
which are not conveyed by the Vietnamese terms alone. Therefore, the sentence, "Children shall
be protected from abuse and neglect" cannot be translated simply as "trẻ em phải được bảo vệ
khỏi sự lạm dụng và lơ là", as was suggested by one translator. This does not account for their
full meanings, which must be unpacked for better understanding. This can be done by
paraphrasing, as another translator has attempted in the following translation: "trẻ em cần được
bảo vệ chống lại mọi hình thức bạo lực, gây tổn thương hay xúc phạm, bỏ mặc hoặc sao nhãng
trong việc chăm sóc". Back translated roughly into English, this sentence reads, "Children must
be protected from all forms of violence causing harm or offense, and from abandonment and
negligence in their case."
1.6. Translation by omission
Though some translators may reject this strategy as too drastic, it is sometimes
appropriate to omit words or phrases that are not essential to the meaning or impact of the text.
This is especially true for words that would require lengthy explanations, awkward paraphrases,
or literal and unnatural translations, which would interrupt the flow of the text and could distract
the reader from the overall meaning. For example, the sentence, "Much can be done even
without being physically present at the meeting..." is best translated into Vietnamese by, "nhiều
việc có thể làm ngay khi không có mặt tại cuộc họp…" which omits the word "physically" in the
translation. The difference in meaning between "being physically present" and "being present" is
so minimal that it does not justify translation into Vietnamese, which cannot easily express the
slight emphasis implied here by the author, and would not do so by emphasizing the physicality
of a person's presence.
STRATEGY 2. How to deal with idioms and fixed expressions
Idioms and fixed expressions can be dealt with in ways similar to those discussed above.
With idioms, however, there is the added difficulty that the translator may not realize that s/he is
dealing with an idiomatic expression, since more idioms may make sense when translated
literally.
2.1. Using an idiom or fixed expression of similar meaning and form
It is sometimes possible to find a Vietnamese idiom or expression with a similar meaning
to an English idiom or expression, and which is expressed in the same way. One example is the
idiom "to fight like cats and dogs", which is expressed using the same words in Vietnamese "cãi
nhau như chó với mèo"; another is "better late than never", which translates as "thà muộn còn
12
hơn không bao giờ". It is ideal if such a match can be found, but this kind of correspondence is
not common, and it is usually necessary to use other strategies in dealing with idioms and fixed
expressions.
2.2. Using an idiom or fixed expression of similar meaning but dissimilar form
It is also possible, and usually easier to find a Vietnamese idiom with a similar meaning
to an English idiom, but which is expressed differently. A good example is the translation for "to
carry coals to Newcastle": "Chở củi về rừng", which translates as "to carry firewood to the
forest". The meaning here is clearly the same for both idioms - to bring something to a place that
already has an abundance of that thing - but the way in which each language expresses it is
bound to the culture of that language. It would be far more cumbersome to translate this idiom
word-for-word into Vietnamese with an explanation that Newcastle is a well-known coal -
producing city in England (as was suggested by some Vietnamese translators), which would
unduly interrupt the flow of the text and greatly diminish the idiom's impact. By substituting a
similar Vietnamese idiom, then, the flow and the impact of the original text are retained in the
translation.
2.3. Translation by paraphrase
When Vietnamese equivalents cannot be found, paraphrasing may be the best way to deal
with an idiom or fixed expression. A good example can be found in an article on maternal
mortality, which includes the sentence, "But before the new estimates replace the old as a way of
packaging up the problem, it should be said that a mistake has been made in allowing statistics
such as these to slip into easy language." The expression "packaging up the problem" presented
problems in translation, as it was misinterpreted to mean "assembling" or "gathering together".
However, even if this phrase were clearly understood, it would be difficult to find a concise
equivalent in Vietnamese; in fact, it would be difficult to re-state concisely in English. This
phrase is best dealt with by paraphrasing, which in English should read something like,
"summing up the problem by referring to it simply as a number, which does not reflect its true
magnitude or impact". The expression "to slip into easy usage" is problematic for the same
reasons and is also best dealt with by paraphrasing, as a direct translation into Vietnamese would
be nonsensical.
2.4. Translation by omission
As with single words, whole phrases may be omitted if they are not essential to the
meaning or impact of the text. This may be done with phrases that would require lengthy
explanations, awkward paraphrases, or literal and unnatural translations. This may also be done
when a phrase has two meanings, and one of the meanings must be sacrificed for the other. For
instance, a book entitled, "Being Positive - Living with HIV/AIDS" presents problems in
translation because of the double meaning of "being positive". Here, the meaning is both that a
person is HIV positive and, more idiomatically, that s/he should have an optimistic outlook on
life. This may be clear to a translator, who may interpret the phrase to mean simply that this
book is for and about people who are HIV positive. However, the double meaning should be
made clear through collaboration with the commissioner, after which a choice must be made
between the two meanings, for it would not be possible to translate both meanings by one
Vietnamese phrase. As the emphasis is on a positive outlook towards life and not on the fact of
being HIV positive, one translator has suggested the following translation: "Sống một cách tích
cực". This expresses the notion of being positive about life without mentioning anything about
HIV status, which will be made clear in the rest of the title and in the content of the book.

13
STRATEGY 3. How to deal with voice, number and person
VOICE: The passive voice is used very frequently in English and poses some problems for
translation into Vietnamese. Passive voice can be translated from English into Vietnamese in the
following ways:

(i). A được + động từ + (bỡi B) (positive meaning)

A được/do + B + động từ
A to be done (by B)
(ii). A bị + động từ + (bỡi B) (negative meaning)
A bị + (B) + động từ

Example:
- This house was built by Frank in 1930.
Ngôi nhà này được/do Frank xây năm 1930.
- Tom is given a present by Mary.
Tom được Mary tặng một món quà.
- Tom was attacked by a stranger last night.
Tom bị một kẻ lạ mặt tấn công tối hôm qua.

(i). A được + động từ (positive meaning)

A to be done (ii). A bị + động từ (negative meaning)
(iii) Người ta/Ai đó + động từ + A

Example:
- Tom has been promoted recently.
Tom mới được đề bạt gần đây
- The CD has been broken.
Chiếc đĩa CD đã bị vỡ/Ai đó đã làm vỡ chiếc đĩa CD rồi.
The positive and negative connotation is not often conveyed in English, it can be difficult
to know which verb to use in the Vietnamese.
Example:
- The children were given injections.
"Các cháu được tiêm" or "Các cháu bị tiêm."
depending on whether receiving shots was considered a positive or negative experience. On the
other hand, when the positive or negative connotation of the sentence is clear, it is more
appropriate to retain the passive voice in the Vietnamese.
Example:
The H'Mong people do not like to be called Meo; they prefer to be called H'Mong.
Người dân tộc Hơ Mông không thích bị gọi là dân tộc Mèo; họ thích được gọi là dân tộc Hơ
Mông.
Note: In Vietnamese, there are some cases where you see the word bị/được, but they are not
passive sentences in English at all.
Example:
- Anh ấy bị ngã = He falls.
- Chị Lan bị ho = Lan has a cough.
- Hôm nay chúng ta được chén no nê = We have an enormous and fantastic meal today.

NUMBER: Though both languages have similar notions of number and countability, each
language expresses this in very different ways. In Vietnamese, number is often not expressed at
14
all. In English, number is expressed as a grammatical category, that is, there are different
grammatical forms for the singular and plural nouns. In Vietnamese, however, no such
distinction is made grammatically.
Example:
- phụ nữ can mean either woman or women.
In Vietnamese, some plural markers such as "các", "nhiều", "tất cả", "mọi" ... can be used
in addition to the noun. "Các" generally means all of a given category of things, whereas
"những" refers only to some of the total number of the things being discussed. "Mỗi" emphasizes
the identity of the individual members of the category without connoting anything of their
totality, while "mọi" expresses both the individuality of the items and the totality of the category.
If it is clear from the English context which of these plural markers should be used in the
Vietnamese, then the translator should choose accordingly.
Note: Some words that can be countable in Vietnamese but are uncountable in English, for
example, information, equipment, furniture, potential, advice . . . .

PERSON: Participants' roles and forms of address are expressed in Vietnamese through a very
complicated system of personal pronouns based largely on kinship (mối quan hệ họ hàng) terms.
Unlike their English counterparts, Vietnamese pronouns convey many different distinctions,
depending on the relationship within the family, familiarity, social status, and even one's
particular mood or attitude in a given situation. These distinctions are not always clear in English
and can usually be determined by the context, if at all. If it is not possible to determine the
distinctions of the English pronouns, the decision should be based on consideration of tone and
overall purpose of the document.

Example: a manual on health care contains sections written specifically for children and adults.
In the section for children, "you" is translated as "em" or "các em". In the section for adults,
"you" should be translated as "chúng ta", which is the inclusive "we" - that is, the speaker is
including the listener in a group with him/herself. And in different contexts, "we" can be
translated as "chúng tôi" meaning "other people and I, but not you" or "chúng ta" meaning "you
and I".
Note: In English, age is often not important in the addressing system. And there is no distinction
between the relatives of mother's side or father's side.
Hai anh em = two brothers
Hai chị em = two sisters
Chú, bác, cậu, dượng = uncle
Bác (gái), thím, cô, dì, mợ = aunt
STRATEGY 4. How to deal with proper names
Geographical terms: either translated into another word in Vietnamese or translated
phonologically ("s" becomes "x") or remained unchanged.
Example:
Beijing = Bắc Kinh
Kingdom = Vương quốc
Singapore = Singapore or Xingapo
Common wealth = Liên bang, Liên hiệp, Khối thịnh vượng
Australia = Úc or Ôxtrâylia
Socialist = Xã hội chủ nghĩa
Brazil = Braxin
Republic = Cộng hòa
London Luân Đôn
People's... = Nhân dân
15
United States of... Hợp chủng quốc
Names of organizations: translated into Vietnamese or unchanged or only translatable parts are
translated or add the words "Công ty", "Hãng", ''Tổ chức", "Cơ quan" ...
Example:
- UNDP = Tổ chức UNDP
- ANZ Bank = Ngân hàng ANZ
- Phillip Fox = Công ty (luật) Phillip Fox
Translation from Vietnamese into English: often using the reverse order or adjective +
noun or noun + preposition + noun.
Example:
Bộ, Sở: Ministry of…, Department of…
Ngân hàng: Bank for… or Adjective + Bank
Tổng công ty = Corporation
Ngân hàng phục vụ người nghèo = Bank for the Poor
Ngân hàng công thương Việt Nam= Vietnam Industrial and Commercial Bank
Sở giao thông công chính = Department of transport and public works
Văn phòng chính phủ = Office of Government
Tổng cục thống kê = General Statistic Office
Bộ kế hoạch và đầu tư = Ministry of Planning and Investment
Proper names in medical texts: Tests, symptoms, diseases, syndromes, parts of the body are
named after one 'scientist' in one language community and a different, more general term in
another. Check the spelling of all proper names - this is where misprints are most common.
Remember that while English keeps the first names of foreign persons unchanged, they may
sometimes be translated in Vietnamese. .
STRATEGY 5. How to deal with non-subject sentences (Vietnamese-English translation)
In Vietnamese-written passages, some non-subject sentences are often come across. In
this case, the following techniques of translation can be used:

1. Passive voice
2. It + to be + adjective + to do something
3. There + to be . . .
4. Ving (S) + V + O
5. Put in the real subject that is often found in the previous sentence(s).

Example:
- Cần đẩy mạnh công nghiệp hóa, hiện đại hóa.
Industrialization and modernization should be promoted.
Or: It is necessary to promote industrialization and modernization.
- Vẫn chưa có cách chữa trị bệnh AIDS
There has been no cure for AIDS.
STRATEGY 6. How to deal with newspaper headlines
Some main characteristics of newspaper headlines:
Example:

1. Present tense = past event

2. Present participle = event in progress
3. To + infinitive = future events.
4. Past participle = passive voice
5. Nouns
6. Verb + Noun
16
1. Chinese Professors Turn to Business.
Các giáo sư Trung Quốc chuyển sang (con đường) kinh doanh.
2. US Secretary of State Visiting Vietnam.
Ngoại trưởng Mỹ đang thăm Việt Nam.
3. Oil Price to Rise?
Giá dầu sẽ tăng?
4. Three More Investment Projects Licensed This Year.
Thêm 3 dự án đầu tư nữa được cấp giấy phép trong năm nay.
5. Investment Boom.
Bùng nổ đầu tư.
6. See You In Court.
Hẹn gặp tại tòa.

17
 SESSION FOUR
4.1. WHAT IS INTERPRETING?
Interpreting is rendering information and ideas from one language into another language
by means of speaking. Interpreters are concerned with the spoken word. They convey orally
whether to an individual or a group the meaning of the spoken word, from one language to
another.
4.2. MODES OF INTERPRETING
There are two main modes of interpreting: consecutive and simultaneous interpreting. All
of these types will be dealt with in this session.

4.2.1. CONSECUTIVE INTERPRETING (DỊCH ĐUỔI)

Unilateral:
a. Sentence by sentence, paragraph by paragraph interpretation.
b. The whole speech, which may last five, ten minutes, up to half an hour or one hour.
Bilateral:
c. Liaison interpreting.
In a consecutive interpreting situation, an interpreter gives a rendering of lengthy
passages of speech after a party has finished speaking. S/he must give a structured and accurate
rendering of the meaning of the statement with no major distortions of meaning, changes to the
logical order of the statement or serious omissions of detail.
Consecutive interpreting is often used in the following situations:
- Escorting a non-English speaking group within a larger gathering of English speakers at a trade
fair or exposition.
- Conferences where smaller working parties meet in rooms which lack telephonic interpreting
facilities. In this case, interpreters often sit alongside speakers and interpret at intervals.
The qualities required of a consecutive interpreter are:
a) Proficiency in two languages and two cultures
b) Quickness of speech and mind
c) Good techniques in memorizing verbal utterances and converting them rapidly,
accurately and completely into another language
d) Power of concentration
e) High moral standards
f) Sense of responsibility
g) High level of education and culture
h) Familiarity with a number of specific terms and situations, e.g. health, education, legal,
social welfare areas, etc.
i) Remaining impartial and not taking sides
j) Being able to take notes of segments of discourse, if required
k) Being able to work under stressful conditions
l) Note-taking skills of a very high order
Liaison Interpreting (Dịch hội thoại, dịch tháp tùng)
In Vietnam, this form of interpreting is normally used by interpreters who work in and
out of two languages, one of which must be Vietnamese. These interpreters typically interpret
between clients and professionals, who lack an understanding of each other's language and
culture.
Dialogues are often between:
 Doctors and patients
 Solicitors and clients
18
  Foreign investors and Vietnamese partners
 Officers of government authorities and clients
 Bank managers and clients ...
What professional liaison interpreters do:
1. Familiarize themselves in advance with the likely content of the interview.
2. Evaluate whether the complexity of the interview is within their competence.
3. Obtain correct information on location, time and participants.
4. Make contact with the party requesting the interview in order to arrange introductions between
all participants and, if possible, arrange a pre-interview consultation.
5. Provide advice to the person conducting the interview on cultural implications/background of
the client.
6. Explain the interpreter's role in the interview to all participants.
7. Select appropriate interpreting mode (in almost all liaison interpreting situations, the dialogue-
interpreting mode is chosen) and ensure participants understand mode to be used.
8. Arrange appropriate physical elements, e.g. tables, chairs, sound control, etc., to facilitate
communication.
9. Render into A-language all that B-language speaker says, and vice versa.
10. Seek clarification, when necessary, of terminology used to ensure accuracy and clarity.
11. Clarify specific role and responsibilities where more than one interpreter is present in an
interview.
12. Arrange de-briefing, where possible, to clarify questions of cultural difference, or failure to
establish an intended level of communication.
13. Control length of questions and answers to maintain an adequate level of communication and
ensure full understanding by both parties.
14. Consult with individuals for additional information, e.g. cultural background, religious
aspects, etc.

4.2.2. SIMULTANEOUS INTERPRETING (DỊCH SONG SONG, DỊCH CABIN)

This type includes:
a) Sight translation: a written SL text is read aloud as if written in the TL text;
b) Whispered interpretation: e.g. at a meeting without interpreting equipment or in court;
c) Electronic hook-up: e.g. at a conference with microphones and headsets and booths for
interpreters.
Simultaneous interpreters do not wait for a speaker to finish a segment and pause before
beginning to interpret but follow the speaker and interpret what the speaker is saying.
Advantages of simultaneous interpreting are that it saves a great deal of time and is less
disruptive than other forms of interpreting. It is commonly practised at international conferences
and forums. However, it is expensive to pay for electronic equipment and simultaneous
interpreters.
Due to its high level of difficulty, this type of interpreting is briefly introduced here for
students' information only 'rather than being part of the training programme at the University for
undergraduate students.
4.3. INTERPRETING PROCESS
I = The input stage: The interpreter must have excellent hearing and receive the message without
interference.
U = Understanding: This is the most important stage of the interpreting triangle. Not
understanding will result in a breakdown of communication.
D = Deciphering: At this stage, the interpreter gets rid of all the words, retaining the concept, the
idea.

19
 D

T
U C+C
I

O1
O2

T = Transference: The concept or idea is now transferred into the other language.
C+C = Context and Culture: During the transfer stage the meaning is clarified by cultural and
contextual considerations.
O1 = Output 1: The interpreter finds an equivalent idiomatic expression.
O2 = Output 2: The interpreter transfers the meaning.
TASK: Students work in pairs/groups and discuss some main problems that they may face in the
interpreting process. Suggest possible solutions.

20
 SESSION FIVE
HELPFUL SKILLS/ATTRIBUTES FOR INTERPRETING
5.1. HEARING ABILITY
For obvious reasons, it is essential that interpreters have acute hearing. Potential
interpreters who have, or feel that they might have, a hearing disability should seek medical
advice. In some cases hearing aids adequately compensate for hearing loss.
5.2. PUBLIC SPEAKING SKILLS
In any interpreting situation, an interpreter should not mumble, stutter or speak too
quickly or slowly. It is obviously necessary to have a clear, well-modulated voice and a smooth
style of delivery. Learners who feel insecure when speaking in public might consider joining a
club to develop their public speaking skills.
5.3. CONVERSION SKILLS
Interpreters must be able to think quickly and "on-their-feet". Interpreting is an
immediate process, which leaves little margin for thought before action must take place.
5.4. MEMORY SKILLS
The short-term memory is used for the temporary storage of segments of speech so that
they can be decoded and re-encoded. Third-year students (at the Hanoi University of Foreign
Studies) are expected to interpret segments of up to 30 words in length and fourth-year students
must cope with segments of up to 40-50 words.
To improve short-term memory and speaking style, students are advised to do the
following exercises:
a. Newspaper Translation
Take a newspaper article 75-100 words in length and study it for about one minute; then
first, put the article face down and repeat it as precisely as possible (note: use the language of the
article), second translate the article aloud. Speak evenly without pause or stutter. Do two
passages a day until you can speak without hesitation. It is a good idea to use a tape recorder to
record and check your performance. This may need frequent practice over 12 weeks or so.
b. Translating from Speech
Ask a friend or member of your family to read to you fairly slowly a passage of about
300-400 words. Make notes and then reproduce the passage as accurately and completely as you
can in the other language. Again use a tape .recorder to check your performance. The reading
should be as slow as required by dictation.
c. Radio Translation
Tape record short passages of speech in your language from the local radio stations and
try to interpret as much as you can. Or tape-record news and science reports in English from
VOA or SBC or ABC and reproduce these as accurately as you can in Vietnamese.
NOTE: VOA tapes are available in the Tape Library, ground floor, Dl, Hanoi University of
Foreign Studies, Thanh Xuan.
d. Interpreting Practice
As friends or members of your family to "act out" interviews in which you work as the
interpreter.
e. Observing High-level Interpreters
Take particular notice of high-level interpreters, such as Prime Ministers' interpreters,
who appear on TV news, and observe their technique.

21
5.5. NOTE-TAKING SKILLS
The interpreter should begin taking notes as soon a one of the parties begins speaking.
When taking notes, the interpreter should take as many notes as required to help the memory
concerning all pertinent points but not so many that s/he is distracted from what is being said.
The interpreter needs to remember what has been said rather than rely exclusively on notes,
which should be a back up to the memory.
It is noted that there is no best note-taking system. Each interpreter needs to develop
his/her own system of note-taking. A system of arrows is often an integral component of a
general system of notes. For example:
- movement towards, tendency, trend, sending, conveying ... 
- receive from, import, return, and derive from ... 
- increase, rise, progress, improvement, etc. 
- decline, fall, and decrease 
Some mathematical symbols are useful, e.g. +/-/=/>/< and so on.
Abbreviations are also used: $, kg, cm, EU, UNDP, UNIDO, FAO, UNFPA...
When a large figure is used, it would be less time consuming to record the thousand as k
(25000 = 25k), million as m (25 million = 25 m) and billion as b (5 billion = 5 b).

22
 SESSION SIX
CODE OF ETHICS FOR INTERPRETERS

PERSONAL BEHAVIOUR LINGUISTIC PERFORMANCE

BEFORE 1 ) Well presented 1) Briefing on the subject
Interpreting 2) Punctual 2) Preparation of
assignment 3) Guidance to be given to social terminology
workers, doctors, etc. on ethnic
differences if desired
4) Pen and paper for notes
5) Suggest satisfactory seating
arrangements
DURING 1) Introduce yourself 1) Accurate
Interpreting 2) Complete impartiality 2) Faithful
assignment 3) Unbiased 3) No omissions
4) Not rushed 4) No alternations
5) Direct the pace of the 5) No additions
conversation 6) Interpret short
6) Jot down notes if necessary passages
7) Integrity 7) Understand full
8) Dignity meaning
8) Repetition and
clarification as
necessary
9) Concentration
AFTER 1) No acceptance of gifts 1) Self-evaluation
Interpreting 2) No personal involvement 2) Re-read notes
Assignment 3) Know1edge and information are
strictly confidential and not to be passed
on

6.1. SOME PRACTICAL TECHNIQUES FOR ON-SITE INTERPRETING

1. Introduce yourself to both the professional and the client.
2. Explain you are from … (name of your organization), everything is confidential and
everything will be interpreted with no additions or omissions.
3. Arrange seating: The ideal seating arrangement is a triangle with participants at equal
distances from each other, so that eye contact can be maintained at all times.
Interpreter

Professional Client

4. First-person interpreting
5. Control pace
6. Ask for repetition if uncertain of what was said.
7. Ask for explanation or clarification if necessary
8. Concentration
9. Notes
23
10. Assertiveness.
6.2. PUTTING YOUR ROLE INTO PRACTICE

SITUATIONS WHAT WOULD INTERPRETERS SAY?

1. The client may be very emotional and
distressed.
2. The client may be very confused.
3. The client may accuse the interpreter of not
interpreting correctly.
4. The client may put pressure on the interpreter
by asking him to be dishonest.
5. The client may pour out his whole life history.
6. The client may be angry.
7. The client may refuse to cooperate with the
interpreter.
8. The client may be very suspicious.
9. The client may want the interrupter's opinion or
advice or help later, e.g. "I think this doctor is not
very good. What do you think?"

6.3. INTERPRETING IN SPECIALISED AREAS

6.3.1. LEGAL INTERPRETING

There are basically four legal situations in which an interpreter may become involved:
1. interview between lawyer and client (or witness)
2. interview between police officer and person suspected of committing an offence;
3. giving evidence in court; and
4. interpreting in court.
The requirements for competent legal interpreting are:
 technical fluency in English and Vietnamese;
 an understanding of the conceptual and cultural background to those languages; and
 an extensive knowledge of the social, economic and political organizations and
conditions of Vietnam and the other country.
There are common requirements for all professional interpreting and to them must be added:
 an outline knowledge of the respective legal system;
 a broad comparative understanding 'of the most common legal concepts;
 a reasonable working knowledge of the relevant professional terminology; and
 an awareness of the expectations of lawyers, magistrates, and judges.
The interpreter is there to enable communication between people of different cultures
speaking different languages. Thus, where it becomes apparent to the interpreter that
communication is being impeded by a language difficulty,' different cultural concepts or the like,
it is the interpreter's duty to bring that to the attention of the court, lawyer or police officer
concerned.
6.3.2. BUSINESS INTERPRETING
After the promulgation of the Law on Foreign Investment in Vietnam, many foreign
investors have come to Vietnam to look for business opportunities. A good working knowledge
of the Law will be helpful for an interpreter.
In business, clothes are important. Business people often wear formal clothes. So an

24
interpreter should wear proper clothes (e.g. suit, jacket suit, tie, clean shoes. . .) to be in line with
the formal setting of business meetings.
During meetings and discussions, an interpreter must interpret what is said to the best of
his/her knowledge. If and when the interpreter does not understand any technical terms or
jargons, s/he must ask for clarification.
An interpreter must not take sides and must keep confidential all information of the
meetings and discussions.
The requirements of a good interpreter are:
a) Good fluency in both languages (English and Vietnamese).
b) Good understanding of the culture of the business partner and of Vietnamese culture in
general, and an understanding of the differences between the two.
c) Extensive knowledge of business, the economic situation of Vietnam (and the other
country).
d) A large business vocabulary.
e) Well presented and punctual.
f) Accurate interpreting without omission, alteration, and addition.
6.3.3. MEDICAL INTERPRETING
There may be occasions where the intimacy of the questioning may embarrass or confuse
the interpreter or the patient but these questions are not asked in an idle fashion but are all very
necessary for making a diagnosis.
A patient may feel cut off and feel that s/he is very secondary to a conversation between
the doctor and the interpreter. A doctor gets a glimmer of this when the interpreter talks to the
patient. The interpreter should, therefore, advise the doctor to look at the patient during the
conversation to reduce the language barrier to a small extent.
Sex and age of interpreter can cause difficulties in many cultures. For example, an
elderly English male may not wish to talk about his urinary problems in front of a young female
interpreter, or an elderly Vietnamese lady may not wish to discuss her gynaecological problems
in front of a young male interpreter. Generally, more mature interpreters seem more acceptable
to most patients.
The best arrangement seems to be with the doctor sitting directly opposite the patient.
The doctor should always try to talk directly to the patient and the interpreter should be sitting
just to the side so the patient can face the interpreter if s/he wants to.
The interpreter must understand the difference between the patient giving a symptom and
the patient giving a diagnosis, and that generally speaking a doctor is interested only in the
patient's symptoms, not the patient's diagnosis.
The interpreter must render the patient's story completely and accurately without any
omission or distortion. The interpreter must also be careful not to place undue emphasis on any
of the parts of the history perhaps because of personal experience. It is the doctor who decides
what importance to place on the various symptoms.
The interpreter should assist in handling grief and bereavement. It is extremely difficult
for a doctor to try to console a patient or relative through an interpreter and particularly when the
doctor has no knowledge of the patient's culture.
It is necessary for the interpreter to understand medical terms. However, a doctor must be
able to explain to a patient in clear non-medical language and so the doctor should be able to do
the same for the interpreter. A good interpreter must insist that the doctor makes himself clear.
An interpreter must avoid taking sides. His or her job is to interpret accurately and to
provide guidance on cultural differences to patient and doctor, making a clear distinction
between what is language interpretation and what is culture interpretation.
In short, the requirements of a good interpreter are:
g) Properly assessed fluency in the language of the patient (English) and Vietnamese.
h) Good understanding of the culture of the patient and of Vietnamese culture in general,
25
and an understanding of the differences between the two.
i) Mature person.
j) Not squeamish.
k) Must not appear embarrassed or shy when very personal matters are discussed.
1) Must not appear to make moral judgements.
m) Relaxed attitudes, not impatient, quiet voice.

26
 REFERENCES

Barry Turner. (1988). Interpreting in Australia - A Guide to NAATI Accreditation At

Level Two and Level Three.
Ford Foundation. (1996). Best Practices in Translation - How to obtain good quality
translations from English to Vietnamese.
I/T Handouts of Auckland Institute of Technology (supplied by Dr. Sabine Fenton)
Mennicken, Mary. An Introductory Training Course for Community Interpreters Working
for the Telephone Interpreter Service.
Newmark, Peter. (1988). A Textbook of Translation. Prentice Hall.
Newmark, Peter. (1982). Approaches to Translation. Pergamon Press.
Nida, Eugene & Taber, Charles (1982). The Theory and Practice of Translation.
Smith, Len et. al. (1990). Working With Interpreters in Law, Health & Social Work.

27