Oracle8i

Administrator’s Guide

Release 8.1.5

February 1999
Part No. A67772-01
Administrator’s Guide, Release 8.1.5

Part No. A67772-01

Copyright © 1996, 1999, Oracle Corporation. All rights reserved.

Primary Author: Joyce Fee

Contributing Authors: Alex Tsukerman, Andre Kruglikov, Ann Rhee, Ashwini Surpur, Bhaskar
Himatsingka, Harvey Eneman, Jags Srinivasan, Lois Price, Robert Jenkins, Sophia Yeung, Vinay Srihari,
Wei Huang, Jonathan Klein, Mike Hartstein, Bill Lee, Diana Lorentz, Lance Ashdown, Phil Locke, Ekrem
Soylemez, Connie Dialaris, Steven Wertheimer, Val Kane, Mary Rhodes, Archna Kalra, Nina Lewis
Graphic Designer: Valarie Moore

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 Contents

Send Us Your Comments ................................................................................................................. xxi

Preface........................................................................................................................................................ xxiii

Part I Basic Database Administration

1 The Oracle Database Administrator

Types of Oracle Users......................................................................................................................... 1-2
Database Administrators............................................................................................................. 1-2
Security Officers............................................................................................................................ 1-3
Application Developers ............................................................................................................... 1-3
Application Administrators ........................................................................................................ 1-3
Database Users.............................................................................................................................. 1-3
Network Administrators ............................................................................................................. 1-4
Database Administrator Security and Privileges ......................................................................... 1-4
The Database Administrator’s Operating System Account ................................................... 1-4
Database Administrator Usernames.......................................................................................... 1-5
The DBA Role................................................................................................................................ 1-6
Database Administrator Authentication........................................................................................ 1-6
Selecting an Authentication Method ......................................................................................... 1-6
Using Operating System Authentication .................................................................................. 1-7
OSOPER and OSDBA................................................................................................................... 1-8
Using an Authentication Password File.................................................................................... 1-9
Password File Administration.......................................................................................................... 1-9

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 Using ORAPWD ......................................................................................................................... 1-10
Setting REMOTE_LOGIN_ PASSWORDFILE........................................................................ 1-11
Adding Users to a Password File ............................................................................................. 1-12
Connecting with Administrator Privileges............................................................................. 1-14
Maintaining a Password File..................................................................................................... 1-15
Database Administrator Utilities................................................................................................... 1-17
SQL*Loader ................................................................................................................................. 1-17
Export and Import ...................................................................................................................... 1-17
Priorities of a Database Administrator ......................................................................................... 1-17
Step 1: Install the Oracle Software............................................................................................ 1-18
Step 2: Evaluate the Database Server Hardware.................................................................... 1-18
Step 3: Plan the Database........................................................................................................... 1-18
Step 4: Create and Open the Database..................................................................................... 1-19
Step 5: Implement the Database Design .................................................................................. 1-20
Step 6: Back Up the Database.................................................................................................... 1-20
Step 7: Enroll System Users ....................................................................................................... 1-20
Step 8: Tune Database Performance......................................................................................... 1-20
Identifying Oracle Software Releases .......................................................................................... 1-21
Release Number Format ............................................................................................................ 1-21
Versions of Other Oracle Software........................................................................................... 1-22
Checking Your Current Release Number ............................................................................... 1-22

2 Creating an Oracle Database

Considerations Before Creating a Database .................................................................................. 2-2
Creation Prerequisites .................................................................................................................. 2-3
Using an Initial Database............................................................................................................. 2-3
Migrating an Older Version of the Database ............................................................................ 2-3
Creating an Oracle Database ............................................................................................................ 2-3
Steps for Creating an Oracle Database ...................................................................................... 2-4
Creating a Database: Example .................................................................................................... 2-7
Troubleshooting Database Creation .......................................................................................... 2-8
Dropping a Database.................................................................................................................... 2-8
Parameters ............................................................................................................................................ 2-9
DB_NAME and DB_DOMAIN ................................................................................................... 2-9
CONTROL_FILES....................................................................................................................... 2-10

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 DB_BLOCK_SIZE ....................................................................................................................... 2-11
DB_BLOCK_BUFFERS............................................................................................................... 2-11
PROCESSES................................................................................................................................. 2-12
ROLLBACK_SEGMENTS ......................................................................................................... 2-12
License Parameters ..................................................................................................................... 2-12
LICENSE_MAX_SESSIONS and LICENSE_SESSIONS _WARNING................................ 2-13
LICENSE_MAX_USERS ............................................................................................................ 2-13
Considerations After Creating a Database .................................................................................. 2-14
Initial Tuning Guidelines ............................................................................................................... 2-14
Allocating Rollback Segments .................................................................................................. 2-14
Choosing the Number of DB_BLOCK_LRU_LATCHES...................................................... 2-15
Distributing I/O.......................................................................................................................... 2-15

3 Starting Up and Shutting Down

Starting Up a Database ...................................................................................................................... 3-2
Preparing to Start an Instance..................................................................................................... 3-2
Starting an Instance: Scenarios ................................................................................................... 3-3
Altering Database Availability ........................................................................................................ 3-7
Mounting a Database to an Instance.......................................................................................... 3-7
Opening a Closed Database ........................................................................................................ 3-7
Opening a Database in Read-Only Mode ................................................................................. 3-8
Restricting Access to an Open Database ................................................................................... 3-8
Shutting Down a Database ............................................................................................................... 3-9
Shutting Down with the NORMAL Option ........................................................................... 3-10
Shutting Down with the IMMEDIATE Option ...................................................................... 3-11
Shutting Down with the TRANSACTIONAL Option .......................................................... 3-11
Shutting Down with the ABORT Option ................................................................................ 3-12
Suspending and Resuming a Database........................................................................................ 3-12
Using Parameter Files ...................................................................................................................... 3-13
The Sample Parameter File........................................................................................................ 3-14
The Number of Parameter Files................................................................................................ 3-14
The Location of the Parameter File in Distributed Environments ...................................... 3-15

Part II Oracle Server Configuration

v
4 Managing Oracle Processes
Setting Up Server Processes.............................................................................................................. 4-2
When to Connect to a Dedicated Server Process ..................................................................... 4-2
Configuring Oracle for Multi-Threaded Server Architecture .................................................... 4-3
MTS_DISPATCHERS: Setting the Initial Number of Dispatchers (Required) .................... 4-5
Modifying Server Processes.............................................................................................................. 4-6
Changing the Minimum Number of Shared Server Processes .............................................. 4-6
Adding and Removing Dispatcher Processes .......................................................................... 4-7
Tracking Oracle Processes ................................................................................................................. 4-7
Monitoring the Processes of an Oracle Instance....................................................................... 4-8
Trace Files, the ALERT File, and Background Processes ...................................................... 4-10
Starting the Checkpoint Process ............................................................................................... 4-12
Managing Processes for the Parallel Query Option................................................................... 4-12
Managing the Query Servers .................................................................................................... 4-13
Variations in the Number of Query Server Processes ........................................................... 4-13
Managing Processes for External Procedures.............................................................................. 4-14
Terminating Sessions ....................................................................................................................... 4-15
Identifying Which Session to Terminate ................................................................................. 4-16
Terminating an Active Session ................................................................................................. 4-16
Terminating an Inactive Session............................................................................................... 4-17

5 Managing Control Files

Guidelines for Control Files ............................................................................................................. 5-2
Name Control Files....................................................................................................................... 5-2
Multiplex Control Files on Different Disks............................................................................... 5-2
Place Control Files Appropriately.............................................................................................. 5-3
Manage the Size of Control Files ................................................................................................ 5-3
Creating Control Files ........................................................................................................................ 5-3
Creating Initial Control Files....................................................................................................... 5-4
Creating Additional Control File Copies, and Renaming and Relocating Control Files ... 5-5
New Control Files ......................................................................................................................... 5-5
Creating New Control Files......................................................................................................... 5-6
Troubleshooting After Creating Control Files .............................................................................. 5-8
Checking for Missing or Extra Files ........................................................................................... 5-8
Handling Errors During CREATE CONTROLFILE ................................................................ 5-9

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 Dropping Control Files...................................................................................................................... 5-9

6 Managing the Online Redo Log

What Is the Online Redo Log? ......................................................................................................... 6-2
Redo Threads ................................................................................................................................ 6-2
Online Redo Log Contents .......................................................................................................... 6-2
How Oracle Writes to the Online Redo Log............................................................................. 6-3
Planning the Online Redo Log......................................................................................................... 6-5
Multiplexing Online Redo Log Files.......................................................................................... 6-5
Placing Online Redo Log Members on Different Disks .......................................................... 6-9
Setting the Size of Online Redo Log Members......................................................................... 6-9
Choosing the Number of Online Redo Log Files..................................................................... 6-9
Creating Online Redo Log Groups and Members ..................................................................... 6-11
Creating Online Redo Log Groups .......................................................................................... 6-11
Creating Online Redo Log Members ....................................................................................... 6-11
Renaming and Relocating Online Redo Log Members ............................................................ 6-12
Dropping Online Redo Log Groups and Members ................................................................... 6-14
Dropping Log Groups................................................................................................................ 6-14
Dropping Online Redo Log Members ..................................................................................... 6-15
Forcing Log Switches ....................................................................................................................... 6-16
Verifying Blocks in Redo Log Files............................................................................................... 6-16
Clearing an Online Redo Log File................................................................................................. 6-17
Restrictions .................................................................................................................................. 6-17
Listing Information about the Online Redo Log........................................................................ 6-18

7 Managing Archived Redo Logs

What Is the Archived Redo Log? ..................................................................................................... 7-2
Choosing Between NOARCHIVELOG and ARCHIVELOG Mode......................................... 7-4
Running a Database in NOARCHIVELOG Mode................................................................... 7-4
Running a Database in ARCHIVELOG Mode ......................................................................... 7-4
Turning Archiving On and Off ........................................................................................................ 7-7
Setting the Initial Database Archiving Mode ........................................................................... 7-7
Changing the Database Archiving Mode.................................................................................. 7-7
Enabling Automatic Archiving................................................................................................... 7-8
Disabling Automatic Archiving ................................................................................................. 7-9

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 Performing Manual Archiving ................................................................................................. 7-10
Specifying the Archive Destination .............................................................................................. 7-11
Specifying Archive Destinations .............................................................................................. 7-11
Understanding Archive Destination States ............................................................................ 7-13
Specifying the Mode of Log Transmission .................................................................................. 7-14
Normal Transmission Mode ..................................................................................................... 7-15
Standby Transmission Mode..................................................................................................... 7-15
Managing Archive Destination Failure ........................................................................................ 7-16
Specifying the Minimum Number of Successful Destinations ............................................ 7-17
Re-Archiving to a Failed Destination....................................................................................... 7-19
Tuning Archive Performance .......................................................................................................... 7-20
Specifying Multiple ARCn Processes....................................................................................... 7-20
Setting Archive Buffer Parameters........................................................................................... 7-22
Displaying Archived Redo Log Information............................................................................... 7-23
Using LogMiner to Analyze Online and Archived Redo Logs................................................ 7-25
How Can You Use LogMiner? .................................................................................................. 7-26
Restrictions................................................................................................................................... 7-26
Creating a Dictionary File.......................................................................................................... 7-27
Specifying Redo Logs for Analysis .......................................................................................... 7-29
Using LogMiner .......................................................................................................................... 7-30
Using LogMiner: Scenarios ....................................................................................................... 7-32

8 Managing Job Queues

SNP Background Processes............................................................................................................... 8-2
Multiple SNP processes ............................................................................................................... 8-3
Starting up SNP processes........................................................................................................... 8-3
Managing Job Queues........................................................................................................................ 8-3
DBMS_JOB Package ..................................................................................................................... 8-4
Submitting a Job to the Job Queue ............................................................................................. 8-4
How Jobs Execute ......................................................................................................................... 8-9
Removing a Job from the Job Queue........................................................................................ 8-11
Altering a Job............................................................................................................................... 8-11
Broken Jobs .................................................................................................................................. 8-12
Forcing a Job to Execute............................................................................................................. 8-14
Terminating a Job........................................................................................................................ 8-14

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 Viewing Job Queue Information ................................................................................................... 8-15

Part III Database Storage

9 Managing Tablespaces
Guidelines for Managing Tablespaces ........................................................................................... 9-2
Using Multiple Tablespaces ........................................................................................................ 9-2
Specifying Tablespace Storage Parameters............................................................................... 9-3
Assigning Tablespace Quotas to Users ..................................................................................... 9-3
Creating Tablespaces.......................................................................................................................... 9-3
Creating Locally Managed Tablespaces.................................................................................... 9-5
Creating a Temporary Tablespace ............................................................................................. 9-6
Managing Tablespace Allocation..................................................................................................... 9-8
Altering Storage Settings for Tablespaces................................................................................. 9-8
Coalescing Free Space .................................................................................................................. 9-8
Altering Tablespace Availability ................................................................................................... 9-10
Bringing Tablespaces Online .................................................................................................... 9-10
Taking Tablespaces Offline ....................................................................................................... 9-10
Making a Tablespace Read-Only................................................................................................... 9-12
Prerequisites ................................................................................................................................ 9-13
Making a Read-Only Tablespace Writeable ........................................................................... 9-14
Creating a Read-Only Tablespace on a WORM Device........................................................ 9-14
Dropping Tablespaces...................................................................................................................... 9-14
Using the DBMS_SPACE_ADMIN Package ............................................................................... 9-16
Scenario 1 ..................................................................................................................................... 9-16
Scenario 2 ..................................................................................................................................... 9-17
Scenario 3 ..................................................................................................................................... 9-17
Scenario 4 ..................................................................................................................................... 9-17
Transporting Tablespaces Between Databases............................................................................ 9-18
Introduction to Transportable Tablespaces ............................................................................ 9-18
Current Limitations.................................................................................................................... 9-20
Step 1: Pick a Self-contained Set of Tablespaces .................................................................... 9-20
Step 2: Generate a Transportable Tablespace Set................................................................... 9-22
Step 3: Transport the Tablespace Set ....................................................................................... 9-23
Step 4: Plug In the Tablespace Set ............................................................................................ 9-23

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 Object Behaviors ......................................................................................................................... 9-24
Transporting and Attaching Partitions for Data Warehousing: Example.......................... 9-27
Publishing Structured Data on CDs......................................................................................... 9-29
Mounting the Same Tablespace Read-only on Multiple Databases .................................... 9-29
Archive Historical Data via Transportable Tablespaces ....................................................... 9-30
Using Transportable Tablespaces to Perform TSPITR .......................................................... 9-30
Viewing Information About Tablespaces .................................................................................... 9-31

10 Managing Datafiles
Guidelines for Managing Datafiles............................................................................................... 10-2
Determine the Number of Datafiles......................................................................................... 10-2
Set the Size of Datafiles .............................................................................................................. 10-4
Place Datafiles Appropriately ................................................................................................... 10-4
Store Datafiles Separate From Redo Log Files........................................................................ 10-4
Creating and Adding Datafiles to a Tablespace .......................................................................... 10-5
Changing a Datafile’s Size............................................................................................................... 10-5
Enabling and Disabling Automatic Extension for a Datafile ............................................... 10-5
Manually Resizing a Datafile .................................................................................................... 10-6
Altering Datafile Availability ......................................................................................................... 10-7
Bringing Datafiles Online in ARCHIVELOG Mode .............................................................. 10-8
Taking Datafiles Offline in NOARCHIVELOG Mode .......................................................... 10-8
Renaming and Relocating Datafiles .............................................................................................. 10-9
Renaming and Relocating Datafiles for a Single Tablespace ............................................... 10-9
Renaming and Relocating Datafiles for Multiple Tablespaces .......................................... 10-10
Verifying Data Blocks in Datafiles .............................................................................................. 10-12
Viewing Information About Datafiles ........................................................................................ 10-13

11 Using the Database Resource Manager

Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 11-2
Using Database Resource Manager Packages ............................................................................. 11-3
Using the DBMS_RESOURCE_MANAGER Package ........................................................... 11-3
The DBMS_RESOURCE_MANAGER_PRIVS Package ...................................................... 11-10
Using the DBMS_SESSION Package to Change a User’s Resource Consumer Groups 11-11
Database Resource Manager Views ............................................................................................ 11-12

x
12 Guidelines for Managing Schema Objects
Managing Space in Data Blocks .................................................................................................... 12-2
The PCTFREE Parameter........................................................................................................... 12-2
The PCTUSED Parameter.......................................................................................................... 12-4
Selecting Associated PCTUSED and PCTFREE Values ........................................................ 12-6
Setting Storage Parameters ............................................................................................................. 12-7
Storage Parameters You Can Specify....................................................................................... 12-7
Setting INITRANS and MAXTRANS ...................................................................................... 12-9
Setting Default Storage Parameters for Segments in a Tablespace ................................... 12-10
Setting Storage Parameters for Data Segments .................................................................... 12-10
Setting Storage Parameters for Index Segments .................................................................. 12-10
Setting Storage Parameters for LOB Segments .................................................................... 12-11
Changing Values for Storage Parameters ............................................................................. 12-11
Understanding Precedence in Storage Parameters.............................................................. 12-11
Deallocating Space ......................................................................................................................... 12-13
Viewing the High Water Mark ............................................................................................... 12-13
Issuing Space Deallocation Statements ................................................................................. 12-13
Understanding Space Use of Datatypes ..................................................................................... 12-17
Summary of Oracle Datatypes................................................................................................ 12-19

13 Managing Partitioned Tables and Indexes

What Are Partitioned Tables and Indexes?.................................................................................. 13-2
Partitioning Methods ....................................................................................................................... 13-2
Using the Range Partitioning Method..................................................................................... 13-3
Using the Hash Partitioning Method....................................................................................... 13-4
Using the Composite Partitioning Method............................................................................. 13-5
Creating Partitions............................................................................................................................ 13-9
Maintaining Partitions..................................................................................................................... 13-9
Moving Partitions ..................................................................................................................... 13-10
Adding Partitions ..................................................................................................................... 13-11
Dropping Partitions.................................................................................................................. 13-12
Coalescing Partitions................................................................................................................ 13-14
Modifying Partition Default Attributes................................................................................. 13-14
Truncating Partitions ............................................................................................................... 13-15
Splitting Partitions.................................................................................................................... 13-17

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 Merging Partitions .................................................................................................................... 13-18
Exchanging Table Partitions.................................................................................................... 13-18
Rebuilding Index Partitions .................................................................................................... 13-20
Moving the Time Window in a Historical Table.................................................................. 13-20
Quiescing Applications During a Multi-Step Maintenance Operation ............................ 13-21

14 Managing Tables
Guidelines for Managing Tables ................................................................................................... 14-2
Design Tables Before Creating Them ...................................................................................... 14-2
Specify How Data Block Space Is to Be Used ......................................................................... 14-3
Specify Transaction Entry Parameters..................................................................................... 14-3
Specify the Location of Each Table........................................................................................... 14-3
Parallelize Table Creation.......................................................................................................... 14-4
Consider Creating UNRECOVERABLE Tables ..................................................................... 14-4
Estimate Table Size and Set Storage Parameters.................................................................... 14-5
Plan for Large Tables.................................................................................................................. 14-5
Table Restrictions........................................................................................................................ 14-6
Creating Tables .................................................................................................................................. 14-9
Altering Tables ................................................................................................................................ 14-10
Manually Allocating Storage for a Table.................................................................................... 14-11
Dropping Tables.............................................................................................................................. 14-12
Dropping Columns................................................................................................................... 14-13
Index-Organized Tables................................................................................................................. 14-13
What Are Index-Organized Tables?....................................................................................... 14-14
Creating Index-Organized Tables .......................................................................................... 14-16
Maintaining Index-Organized Tables.................................................................................... 14-19
Analyzing Index-Organized Tables ....................................................................................... 14-21
Using the ORDER BY Clause with Index-Organized Tables ............................................. 14-22
Converting Index-Organized Tables to Regular Tables...................................................... 14-22

15 Managing Views, Sequences and Synonyms

Managing Views................................................................................................................................ 15-2
Creating Views ............................................................................................................................ 15-2
Modifying a Join View ............................................................................................................... 15-4
Replacing Views.......................................................................................................................... 15-8

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 Dropping Views.......................................................................................................................... 15-9
Managing Sequences ....................................................................................................................... 15-9
Creating Sequences .................................................................................................................. 15-10
Altering Sequences ................................................................................................................... 15-10
Initialization Parameters Affecting Sequences..................................................................... 15-11
Dropping Sequences ................................................................................................................ 15-11
Managing Synonyms ..................................................................................................................... 15-11
Creating Synonyms .................................................................................................................. 15-12
Dropping Synonyms ................................................................................................................ 15-12

16 Managing Indexes
Guidelines for Managing Indexes................................................................................................. 16-2
Create Indexes After Inserting Table Data.............................................................................. 16-3
Limit the Number of Indexes per Table .................................................................................. 16-3
Specify Transaction Entry Parameters..................................................................................... 16-4
Specify Index Block Space Use ................................................................................................. 16-4
Specify the Tablespace for Each Index .................................................................................... 16-4
Parallelize Index Creation ......................................................................................................... 16-5
Consider Creating Indexes with NOLOGGING.................................................................... 16-5
Estimate Index Size and Set Storage Parameters ................................................................... 16-5
Considerations Before Disabling or Dropping Constraints ................................................. 16-7
Creating Indexes ............................................................................................................................... 16-7
Creating an Index Associated with a Constraint ................................................................... 16-8
Creating an Index Explicitly ..................................................................................................... 16-8
Creating an Index Online .......................................................................................................... 16-9
Creating a Function-Based Index ............................................................................................. 16-9
Re-creating an Existing Index ................................................................................................. 16-12
Creating a Key-Compressed Index ........................................................................................ 16-12
Altering Indexes.............................................................................................................................. 16-13
Monitoring Space Use of Indexes................................................................................................ 16-14
Dropping Indexes ........................................................................................................................... 16-15

17 Managing Clusters
Guidelines for Managing Clusters................................................................................................ 17-2
Choose Appropriate Tables for the Cluster ............................................................................ 17-4

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 Choose Appropriate Columns for the Cluster Key ............................................................... 17-4
Specify Data Block Space Use ................................................................................................... 17-5
Specify the Space Required by an Average Cluster Key and Its Associated Rows .......... 17-5
Specify the Location of Each Cluster and Cluster Index Rows............................................ 17-5
Estimate Cluster Size and Set Storage Parameters................................................................. 17-6
Creating Clusters............................................................................................................................... 17-6
Creating Clustered Tables ......................................................................................................... 17-7
Creating Cluster Indexes ........................................................................................................... 17-7
Altering Clusters ............................................................................................................................... 17-8
Altering Cluster Tables and Cluster Indexes.......................................................................... 17-9
Dropping Clusters .......................................................................................................................... 17-10
Dropping Clustered Tables ..................................................................................................... 17-10
Dropping Cluster Indexes ....................................................................................................... 17-11

18 Managing Hash Clusters

Guidelines for Managing Hash Clusters ..................................................................................... 18-2
Advantages of Hashing ............................................................................................................. 18-2
Disadvantages of Hashing......................................................................................................... 18-3
Estimate Size Required by Hash Clusters and Set Storage Parameters.............................. 18-4
Creating Hash Clusters .............................................................................................................. 18-4
Controlling Space Use Within a Hash Cluster ....................................................................... 18-6
Altering Hash Clusters..................................................................................................................... 18-8
Dropping Hash Clusters.................................................................................................................. 18-9

19 Detecting and Repairing Data

Block Corruption
DBMS_REPAIR Package Contents................................................................................................ 19-2
Step 1: Detect and Report Corruptions ......................................................................................... 19-2
DBMS_REPAIR: Using the check_object and admin_tables Procedures ........................... 19-3
DB_VERIFY: Performing an Offline Database Check ........................................................... 19-3
ANALYZE: Corruption Reporting........................................................................................... 19-3
DB_BLOCK_CHECKING (Block Checking Initialization Parameter)................................ 19-3
Step 2: Evaluate the Costs and Benefits of Using DBMS_REPAIR ......................................... 19-4
Step 3: Make Objects Usable .......................................................................................................... 19-5
Corruption Repair: Using the fix_corrupt_blocks and skip_corrupt_blocks Procedures 19-5

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 Implications when Skipping Corrupt Blocks ......................................................................... 19-5
Step 4: Repair Corruptions and Rebuild Lost Data ................................................................... 19-6
Recover Data Using the dump_orphan_keys Procedures.................................................... 19-6
Repair Freelists Using the rebuild_freelists Procedure......................................................... 19-6
Limitations and Restrictions........................................................................................................... 19-6
DBMS_REPAIR Procedures............................................................................................................ 19-7
check_object................................................................................................................................. 19-7
fix_corrupt_blocks ...................................................................................................................... 19-8
dump_orphan_keys ................................................................................................................... 19-9
rebuild_freelists ........................................................................................................................ 19-10
skip_corrupt_blocks ................................................................................................................. 19-11
admin_tables ............................................................................................................................. 19-11
DBMS_REPAIR Exceptions .......................................................................................................... 19-12

20 General Management of Schema Objects

Creating Multiple Tables and Views in a Single Operation .................................................... 20-2
Renaming Schema Objects ............................................................................................................. 20-2
Analyzing Tables, Indexes, and Clusters ..................................................................................... 20-3
Using Statistics for Tables, Indexes, and Clusters ................................................................. 20-4
Validating Tables, Indexes, and Clusters................................................................................ 20-8
Listing Chained Rows of Tables and Clusters........................................................................ 20-8
Truncating Tables and Clusters...................................................................................................... 20-9
Enabling and Disabling Triggers................................................................................................. 20-11
Enabling Triggers ..................................................................................................................... 20-12
Disabling Triggers .................................................................................................................... 20-12
Managing Integrity Constraints................................................................................................... 20-13
Integrity Constraint States....................................................................................................... 20-14
Deferring Constraint Checks .................................................................................................. 20-16
Managing Constraints That Have Associated Indexes ....................................................... 20-18
Setting Integrity Constraints Upon Definition ..................................................................... 20-18
Modifying Existing Integrity Constraints ............................................................................. 20-20
Dropping Integrity Constraints .............................................................................................. 20-21
Reporting Constraint Exceptions ........................................................................................... 20-21
Managing Object Dependencies ................................................................................................. 20-23
Manually Recompiling Views ................................................................................................ 20-25

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 Manually Recompiling Procedures and Functions.............................................................. 20-25
Manually Recompiling Packages ........................................................................................... 20-25
Managing Object Name Resolution............................................................................................ 20-25
Changing Storage Parameters for the Data Dictionary ........................................................... 20-26
Structures in the Data Dictionary ........................................................................................... 20-27
Errors that Require Changing Data Dictionary Storage ..................................................... 20-29
Displaying Information About Schema Objects ...................................................................... 20-29
Oracle Dictionary Storage Packages ...................................................................................... 20-30
Example 1: Displaying Schema Objects By Type ................................................................. 20-31
Example 2: Displaying Column Information........................................................................ 20-31
Example 3: Displaying Dependencies of Views and Synonyms........................................ 20-32
Example 4: Displaying General Segment Information........................................................ 20-32
Example 5: Displaying General Extent Information............................................................ 20-32
Example 6: Displaying the Free Space (Extents) of a Database ......................................... 20-33
Example 7: Displaying Segments that Cannot Allocate Additional Extents ................... 20-33

21 Managing Rollback Segments

Guidelines for Managing Rollback Segments............................................................................ 21-2
Use Multiple Rollback Segments.............................................................................................. 21-2
Choose Between Public and Private Rollback Segments ...................................................... 21-3
Specify Rollback Segments to Acquire Automatically .......................................................... 21-3
Set Rollback Segment Sizes Appropriately ............................................................................. 21-4
Create Rollback Segments with Many Equally Sized Extents.............................................. 21-5
Set an Optimal Number of Extents for Each Rollback Segment .......................................... 21-5
Set the Storage Location for Rollback ...................................................................................... 21-7
Creating Rollback Segments........................................................................................................... 21-7
Bringing New Rollback Segments Online............................................................................... 21-8
Specifying Storage Parameters for Rollback Segments ............................................................ 21-8
Setting Storage Parameters When Creating a Rollback Segment ........................................ 21-8
Changing Rollback Segment Storage Parameters .................................................................. 21-9
Altering Rollback Segment Format .......................................................................................... 21-9
Shrinking a Rollback Segment Manually .............................................................................. 21-10
Taking Rollback Segments Online and Offline ....................................................................... 21-10
Bringing Rollback Segments Online ...................................................................................... 21-11
Taking Rollback Segments Offline ......................................................................................... 21-12

xvi
 Explicitly Assigning a Transaction to a Rollback Segment .................................................... 21-13
Dropping Rollback Segments ...................................................................................................... 21-13
Monitoring Rollback Segment Information.............................................................................. 21-14
Displaying Rollback Segment Information........................................................................... 21-14

Part IV Database Security

22 Establishing Security Policies

System Security Policy..................................................................................................................... 22-2
Database User Management ..................................................................................................... 22-2
User Authentication ................................................................................................................... 22-2
Operating System Security........................................................................................................ 22-3
Data Security Policy ......................................................................................................................... 22-3
User Security Policy ......................................................................................................................... 22-4
General User Security ................................................................................................................ 22-4
End-User Security....................................................................................................................... 22-5
Administrator Security .............................................................................................................. 22-7
Application Developer Security ............................................................................................... 22-9
Application Administrator Security ...................................................................................... 22-11
Password Management Policy ..................................................................................................... 22-11
Account Locking....................................................................................................................... 22-12
Password Aging and Expiration ............................................................................................ 22-12
Password History ..................................................................................................................... 22-14
Password Complexity Verification ........................................................................................ 22-14
Auditing Policy ............................................................................................................................... 22-18

23 Managing Users and Resources

Session and User Licensing ............................................................................................................ 23-2
Concurrent Usage Licensing..................................................................................................... 23-2
Connecting Privileges ................................................................................................................ 23-3
Setting the Maximum Number of Sessions ............................................................................ 23-4
Setting the Session Warning Limit........................................................................................... 23-4
Changing Concurrent Usage Limits While the Database is Running................................. 23-4
Named User Limits .................................................................................................................... 23-5

xvii
 Viewing Licensing Limits and Current Values ...................................................................... 23-6
User Authentication.......................................................................................................................... 23-7
Database Authentication ........................................................................................................... 23-8
External Authentication............................................................................................................. 23-8
Enterprise Authentication ....................................................................................................... 23-10
Oracle Users ..................................................................................................................................... 23-11
Creating Users ........................................................................................................................... 23-11
Altering Users............................................................................................................................ 23-15
Dropping Users ......................................................................................................................... 23-16
Managing Resources with Profiles .............................................................................................. 23-17
Creating Profiles ....................................................................................................................... 23-18
Assigning Profiles ..................................................................................................................... 23-18
Altering Profiles ........................................................................................................................ 23-19
Using Composite Limits .......................................................................................................... 23-19
Dropping Profiles ..................................................................................................................... 23-21
Enabling and Disabling Resource Limits .............................................................................. 23-21
Listing Information About Database Users and Profiles ........................................................ 23-22
Listing Information about Users and Profiles: Examples ................................................... 23-23
Examples ........................................................................................................................................... 23-26

24 Managing User Privileges and Roles

Identifying User Privileges ............................................................................................................. 24-2
System Privileges ........................................................................................................................ 24-2
Object Privileges.......................................................................................................................... 24-3
Managing User Roles ....................................................................................................................... 24-4
Creating a Role ............................................................................................................................ 24-4
Predefined Roles ......................................................................................................................... 24-5
Role Authorization ..................................................................................................................... 24-6
Dropping Roles ........................................................................................................................... 24-8
Granting User Privileges and Roles .............................................................................................. 24-9
Granting System Privileges and Roles..................................................................................... 24-9
Granting Object Privileges and Roles .................................................................................... 24-10
Granting Privileges on Columns ............................................................................................ 24-11
Revoking User Privileges and Roles ........................................................................................... 24-12
Revoking System Privileges and Roles.................................................................................. 24-12

xviii
 Revoking Object Privileges and Roles ................................................................................... 24-12
Effects of Revoking Privileges ................................................................................................ 24-14
Granting to and Revoking from the User Group PUBLIC ................................................. 24-15
Granting Roles Using the Operating System or Network ..................................................... 24-16
Using Operating System Role Identification ........................................................................ 24-17
Using Operating System Role Management ........................................................................ 24-18
Granting and Revoking Roles When OS_ROLES=TRUE ................................................... 24-18
Enabling and Disabling Roles When OS_ROLES=TRUE ................................................... 24-19
Using Network Connections with Operating System Role Management ....................... 24-19
Listing Privilege and Role Information ..................................................................................... 24-19
Listing Privilege and Role Information: Examples.............................................................. 24-20

25 Auditing Database Use

Guidelines for Auditing.................................................................................................................. 25-2
Audit via the Database or Operating System......................................................................... 25-2
Keep Audited Information Manageable ................................................................................. 25-2
Creating and Deleting the Database Audit Trail Views............................................................ 25-4
Creating the Audit Trail Views ................................................................................................ 25-4
Deleting the Audit Trail Views................................................................................................. 25-5
Managing Audit Trail Information ............................................................................................... 25-5
Events Audited by Default........................................................................................................ 25-7
Setting Auditing Options .......................................................................................................... 25-7
Enabling and Disabling Database Auditing ......................................................................... 25-13
Controlling the Growth and Size of the Audit Trail ........................................................... 25-14
Protecting the Audit Trail........................................................................................................ 25-16
Viewing Database Audit Trail Information............................................................................... 25-17
Listing Active Statement Audit Options............................................................................... 25-18
Listing Active Privilege Audit Options................................................................................. 25-18
Listing Active Object Audit Options for Specific Objects................................................... 25-19
Listing Default Object Audit Options.................................................................................... 25-19
Listing Audit Records .............................................................................................................. 25-19
Listing Audit Records for the AUDIT SESSION Option .................................................... 25-20
Auditing Through Database Triggers......................................................................................... 25-20

Index

xix
xx
 Send Us Your Comments
Administrator’s Guide, Release 8.1.5

Oracle Corporation welcomes your comments and suggestions on the quality and usefulness of this
publication. Your input is an important part of the information used for revision.
■ Did you find any errors?
■ Is the information clearly presented?
■ Do you need more information? If so, where?
■ Are the examples correct? Do you need more examples?
■ What features did you like most about this manual?

If you find any errors or have any other suggestions for improvement, please indicate the chapter,
section, and page number (if available). Please send your comments to:
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Oracle Corporation
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Redwood Shores, CA 94065
Fax: (650) 506-7228

or e-mail comments to the Information Development department at the following e-mail address:
[email protected]

xxi
xxii
 Preface

This guide is for people who administer the operation of an Oracle database system.
These people, referred to as "database administrators" (DBAs), are assumed to be
responsible for ensuring the smooth operation of an Oracle database system and for
monitoring its use. The responsibilities of database administrators are described in
Chapter 1.

Attention: The Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide contains information

that describes the features and functionality of the Oracle8 and the
Oracle8 Enterprise Edition products. Oracle8 and Oracle8
Enterprise Edition have the same basic features. However, several
advanced features are available only with the Enterprise Edition,
and some of these are optional. For example, to perform automated
tablespace point-in-time recovery (using Recovery Manager), you
must have the Enterprise Edition.
For information about the differences between Oracle8 and the
Oracle8 Enterprise Edition and the features and options that are
available to you, please refer to Getting to Know Oracle8i and the
Oracle8i Enterprise Edition.

xxiii
Audience
Readers of this guide are assumed to be familiar with relational database concepts.
They are also assumed to be familiar with the operating system environment under
which they are running Oracle.

Readers Interested in Installation and Migration Information

Administrators frequently participate in installing the Oracle Server software and
migrating existing Oracle databases to newer formats (for example, Version 7
databases to Oracle8 format). This guide is not an installation or migration manual.
If your primary interest is installation, see your operating system-specific Oracle
documentation.
If your primary interest is database or application migration, see the Oracle8i
Migration manual.

Readers Interested in Application Design Information

In addition to administrators, experienced users of Oracle and advanced database
application designers might also find information in this guide useful.
However, database application developers should also see the Oracle8i Application
Developer’s Guide - Fundamentals and the documentation for the tool or language
product they are using to develop Oracle database applications.

How to Use This Guide

Every reader of this guide should read Chapter 1 of Oracle8i Concepts. This
overview of the concepts and terminology related to Oracle provides a foundation
for the more detailed information in this guide. The rest of Oracle8i Concepts
explains the Oracle architecture and features, and how they operate in more detail.

Structure
This guide contains the following parts and chapters.

xxiv
Part I: Basic Database Administration

Chapter 1, "The Oracle Database This chapter serves as a general introduction

Administrator" to typical tasks performed by database
administrators, such as installing software
and planning a database.
Chapter 2, "Creating an Oracle This chapter describes the most important
Database" considerations when creating a database.
Consult this chapter when in the database
planning stage.
Chapter 3, "Starting Up and Consult this chapter when you wish to start
Shutting Down" up a database, alter its availability, or shut it
down. Parameter files related to starting up
and shutting down are also described here.

Part II: Oracle Server Configuration

Chapter 4, "Managing Oracle This chapter helps you identify different

Processes" Oracle processes, such as dedicated server
processes and multi-threaded server
processes. Consult this chapter when
configuring, modifying, tracking and
managing processes.
Chapter 5, "Managing Control This chapter describes all aspects of
Files" managing control files (such as naming,
creating, troubleshooting, and dropping
control files).
Chapter 6, "Managing the Online This chapter describes all aspects of
Redo Log" managing the online redo log: planning,
creating, renaming, dropping, or clearing
online redo log files.
Chapter 7, "Managing Archived Consult this chapter for information about
Redo Logs" archive modes, tuning archiving, and
viewing.
Chapter 8, "Managing Job Queues" Consult this chapter before working with job
queues. All aspects of submitting, removing,
altering, and fixing job queues are described.

xxv
 Part III: Database Storage

Chapter 9, "Managing Tablespaces" This chapter provides guidelines to

follow as you manage tablespaces, and
describes how to create, manage, alter,
drop and move data betweentablespaces.
Chapter 10, "Managing Datafiles" This chapter provides guidelines to
follow as you manage datafiles, and
describes how to create, change, alter,
rename and view information about
datafiles.
Chapter 11, "Using the Database This chapter describes how to use the
Resource Manager" Database Resource Manager to allocate
resources.
Chapter 12, "Guidelines for Managing Consult this chapter for descriptions of
Schema Objects" common tasks, such as setting storage
parameters, deallocating space and
managing space.
Chapter 13, "Managing Partitioned This chapter describes what a partitioned
Tables and Indexes" table (and index) is and how to create and
manage it.
Chapter 14, "Managing Tables" Consult this chapter for general table
management guidelines, as well as
information about creating, altering,
maintaining and dropping tables.
Chapter 15, "Managing Views, This chapter describes all aspects of
Sequences and Synonyms" managing views, sequences and
synonyms.
Chapter 16, "Managing Indexes" Consult this chapter for general
guidelines about indexes, including
creating, altering, monitoring and
dropping indexes.
Chapter 17, "Managing Clusters" Consult this chapter for general
guidelines to follow when creating,
altering and dropping clusters.

xxvi
Chapter 18, "Managing Hash Clusters" Consult this chapter for general
guidelines to follow when altering or
dropping hash clusters.
Chapter 19, "Detecting and Repairing This chapter describes how to use the
Data Block Corruption" procedures in the DBMS_REPAIR
package to detect and correct data block
corruption.
Chapter 20, "General Management of This chapter covers more specific aspects
Schema Objects" of schema management than those
identified in Chapter 12. Consult this
chapter for information about table
analysis, truncation of tables and clusters,
database triggers, integrity constraints,
object dependencies. You will also find a
number of specific examples.
Chapter 21, "Managing Rollback Consult this chapter for guidelines to
Segments" follow when working with rollback
segments.

Part IV: Database Security

Chapter 22, "Establishing Security This chapter describes all aspects of

Policies" database security, including system, data
and user security policies, as well as
specific tasks associated with password
management.
Chapter 23, "Managing Users and This chapter describes session and user
Resources" licensing, user authentication, and
provides specific examples of tasks
associated with managing users and
resources.
Chapter 24, "Managing User Privileges This chapter contains information about
and Roles" all aspects of managing user privileges
and roles. Consult this chapter to find out
how to grant and revoke privileges and
roles.
Chapter 25, "Auditing Database Use" This chapter describes how to create,
manage and view audit information.

xxvii
Conventions
This section explains the conventions used in this manual including the following:
■ text
■ syntax diagrams and notation
■ code examples

Text
This section explains the conventions used within the text.

UPPERCASE Characters
Uppercase text is used to call attention to command keywords, object names,
parameters, filenames, and so on.
For example, "If you create a private rollback segment, the name must be included
in the ROLLBACK_SEGMENTS parameter of the parameter file."

Italicized Characters
Italicized words within text are book titles or emphasized words.

Syntax Diagrams and Notation

The syntax diagrams and notation in this manual show the syntax for SQL
commands, functions, hints, and other elements. This section tells you how to read
syntax diagrams and examples and write SQL statements based on them.

Keywords
Keywords are words that have special meanings in the SQL language. In the syntax
diagrams in this manual, keywords appear in uppercase. You must use keywords in
your SQL statements exactly as they appear in the syntax diagram, except that they
can be either uppercase or lowercase. For example, you must use the CREATE
keyword to begin your CREATE TABLE statements just as it appears in the
CREATE TABLE syntax diagram.

Parameters
Parameters act as place holders in syntax diagrams. They appear in lowercase.
Parameters are usually names of database objects, Oracle datatype names, or
expressions. When you see a parameter in a syntax diagram, substitute an object or
expression of the appropriate type in your SQL statement. For example, to write a

xxviii
CREATE TABLE statement, use the name of the table you want to create, such as
EMP, in place of the table parameter in the syntax diagram. (Note that parameter
names appear in italics in the text.)
This list shows parameters that appear in the syntax diagrams in this manual and
examples of the values you might substitute for them in your statements:

Parameter Description Examples

table The substitution value must be the emp
name of an object of the type
specified by the parameter.
’text’ The substitution value must be a ’Employee Records’
character literal in single quotes.
condition The substitution value must be a ename > ’A’
condition that evaluates to TRUE or
FALSE.
date The substitution value must be a TO_DATE (
date constant or an expression of
d ’01-Jan-1996’,
DATE datatype.
DD-MON-YYYY’)
expr The substitution value can be an sal + 1000
expression of any datatype.
integer The substitution value must be an 72
integer.
rowid The substitution value must be an 00000462.0001.0001
expression of datatype ROWID.
subquery The substitution value must be a SELECT ename
SELECT statement contained in
FROM emp
another SQL statement.
statement_name The substitution value must be an s1
identifier for a SQL statement or
block_name b1
PL/SQL block.

Code Examples
SQL and SQL*Plus commands and statements are separated from the text of
paragraphs in a monospaced font as follows:
INSERT INTO emp (empno, ename) VALUES (1000, ’JFEE);

xxix
 ALTER TABLESPACE users ADD DATAFILE ’users2.ora’ SIZE 50K;

Example statements can include punctuation, such as commas or quotation marks.

All punctuation in example statements is required. All example statements
terminate with a semicolon (;). Depending on the application, a semicolon or other
terminator may or may not be required to end a statement.
Uppercase words in example statements indicate the keywords within Oracle SQL.
When you issue statements, however, keywords are not case sensitive.
Lowercase words in example statements indicate words supplied only for the
context of the example. For example, lowercase words may indicate the name of a
table, column, or file.

xxx
 Part I
Basic Database Administration
 1
The Oracle Database Administrator

This chapter describes the responsibilities of the person who administers the Oracle
server, the database administrator.
The following topics are included:
■ Types of Oracle Users
■ Database Administrator Security and Privileges
■ Database Administrator Authentication
■ Password File Administration
■ Database Administrator Utilities
■ Priorities of a Database Administrator
■ Identifying Oracle Software Releases

The Oracle Database Administrator 1-1

Types of Oracle Users

Types of Oracle Users

At your site, the types of users and their responsibilities may vary. For example, at a
large site the duties of a database administrator might be divided among several
people.
This section includes the following topics:
■ Database Administrators
■ Security Officers
■ Application Developers
■ Application Administrators
■ Database Users
■ Network Administrators

Database Administrators
Because an Oracle database system can be quite large and have many users,
someone or some group of people must manage this system. The database
administrator (DBA) is this manager. Every database requires at least one person to
perform administrative duties.
A database administrator’s responsibilities can include the following tasks:
■ installing and upgrading the Oracle server and application tools
■ allocating system storage and planning future storage requirements for the
database system
■ creating primary database storage structures (tablespaces) after application
developers have designed an application
■ creating primary objects (tables, views, indexes) once application developers
have designed an application
■ modifying the database structure, as necessary, from information given by
application developers
■ enrolling users and maintaining system security
■ ensuring compliance with your Oracle license agreement
■ controlling and monitoring user access to the database
■ monitoring and optimizing the performance of the database

1-2 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Types of Oracle Users

■ planning for backup and recovery of database information

■ maintaining archived data on tape
■ backing up and restoring the database
■ contacting Oracle Corporation for technical support

Security Officers
In some cases, a database might also have one or more security officers. A security
officer is primarily concerned with enrolling users, controlling and monitoring user
access to the database, and maintaining system security. You might not be
responsible for these duties if your site has a separate security officer.

Application Developers
An application developer designs and implements database applications An
application developer’s responsibilities include the following tasks:
■ designing and developing the database application
■ designing the database structure for an application
■ estimating storage requirements for an application
■ specifying modifications of the database structure for an application
■ relaying the above information to a database administrator
■ tuning the application during development
■ establishing an application’s security measures during development

Application Administrators
An Oracle site might also have one or more application administrators. An
application administrator is responsible for the administration needs of a particular
application.

Database Users
Database users interact with the database via applications or utilities. A typical
user’s responsibilities include the following tasks:
■ entering, modifying, and deleting data, where permitted

The Oracle Database Administrator 1-3

Database Administrator Security and Privileges

■ generating reports of data

Network Administrators
At some sites there may be one or more network administrators. Network
administrators may be responsible for administering Oracle networking products,
such as Net8.
See Also: "Network Administration" in Oracle8i Distributed Database Systems

Database Administrator Security and Privileges

To accomplish administrative tasks in Oracle, you need extra privileges both within
the database and possibly in the operating system of the server on which the
database runs. Access to a database administrator’s account should be tightly
controlled.
This section includes the following topics:
■ The Database Administrator’s Operating System Account
■ Database Administrator Usernames
■ The DBA Role

The Database Administrator’s Operating System Account

To perform many of the administrative duties for a database, you must be able to
execute operating system commands. Depending on the operating system that
executes Oracle, you might need an operating system account or ID to gain access
to the operating system. If so, your operating system account might require more
operating system privileges or access rights than many database users require (for
example, to perform Oracle software installation). Although you do not need the
Oracle files to be stored in your account, you should have access to them.
In addition, Enterprise Manager requires that your operating system account or ID
be distinguished in some way to allow you to use operating system privileged
Enterprise Manager commands.
See Also: The method of distinguishing a database administrator’s account is
operating system specific. See your operating system-specific Oracle documentation
for information.

1-4 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Database Administrator Security and Privileges

Database Administrator Usernames

Two user accounts are automatically created with the database and granted the
DBA role. These two user accounts are:
■ SYS (initial password: CHANGE_ON_INSTALL)
■ SYSTEM (initial password: MANAGER)
These two usernames are described in the following sections.

Note: To prevent inappropriate access to the data dictionary

tables, you must change the passwords for the SYS and SYSTEM
usernames immediately after creating an Oracle database.

You will probably want to create at least one additional administrator username to
use when performing daily administrative tasks.

SYS
When any database is created, the user SYS, identified by the password
CHANGE_ON_INSTALL, is automatically created and granted the DBA role.
All of the base tables and views for the database’s data dictionary are stored in the
schema SYS. These base tables and views are critical for the operation of Oracle. To
maintain the integrity of the data dictionary, tables in the SYS schema are
manipulated only by Oracle; they should never be modified by any user or database
administrator, and no one should create any tables in the schema of the user SYS.
(However, you can change the storage parameters of the data dictionary settings if
necessary.)
Most database users should never be able to connect using the SYS account. You can
connect to the database using this account but should do so only when instructed
by Oracle personnel or documentation.

SYSTEM
When a database is created, the user SYSTEM, identified by the password
MANAGER, is also automatically created and granted all system privileges for the
database.
The SYSTEM username creates additional tables and views that display
administrative information, and internal tables and views used by Oracle tools.
Never create in the SYSTEM schema tables of interest to individual users.

The Oracle Database Administrator 1-5

Database Administrator Authentication

The DBA Role

A predefined role, named "DBA", is automatically created with every Oracle
database. This role contains all database system privileges. Therefore, it is very
powerful and should be granted only to fully functional database administrators.

Database Administrator Authentication

Database administrators must often perform special operations such as shutting
down or starting up a database. Because these operations should not be performed
by normal database users, the database administrator usernames need a more
secure authentication scheme.
This section includes the following topics:
■ Selecting an Authentication Method
■ Using Operating System Authentication
■ OSOPER and OSDBA
■ Using an Authentication Password File

Selecting an Authentication Method

The following methods for authenticating database administrators replace the
CONNECT INTERNAL syntax provided with earlier versions of Oracle:
■ operating system authentication
■ password files
Depending on whether you wish to administer your database locally on the same
machine where the database resides or to administer many different databases from
a single remote client, you can choose between operating system authentication or
password files to authenticate database administrators. Figure 1–1 illustrates the
choices you have for database administrator authentication schemes.

1-6 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Database Administrator Authentication

Figure 1–1 Database Administrator Authentication Methods

Remote Database Local Database

Administration Administration

Do you Yes Do you Yes

have a secure want to use OS Use OS
connection? authentication? authentication

No No

Use a
password file

On most operating systems, OS authentication for database administrators involves

placing the OS username of the database administrator in a special group (on UNIX
systems, this is the DBA group) or giving that OS username a special process right.
The database uses password files to keep track of database usernames that have
been granted administrator privileges.
See Also: "User Authentication" in Oracle8i Concepts.

Using Operating System Authentication

If you choose, you can have your operating system authenticate users performing
database administration operations.
1. Set up the user to be authenticated by the operating system.
2. Make sure that the initialization parameter,
REMOTE_LOGIN_PASSWORDFILE, is set to NONE, which is the default value
for this parameter.
3. Authenticated users should now be able to connect to a local database, or to
connect to a remote database over a secure connection, by typing one of the
following commands:
CONNECT / AS SYSOPER

The Oracle Database Administrator 1-7

Database Administrator Authentication

CONNECT / AS SYSDBA

If you successfully connect as INTERNAL using an earlier release of Oracle, you

should be able to continue to connect successfully using the new syntax shown in
Step 3.

Note: To connect as SYSOPER or SYSDBA using OS

authentication you do not need the SYSOPER or SYSDBA system
privileges. Instead, the server verifies that you have been granted
the appropriate OSDBA or OSOPER roles at the operating system
level.

OSOPER and OSDBA

Two special operating system roles control database administrator logins when
using operating system authentication: OSOPER and OSDBA.
OSOPER Permits the user to perform STARTUP, SHUTDOWN, ALTER
DATABASE OPEN/MOUNT, ALTER DATABASE BACKUP,
ARCHIVE LOG, and RECOVER, and includes the
RESTRICTED SESSION privilege.
OSDBA Contains all system privileges with ADMIN OPTION, and the
OSOPER role; permits CREATE DATABASE and time-based
recovery.

OSOPER and OSDBA can have different names and functionality, depending on
your operating system.
The OSOPER and OSDBA roles can only be granted to a user through the operating
system. They cannot be granted through a GRANT statement, nor can they be
revoked or dropped. When a user logs on with administrator privileges and
REMOTE_LOGIN_PASSWORDFILE is set to NONE, Oracle communicates with the
operating system and attempts to enable first OSDBA and then, if unsuccessful,
OSOPER. If both attempts fail, the connection fails. How you grant these privileges
through the operating system is operating system specific.
If you are performing remote database administration, you should consult your
Net8 documentation to determine if you are using a secure connection. Most
popular connection protocols, such as TCP/IP and DECnet, are not secure,
regardless of which version of Net8 you are using.
See Also: For information about OS authentication of database administrators, see
your operating system-specific Oracle documentation.

1-8 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Password File Administration

Using an Authentication Password File

If you have determined that you need to use a password file to authenticate users
performing database administration, you must complete the steps outlined below.
Each of these steps is explained in more detail in the following sections of this
chapter.
1. Create the password file using the ORAPWD utility.
ORAPWD FILE=filename PASSWORD=password ENTRIES=max_users

2. Set the REMOTE_LOGIN_PASSWORDFILE initialization parameter to

EXCLUSIVE.
3. Add users to the password file by using SQL to grant the appropriate privileges
to each user who needs to perform database administration, as shown in the
following examples.
GRANT SYSDBA TO scott;
GRANT SYSOPER TO scott;

The privilege SYSDBA permits the user to perform the same operations as
OSDBA. Likewise, the privilege SYSOPER permits the user to perform the same
operations as OSOPER.
4. Privileged users should now be able to connect to the database by using a
command similar to the one shown below.
CONNECT scott/[email protected] AS SYSDBA

Password File Administration

You can create a password file using the password file creation utility, ORAPWD or,
for selected operating systems, you can create this file as part of your standard
installation.
This section includes the following topics:
■ Using ORAPWD
■ Setting REMOTE_LOGIN_ PASSWORDFILE
■ Adding Users to a Password File
■ Connecting with Administrator Privileges
■ Maintaining a Password File

The Oracle Database Administrator 1-9

Password File Administration

See Also: See your operating system-specific Oracle documentation for information
on using the installer utility to install the password file.

Using ORAPWD
When you invoke the password file creation utility without supplying any
parameters, you receive a message indicating the proper use of the command as
shown in the following sample output:
orapwd
Usage: orapwd file=<fname> password=<password> entries=<users>
where
file - name of password file (mand),
password - password for SYS and INTERNAL (mand),
entries - maximum number of distinct DBAs and OPERs (opt),
There are no spaces around the equal-to (=) character.

For example, the following command creates a password file named ACCT.PWD
that allows up to 30 privileged users with different passwords. The file is initially
created with the password SECRET for users connecting as SYSOPER or SYSDBA:
ORAPWD FILE=acct.pwd PASSWORD=secret ENTRIES=30

Following are descriptions of the parameters in the ORAPWD utility.

FILE
This parameter sets the name of the password file being created. You must specify
the full pathname for the file. The contents of this file are encrypted, and the file is
not user-readable. This parameter is mandatory.
The types of file names allowed for the password file are operating system specific.
Some platforms require the password file to be a specific format and located in a
specific directory. Other platforms allow the use of environment variables to specify
the name and location of the password file. See your operating system-specific
Oracle documentation for the names and locations allowed on your platform.
If you are running multiple instances of Oracle using the Oracle Parallel Server, the
environment variable for each instance should point to the same password file.

WARNING: It is critically important to the security of your

system that you protect your password file and environment
variables that identify the location of the password file. Any user
with access to these could potentially compromise the security of
the connection.

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 Password File Administration

PASSWORD
This parameter sets the password for SYSOPER and SYSDBA. If you issue the
ALTER USER command to change the password after connecting to the database,
both the password stored in the data dictionary and the password stored in the
password file are updated. The INTERNAL user is supported for backwards
compatibility only. This parameter is mandatory.

ENTRIES
This parameter sets the maximum number of entries allowed in the password file.
This corresponds to the maximum number of distinct users allowed to connect to
the database as SYSDBA or SYSOPER. Entries can be reused as users are added to
and removed from the password file. This parameter is required if you ever want
this password file to be EXCLUSIVE.

WARNING: If you ever need to exceed this limit, you must create
a new password file. It is safest to select a number larger than you
think you will ever need.

See Also: Consult your operating system-specific Oracle documentation for the
exact name of the password file or for the name of the environment variable used to
specify this name for your operating system.

Setting REMOTE_LOGIN_ PASSWORDFILE

In addition to creating the password file, you must also set the initialization
parameter REMOTE_LOGIN_PASSWORDFILE to the appropriate value. The
values recognized are described below.

Note: To start up an instance or database, you must use Enterprise

Manager. You must specify a database name and a parameter file to
initialize the instance settings. You may specify a fully-qualified
remote database name using Net8. However, the initialization
parameter file and any associated files, such as a configuration file,
must exist on the client machine. That is, the parameter file must be
on the machine where you are running Enterprise Manager.

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Password File Administration

NONE
Setting this parameter to NONE causes Oracle to behave as if the password file does
not exist. That is, no privileged connections are allowed over non-secure
connections. NONE is the default value for this parameter.

EXCLUSIVE
An EXCLUSIVE password file can be used with only one database. Only an
EXCLUSIVE file can contain the names of users other than SYSOPER and SYSDBA.
Using an EXCLUSIVE password file allows you to grant SYSDBA and SYSOPER
system privileges to individual users and have them connect as themselves.

SHARED
A SHARED password file can be used by multiple databases. However, the only
users recognized by a SHARED password file are SYSDBA and SYSOPER; you
cannot add users to a SHARED password file. All users needing SYSDBA or
SYSOPER system privileges must connect using the same name, SYS, and
password. This option is useful if you have a single DBA administering multiple
databases.

Suggestion: To achieve the greatest level of security, you should

set the REMOTE_LOGIN_PASSWORDFILE file initialization
parameter to EXCLUSIVE immediately after creating the password
file.

Adding Users to a Password File

When you grant SYSDBA or SYSOPER privileges to a user, that user’s name and
privilege information is added to the password file. If the server does not have an
EXCLUSIVE password file, that is, if the initialization parameter
REMOTE_LOGIN_PASSWORDFILE is NONE or SHARED, you receive an error
message if you attempt to grant these privileges.
A user’s name only remains in the password file while that user has at least one of
these two privileges. When you revoke the last of these privileges from a user, that
user is removed from the password file.

To Create a Password File and Add New Users to It

1. Follow the instructions for creating a password file.
2. Set the REMOTE_LOGIN_PASSWORDFILE initialization parameter to
EXCLUSIVE.

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 Password File Administration

3. Connect with SYSDBA privileges as shown in the following example:

CONNECT SYS/change_on_install AS SYSDBA

4. Start up the instance and create the database if necessary, or mount and open an
existing database.
5. Create users as necessary. Grant SYSOPER or SYSDBA privileges to yourself
and other users as appropriate.
6. These users are now added to the password file and can connect to the database
as SYSOPER or SYSDBA with a username and password (instead of using SYS).
The use of a password file does not prevent OS authenticated users from
connecting if they meet the criteria for OS authentication.

Granting and Revoking SYSOPER and SYSDBA Privileges

If your server is using an EXCLUSIVE password file, use the GRANT command to
grant the SYSDBA or SYSOPER system privilege to a user, as shown in the
following example:
GRANT SYSDBA TO scott;

Use the REVOKE command to revoke the SYSDBA or SYSOPER system privilege
from a user, as shown in the following example:
REVOKE SYSDBA FROM scott;

Because SYSDBA and SYSOPER are the most powerful database privileges, the
ADMIN OPTION is not used. Only users currently connected as SYSDBA (or
INTERNAL) can grant SYSDBA or SYSOPER system privileges to another user. This
is also true of REVOKE. These privileges cannot be granted to roles, since roles are
only available after database startup. Do not confuse the SYSDBA and SYSOPER
database privileges with operating system roles, which are a completely
independent feature.
See Also: For more information about system privileges, see Chapter 24, "Managing
User Privileges and Roles".

Listing Password File Members

Use the V$PWFILE_USERS view to determine which users have been granted
SYSDBA and SYSOPER system privileges for a database. The columns displayed by
this view are as follows:

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Password File Administration

USERNAME
The name of the user that is recognized by the password file.

SYSDBA
If the value of this column is TRUE, the user can log on with SYSDBA system
privileges.

SYSOPER
If the value of this column is TRUE, the user can log on with SYSOPER system
privileges.

Connecting with Administrator Privileges

When you connect with SYSOPER or SYSDBA privileges using a username and
password, you are connecting with a default schema of SYS, not the schema that is
generally associated with your username.

Connecting with Administrator Privileges: Example

For example, assume user SCOTT has issued the following commands:
CONNECT scott/tiger
CREATE TABLE scott_test(name VARCHAR2(20));

Later, when SCOTT issues these commands:

CONNECT scott/tiger AS SYSDBA
SELECT * FROM scott_test;

He receives an error that SCOTT_TEST does not exist. That is because SCOTT now
references the SYS schema by default, whereas the table was created in the SCOTT
schema.

Non-Secure Remote Connections

To connect to Oracle as a privileged user over a non-secure connection, you must
meet the following conditions:
■ The server to which you are connecting must have a password file.
■ You must be granted the SYSOPER or SYSDBA system privilege.
■ You must connect using a username and password.

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 Password File Administration

Local and Secure Remote Connections

To connect to Oracle as a privileged user over a local or a secure remote connection,
you must meet either of the following sets of conditions:
■ You can connect using a password file, provided that you meet the criteria
outlined for non-secure connections in the previous bulleted list.
■ If the server is not using a password file, or you have not been granted
SYSOPER or SYSDBA privileges and are therefore not in the password file, your
operating system name must be authenticated for a privileged connection by
the operating system. This form of authentication is operating system specific.
Consult your operating system-specific Oracle documentation for details on
operating system authentication.
See Also: "Password File Administration" on page 1-9.

Maintaining a Password File

This section describes how to expand, relocate, and remove the password file, as
well as how to avoid changing the state of the password file.

Expanding the Number of Password File Users

If you receive the file full error (ORA-1996) when you try to grant SYSDBA or
SYSOPER system privileges to a user, you must create a larger password file and re-
grant the privileges to the users.

To Replace a Password File

1. Note which users have SYSDBA or SYSOPER privileges by querying the
V$PWFILE_USERS view.
2. Shut down the database.
3. Delete the existing password file.
4. Follow the instructions for creating a new password file using the ORAPWD
utility in "Using ORAPWD" on page 1-10. Be sure to set the ENTRIES parameter
to a sufficiently large number.
5. Follow the instructions in "Adding Users to a Password File" on page 1-12.

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Password File Administration

Relocating the Password File

After you have created the password file, you can relocate it as you choose. After
relocating the password file, you must reset the appropriate environment variables
to the new pathname. If your operating system uses a predefined pathname, you
cannot change the password file location.

Removing a Password File

If you determine that you no longer need to use a password file to authenticate
users, you can delete the password file and reset the
REMOTE_LOGIN_PASSWORDFILE initialization parameter to NONE. After
removing this file, only users who can be authenticated by the operating system can
perform database administration operations.

WARNING: Do not remove or modify the password file if you

have a database or instance mounted using
REMOTE_LOGIN_PASSWORDFILE=EXCLUSIVE (or
SHARED). If you do, you will be unable to reconnect remotely
using the password file. Even if you replace it, you cannot use the
new password file, because the timestamp and checksums will be
wrong.

Changing the Password File State

The password file state is stored in the password file. When you first create a
password file, its default state is SHARED. You can change the state of the
password file by setting the parameter REMOTE_LOGIN_PASSWORDFILE. When
you start up an instance, Oracle retrieves the value of this parameter from the
initialization parameter file stored on your client machine. When you mount the
database, Oracle compares the value of this parameter to the value stored in the
password file. If these values do not match, the value stored in the file is
overwritten.

WARNING: You should use caution to ensure that an

EXCLUSIVE password file is not accidentally changed to
SHARED. If you plan to allow instance start up from multiple
clients, each of those clients must have an initialization
parameter file, and the value of the parameter
REMOTE_LOGIN_PASSWORDFILE must be the same in each of
these files. Otherwise, the state of the password file could change
depending upon where the instance was started.

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 Priorities of a Database Administrator

Database Administrator Utilities

Several utilities are available to help you maintain and control the Oracle server.
The following topics are included in this section:
■ SQL*Loader
■ Export and Import

SQL*Loader
SQL*Loader is used by both database administrators and users of Oracle. It loads
data from standard operating system files (files in text or C data format) into Oracle
database tables.
See Also: Oracle8i Utilities

Export and Import

The Export and Import utilities allow you to move existing data in Oracle format to
and from Oracle databases. For example, export files can archive database data, or
move data among different Oracle databases that run on the same or different
operating systems.
See Also: Oracle8i Utilities

Priorities of a Database Administrator

In general, you must perform a series of steps to get the database system up and
running, and then maintain it.
The following steps are required to configure an Oracle server and database on any
type of computer system. The following sections include details about each step.

To Configure an Oracle Server

■ Step 1: Install the Oracle Software
■ Step 2: Evaluate the Database Server Hardware
■ Step 3: Plan the Database
■ Step 4: Create and Open the Database
■ Step 5: Implement the Database Design

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Priorities of a Database Administrator

■ Step 6: Back Up the Database

■ Step 7: Enroll System Users
■ Step 8: Tune Database Performance

Note: If migrating to a new release, back up your existing

production database before installation. For more information on
preserving your existing production database, see Oracle8i
Migration.

Step 1: Install the Oracle Software

As the database administrator, you must install the Oracle server software and any
front-end tools and database applications that access the database. In some
distributed processing installations, the database is controlled by a central computer
and the database tools and applications are executed on remote machines; in this
case, you must also install the Oracle Net8 drivers necessary to connect the remote
machines to the computer that executes Oracle.
See Also: For more information, see "Identifying Oracle Software Releases" on
page 1-21.
For specific requirements and instructions for installation, see your operating
system-specific Oracle documentation and your installation guides for your front-
end tools and Net8 drivers.

Step 2: Evaluate the Database Server Hardware

After installation, evaluate how Oracle and its applications can best use the
available computer resources. This evaluation should reveal the following
information:
■ how many disk drives are available to Oracle and its databases
■ how many, if any, dedicated tape drives are available to Oracle and its
databases
■ how much memory is available to the instances of Oracle you will run (see your
system’s configuration documentation)

Step 3: Plan the Database

As the database administrator, you must plan:

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 Priorities of a Database Administrator

■ the database’s logical storage structure

■ the overall database design
■ a backup strategy for the database
It is important to plan how the logical storage structure of the database will affect
system performance and various database management operations. For example,
before creating any tablespaces for your database, you should know how many data
files will make up the tablespace, where the data files will be physically stored (on
which disk drives), and what type of information will be stored in each tablespace.
When planning the database’s overall logical storage structure, take into account
the effects that this structure will have when the database is actually created and
running. Such considerations include how the database’s logical storage structure
will affect the following items:
■ the performance of the computer executing Oracle
■ the performance of the database during data access operations
■ the efficiency of backup and recovery procedures for the database
Plan the relational design of the database’s objects and the storage characteristics
for each of these objects. By planning relationships between objects and the physical
storage of each object before creating it, you can directly impact the performance of
the database as a unit. Be sure to plan for the growth of the database.
In distributed database environments, this planning stage is extremely important.
The physical location of frequently accessed data can dramatically affect application
performance.
During the above planning phases, also plan a backup strategy for the database.
After developing this strategy, you might find that you want to alter the database’s
planned logical storage structure or database design to improve backup efficiency.
It is beyond the scope of this book to discuss relational and distributed database
design; if you are not familiar with such design issues, refer to accepted industry-
standard books that explain these studies.
See Also: See Chapters 9 through 21 for specific information on creating logical
storage structures, objects, and integrity constraints for your database.

Step 4: Create and Open the Database

Once you have finalized the database design, you can create the database and open
it for normal use. Depending on your operating system, a database may already

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Priorities of a Database Administrator

have been created during the installation procedure for Oracle. If so, all you need to
do is start an instance and mount and open the initial database.
To determine if your operating system creates an initial database during the
installation of Oracle, check your installation or user’s guide. If no database is
created during installation or you want to create an additional database, see
Chapter 2 of this book for this procedure.
See Also: See Chapter 3 for database and instance startup and shutdown
procedures.

Step 5: Implement the Database Design

Once you have created and started the database, you can create the database’s
planned logical structure by creating all necessary rollback segments and
tablespaces. Once this is built, you can create the objects for your database.
See Also: See Chapters 9 through 21 for instructions on creating logical storage
structures and objects for your database.

Step 6: Back Up the Database

After you have created the database structure, carry out the planned backup
strategy for your database by creating any additional redo log files, taking the first
full database backup (online or offline), and scheduling future database backups at
regular intervals.
See Also: See the Oracle8i Backup and Recovery Guide for instructions on customizing
your backup operations and performing recovery procedures.

Step 7: Enroll System Users

Once you have backed up the database structure, you can begin to enroll the users
of the database in accordance with your Oracle license agreement, create roles for
these users, and grant appropriate roles to them.
See Also: See Chapters 22 through 24 for the procedures to create user accounts and
roles, and information on complying with your license agreement.

Step 8: Tune Database Performance

Optimizing the database system’s performance is one of your ongoing
responsibilities.

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 Identifying Oracle Software Releases

See Also: Oracle8i Tuning for information about tuning your database and
applications.

Identifying Oracle Software Releases

Because Oracle products are always undergoing development and change, several
releases of the products can be in use at any one time. To identify a software
product fully, as many as five numbers may be required.
This section includes the following topics:
■ Release Number Format
■ Versions of Other Oracle Software
■ Checking Your Current Release Number

Release Number Format

An Oracle Server distribution tape might be labeled "Release 8.1.5.1." The following
sections translate this number.

Figure 1–2 Example of an Oracle Release Number

8.1.5.1
Version Number Port–Specific Patch
Release Number
Maintenance Release Patch Release
Number Number

Version Number
The version number, such as 8, is the most general identifier. A version is a major
new edition of the software, which usually contains significant new functionality.

Maintenance Release Number

The maintenance release number signifies different releases of the general version,
starting with 0, as in version 8.0. The maintenance release number increases when
bug fixes or new features to existing programs become available; in the example
here, 8.1 indicates the first maintenance release of the version 8.

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Identifying Oracle Software Releases

Patch Release Number

The patch release number identifies a specific level of the object code, such as 8.1.5.
A patch release contains fixes for serious bugs that cannot wait until the next
maintenance release. The first distribution of a maintenance release always has a
patch number of 0.

Port-Specific Patch Release Number

A fourth number (and sometimes a fifth number) can be used to identify a
particular emergency patch release of a software product on that operating system,
such as 8.1.5.1. or 8.1.5.1.3. An emergency patch is not usually intended for wide
distribution; it usually fixes or works around a particular, critical problem.

Examples of Release Numbers

The following examples show possible release numbers for Oracle8i:

8.0.0 the first distribution of Oracle8i

8.1.0 the first maintenance release of Oracle8i

8.2.0 the second maintenance release (the third release in all) of Oracle8i

8.2.2 the second patch release after the second maintenance release

Versions of Other Oracle Software

As Oracle Corporation introduces new products and enhances existing ones, the
version numbers of the individual products increment independently. Thus, you
might have an Oracle server Release 8.1.5.1 system working with Oracle Forms
Version 4.0.3, SQL*Plus Version 3.1.9, and Pro*FORTRAN Version 1.5.2. (These
numbers are used only for illustration.)

Checking Your Current Release Number

To see which release of Oracle and its components you are using, query the data
dictionary view PRODUCT_COMPONENT_VERSION, as shown below (This
information is useful if you need to call Oracle Support.):
SELECT * FROM product_component_version;

PRODUCT VERSION STATUS

------------------- ----------------- ----------
CORE 3.4.1.0.0 Production

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 Identifying Oracle Software Releases

NLSRTL 3.1.3.0.0 Production

Oracle8i Server 8.1.4.0.0 Beta Release
PL/SQL 2.2.1.0.0 Beta
TNS for SunOS: 2.1.4.0.0 Production
5 rows selected

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Identifying Oracle Software Releases

1-24 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 2
Creating an Oracle Database

This chapter lists the steps necessary to create an Oracle database, and includes the
following topics:
■ Considerations Before Creating a Database
■ Creating an Oracle Database
■ Parameters
■ Considerations After Creating a Database
■ Initial Tuning Guidelines

Creating an Oracle Database 2-1

Considerations Before Creating a Database

Considerations Before Creating a Database

This section includes the following topics:
■ Creation Prerequisites
■ Using an Initial Database
■ Migrating an Older Version of the Database
Database creation prepares several operating system files so they can work together
as an Oracle database. You need only create a database once, regardless of how
many datafiles it has or how many instances access it. Creating a database can also
erase information in an existing database and create a new database with the same
name and physical structure.
Creating a database includes the following operations:
■ creating new datafiles or erasing data that existed in previous datafiles
■ creating information structures that Oracle requires to access and use the
database (the data dictionary)
■ creating and initializing the control files and redo log files for the database
Consider the following issues before you create a database:
■ Plan your database tables and indexes, and estimate how much space they will
require.
■ Plan how to protect your new database, including the configuration of its online
and archived redo log (and how much space it will require), and a backup
strategy.
■ Select the database character set. You must specify the database character set
when you create the database. After the database is created, you cannot change
the character set choices without re-creating the database. Hence, it is important
that you carefully consider which character set(s) to use. All character data,
including data in the data dictionary, is stored in the database character set. If
users access the database using a different character set, the database character
set should be the same as, or a superset of, all character sets they use.
Also become familiar with the principles and options of starting up and shutting
down an instance, mounting and opening a database, and using parameter files.
See Also: The Oracle8i National Language Support Guide.
For information about tables, indexes, and space management, see Chapters 12
through 19.

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 Creating an Oracle Database

For information about the online and archive redo logs, and database backup and
recovery see Chapter 6, "Managing the Online Redo Log" and Chapter 7, "Managing
Archived Redo Logs".

Creation Prerequisites
To create a new database, you must have the following:
■ the operating system privileges associated with a fully operational database
administrator
■ sufficient memory to start the Oracle instance
■ sufficient disk storage space for the planned database on the computer that
executes Oracle

Using an Initial Database

Depending on your operating system, a database might have been created
automatically as part of the installation procedure for Oracle. You can use this initial
database and customize it to meet your information management requirements, or
discard it and create one or more new databases to replace it.

Migrating an Older Version of the Database

If you are using a previous release of Oracle, database creation is required only if
you want an entirely new database. Otherwise, you can migrate your existing
Oracle databases managed by a previous version of Oracle and use them with the
new version of the Oracle software.
See Also: Oracle8i Migration manual for information about migrating an existing
database.
For more information about migrating an existing database, see your operating
system-specific Oracle documentation.

Creating an Oracle Database

This section includes the following topics:
■ Steps for Creating an Oracle Database
■ Creating a Database: Example
■ Troubleshooting Database Creation

Creating an Oracle Database 2-3

Creating an Oracle Database

■ Dropping a Database

Steps for Creating an Oracle Database

These steps, which describe how to create an Oracle database, should be followed in
the order presented.
To Create a New Database and Make It Available for System Use
1. Back up any existing databases.
2. Create parameter files.
3. Edit new parameter files.
4. Check the instance identifier for your system.
5. Start SQL*Plus and connect to Oracle as SYSDBA.
6. Start an instance.
7. Create the database.
8. Back up the database.
See Also: These steps provide general information about database creation on all
operating systems. See your operating system-specific Oracle documentation for
information about creating databases on your platform.

Step 1: Back up any existing databases. Oracle Corporation strongly recommends that
you make complete backups of all existing databases before creating a new
database, in case database creation accidentally affects some existing files. Backup
should include parameter files, datafiles, redo log files, and control files.

Step 2: Create parameter files. The instance (System Global Area and background
processes) for any Oracle database is started using a parameter file.
Each database on your system should have at least one customized parameter file
that corresponds only to that database. Do not use the same file for several
databases.
To create a parameter file for the database you are about to make, use your
operating system to make a copy of the parameter file that Oracle provided on the
distribution media. Give this copy a new filename. You can then edit and customize
this new file for the new database.

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 Creating an Oracle Database

See Also: For more information about copying the parameter file, see your
operating system-specific Oracle documentation.

Note: In distributed processing environments, Enterprise

Manager is often executed from a client machine of the network. If
a client machine is being used to execute Enterprise Manager and
create a new database, you need to copy the new parameter file
(currently located on the computer executing Oracle) to your client
workstation. This procedure is operating system dependent. For
more information about copying files among the computers of your
network, see your operating system-specific Oracle documentation.

Step 3: Edit new parameter files. To create a new database, inspect and edit the
following parameters of the new parameter file:
Parameter Described
DB_NAME on page 2-9
DB_DOMAIN on page 2-9
CONTROL_FILES on page 2-10
DB_BLOCK_SIZE on page 2-11
DB_BLOCK_BUFFERS on page 2-11
PROCESSES on page 2-12
ROLLBACK_SEGMENTS on page 2-12

You should also edit the appropriate license parameter(s):

Parameter Described
LICENSE_MAX_SESSIONS on page 2-13
LICENSE_SESSION_WARNING on page 2-13
LICENSE_MAX_USERS on page 2-13

Step 4: Check the instance identifier for your system. If you have other databases, check
the Oracle instances identifier. The Oracle instance identifier should match the name
of the database (the value of DB_NAME) to avoid confusion with other Oracle
instances that are running concurrently on your system.
See your operating system-specific Oracle documentation for more information.

Creating an Oracle Database 2-5

Creating an Oracle Database

Step 5: Start SQL*Plus and connect to Oracle as SYSDBA. Connect to the database as
SYSDBA.
$ SQLPLUS /nolog
connect username/password as sysdba

Step 6: Start an instance. You can start an instance without mounting a database;
typically, you do so only during database creation. Use the STARTUP command
with the NOMOUNT option:
STARTUP NOMOUNT;

At this point, there is no database. Only an SGA and background processes are
started in preparation for the creation of a new database.

Step 7: Create the database. To create the new database, use the SQL CREATE
DATABASE statement, optionally setting parameters within the statement to name
the database, establish maximum numbers of files, name the files and set their sizes,
and so on.
When you execute a CREATE DATABASE statement, Oracle performs the following
operations:
■ creates the datafiles for the database
■ creates the control files for the database
■ creates the redo log files for the database
■ creates the SYSTEM tablespace and the SYSTEM rollback segment
■ creates the data dictionary
■ creates the users SYS and SYSTEM
■ specifies the character set that stores data in the database
■ mounts and opens the database for use

WARNING: Make sure that the datafile and redo log file names
that you specify do not conflict with files of another database.

See Also: You can also create a database with a locally managed SYSTEM
tablespace; for more information, see "Creating a Database with a Locally Managed
SYSTEM Tablespace" on page 9-5.

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Step 8: Back up the database. You should make a full backup of the database to ensure
that you have a complete set of files from which to recover if a media failure occurs.
See Also: The Oracle8i Backup and Recovery Guide.
For more information about parameter files see "Using Parameter Files" on
page 3-13.
For information about the CREATE DATABASE statement, character sets, and
database creation see the Oracle8i SQL Reference.

Creating a Database: Example

The following statement is an example of a CREATE DATABASE statement:
CREATE DATABASE test
DATAFILE ’test_system’ SIZE 10M
LOGFILE GROUP 1 (’test_log1a’, ’test_log1b’) SIZE 500K,
GROUP 2 (’test_log2a’, ’test_log2b’) SIZE 500K;

The values of the MAXLOGFILES, MAXLOGMEMBERS, MAXDATAFILES,

MAXLOGHISTORY, and MAXINSTANCES options in this example assume the
default values, which are operating system-dependent. The database is mounted in
the default modes NOARCHIVELOG and EXCLUSIVE and then opened.
The items and information in the example statement above result in creating a
database with the following characteristics:
■ The new database is named TEST.
■ The SYSTEM tablespace of the new database is comprised of one 10 MB datafile
named TEST_SYSTEM.
■ The new database has two online redo log groups, each containing two 500 KB
members.

Creating an Oracle Database 2-7

Creating an Oracle Database

■ The new database does not overwrite any existing control files specified in the
parameter file.

Note: You can set several limits during database creation. Some of
these limits are also subject to superseding limits of the operating
system and can affect each other. For example, if you set
MAXDATAFILES, Oracle allocates enough space in the control file
to store MAXDATAFILES filenames, even if the database has only
one datafile initially; because the maximum control file size is
limited and operating system-dependent, you might not be able to
set all CREATE DATABASE parameters at their theoretical
maximums.

See Also: For more information about setting limits during database creation, see
the Oracle8i SQL Reference.
See your operating system-specific Oracle documentation for information about
operating system limits.

Troubleshooting Database Creation

If for any reason database creation fails, shut down the instance and delete any files
created by the CREATE DATABASE statement before you attempt to create it once
again.
After correcting the error that caused the failure of the database creation, return to
"Creating a Database: Example".

Dropping a Database
To drop a database, remove its datafiles, redo log files, and all other associated files
(control files, parameter files, archived log files).
To view the names of the database’s datafiles and redo log files, query the data
dictionary views V$DATAFILE and V$LOGFILE.
See Also: For more information about these views, see the Oracle8i Reference.

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 Parameters

Parameters
As described in Step 3 of the section "Creating an Oracle Database", Oracle suggests
you alter a minimum set of parameters. These parameters are described in the
following sections:
■ DB_NAME and DB_DOMAIN
■ CONTROL_FILES
■ DB_BLOCK_SIZE
■ PROCESSES
■ ROLLBACK_SEGMENTS
■ License Parameters
■ DB_BLOCK_BUFFERS
■ LICENSE_MAX_SESSIONS and LICENSE_SESSIONS _WARNING
■ LICENSE_MAX_USERS

DB_NAME and DB_DOMAIN

A database’s global database name (name and location within a network structure) is
created by setting both the DB_NAME and DB_DOMAIN parameters before database
creation. After creation, the database’s name cannot be easily changed. The DB_NAME
parameter determines the local name component of the database’s name, while the
DB_DOMAIN parameter indicates the domain (logical location) within a network
structure. The combination of the settings for these two parameters should form a
database name that is unique within a network. For example, to create a database with a
global database name of TEST.US.ACME.COM, edit the parameters of the new
parameter file as follows:
DB_NAME = TEST
DB_DOMAIN = US.ACME.COM

DB_NAME must be set to a text string of no more than eight characters. During
database creation, the name provided for DB_NAME is recorded in the datafiles,
redo log files, and control file of the database. If during database instance startup
the value of the DB_NAME parameter (of the parameter file) and the database
name in the control file are not the same, the database does not start.
DB_DOMAIN is a text string that specifies the network domain where the database
is created; this is typically the name of the organization that owns the database. If

Creating an Oracle Database 2-9

Parameters

the database you are about to create will ever be part of a distributed database
system, pay special attention to this initialization parameter before database
creation.
See Also: For more information about distributed databases, see Oracle8i Distributed
Database Systems.

CONTROL_FILES
Include the CONTROL_FILES parameter in your new parameter file and set its
value to a list of control filenames to use for the new database. If you want Oracle to
create new operating system files when creating your database’s control files, make
sure that the filenames listed in the CONTROL_FILES parameter do not match any
filenames that currently exist on your system. If you want Oracle to reuse or
overwrite existing files when creating your database’s control files, make sure that
the filenames listed in the CONTROL_FILES parameter match the filenames that
currently exist.

WARNING: Use extreme caution when setting this option. If you

inadvertently specify a file that you did not intend and execute
the CREATE DATABASE statement, the previous contents of that
file will be overwritten.

If no filenames are listed for the CONTROL_FILES parameter, Oracle uses a default
filename.
Oracle Corporation strongly recommends you use at least two control files stored
on separate physical disk drives for each database. Therefore, when specifying the
CONTROL_FILES parameter of the new parameter file, follow these guidelines:
■ List at least two filenames for the CONTROL_FILES parameter.
■ Place each control file on a separate physical disk drives by fully specifying
filenames that refer to different disk drives for each filename.

Note: The file specification for control files is operating system-

dependent. Regardless of your operating system, always fully specify
filenames for your control files.

When you execute the CREATE DATABASE statement (in Step 7), the control files
listed in the CONTROL_FILES parameter of the parameter file will be created.

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 Parameters

See Also: The default filename for the CONTROL_FILES parameter is operating
system-dependent. See your operating system-specific Oracle documentation for
details.

DB_BLOCK_SIZE
The default data block size for every Oracle server is operating system-specific. The
Oracle data block size is typically either 2K or 4K. Generally, the default data block
size is adequate. In some cases, however, a larger data block size provides greater
efficiency in disk and memory I/O (access and storage of data). Such cases include:
■ Oracle is on a large computer system with a large amount of memory and fast
disk drives. For example, databases controlled by mainframe computers with
vast hardware resources typically use a data block size of 4K or greater.
■ The operating system that runs Oracle uses a small operating system block size.
For example, if the operating system block size is 1K and the data block size
matches this, Oracle may be performing an excessive amount of disk I/O
during normal operation. For best performance in this case, a database block
should consist of multiple operating system blocks.
Each database’s block size is set during database creation by the initialization
parameter DB_BLOCK_SIZE. The block size cannot be changed after database creation
except by re-creating the database. If a database’s block size is different from the
operating system block size, make the database block size a multiple of the operating
system’s block size.
For example, if your operating system’s block size is 2K (2048 bytes), the following
setting for the DB_BLOCK_SIZE initialization parameter would be valid:
DB_BLOCK_SIZE=4096

DB_BLOCK_SIZE also determines the size of the database buffers in the buffer
cache of the System Global Area (SGA).
See Also: For details about your default block size, see your operating system-
specific Oracle documentation.

DB_BLOCK_BUFFERS
This parameter determines the number of buffers in the buffer cache in the System
Global Area (SGA). The number of buffers affects the performance of the cache.
Larger cache sizes reduce the number of disk writes of modified data. However, a

Creating an Oracle Database 2-11

Parameters

large cache may take up too much memory and induce memory paging or
swapping.
Estimate the number of data blocks that your application accesses most frequently,
including tables, indexes, and rollback segments. This estimate is a rough
approximation of the minimum number of buffers the cache should have. Typically,
1000 to 2000 is a practical minimum for the number of buffers.
See Also: For more information about tuning the buffer cache, see Oracle8i Tuning.

PROCESSES
This parameter determines the maximum number of operating system processes
that can be connected to Oracle concurrently. The value of this parameter must
include 5 for the background processes and 1 for each user process. For example, if
you plan to have 50 concurrent users, set this parameter to at least 55.

ROLLBACK_SEGMENTS
This parameter is a list of the rollback segments an Oracle instance acquires at
database startup. List your rollback segments as the value of this parameter.

Attention: After installation, you must create at least one rollback

segment in the SYSTEM tablespace in addition to the SYSTEM
rollback segment before you can create any schema objects.

See Also: For more information about how many rollback segments you need, see
Oracle8i Tuning.

License Parameters
Oracle helps you ensure that your site complies with its Oracle license agreement. If
your site is licensed by concurrent usage, you can track and limit the number of
sessions concurrently connected to an instance. If your site is licensed by named
users, you can limit the number of named users created in a database. To use this
facility, you need to know which type of licensing agreement your site has and what
the maximum number of sessions or named users is. Your site might use either type
of licensing (session licensing or named user licensing), but not both.
See Also: For more information about managing licensing, see "Session and User
Licensing" on page 23-2.

2-12 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Parameters

LICENSE_MAX_SESSIONS and LICENSE_SESSIONS _WARNING

You can set a limit on the number of concurrent sessions that can connect to a
database on the specified computer. To set the maximum number of concurrent
sessions for an instance, set the parameter LICENSE_MAX_SESSIONS in the
parameter file that starts the instance, as shown in the following example:
LICENSE_MAX_SESSIONS = 80

In addition to setting a maximum number of sessions, you can set a warning limit
on the number of concurrent sessions. Once this limit is reached, additional users
can continue to connect (up to the maximum limit), but Oracle sends a warning for
each connecting user. To set the warning limit for an instance, set the parameter
LICENSE_SESSIONS_WARNING. Set the warning limit to a value lower than
LICENSE_MAX_SESSIONS.
For instances running with the Parallel Server, each instance can have its own
concurrent usage limit and warning limit. However, the sum of the instances’ limits
must not exceed the site’s session license.
See Also: For more information about setting these limits when using the Parallel
Server, see Oracle8i Parallel Server Concepts and Administration.

LICENSE_MAX_USERS
You can set a limit on the number of users created in the database. Once this limit is
reached, you cannot create more users.

Note: This mechanism assumes that each person accessing the

database has a unique user name and that no people share a user
name. Therefore, so that named user licensing can help you ensure
compliance with your Oracle license agreement, do not allow
multiple users to log in using the same user name.

To limit the number of users created in a database, set the LICENSE_MAX_USERS

parameter in the database’s parameter file, as shown in the following example:
LICENSE_MAX_USERS = 200

For instances running with the Parallel Server, all instances connected to the same
database should have the same named user limit.
See Also: For more information about setting this limit when using the Parallel
Server see Oracle8i Parallel Server Concepts and Administration.

Creating an Oracle Database 2-13

Considerations After Creating a Database

Considerations After Creating a Database

After you create a database, the instance is left running, and the database is open
and available for normal database use. If more than one database exists in your
database system, specify the parameter file to use with any subsequent database
startup.
If you plan to install other Oracle products to work with this database, see the
installation instructions for those products; some products require you to create
additional data dictionary tables. See your operating system-specific Oracle
documentation for the additional products. Usually, command files are provided to
create and load these tables into the database’s data dictionary.
The Oracle server distribution media can include various SQL files that let you
experiment with the system, learn SQL, or create additional tables, views, or
synonyms.
A newly created database has only two users, SYS and SYSTEM. The passwords for
these two usernames should be changed soon after the database is created.
See Also: For more information about the users SYS and SYSTEM see "Database
Administrator Usernames" on page 1-5.
For information about changing a user’s password see "Altering Users" on
page 23-15.

Initial Tuning Guidelines

You can make a few significant tuning alterations to Oracle immediately following
installation. By following these instructions, you can reduce the need to tune Oracle
when it is running. This section gives recommendations for the following
installation issues:
■ Allocating Rollback Segments
■ Choosing the Number of DB_BLOCK_LRU_LATCHES
■ Distributing I/O

Allocating Rollback Segments

Proper allocation of rollback segments makes for optimal database performance.
The size and number of rollback segments required for optimal performance
depends on your application. Oracle8i Tuning contains some general guidelines for
choosing how many rollback segments to allocate based on the number of concurrent

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 Initial Tuning Guidelines

transactions on your Oracle server. These guidelines are appropriate for most application
mixes.
To create rollback segments, use the CREATE ROLLBACK SEGMENT statement.
See Also: For information about the CREATE ROLLBACK SEGMENT statement,
see the Oracle8i SQL Reference.

Choosing Sizes for Rollback Segments

The size of your rollback segment can also affect performance. Rollback segment
size is determined by the storage parameters in the CREATE ROLLBACK
SEGMENT statement. Your rollback segments must be large enough to hold the
rollback entries for your transactions.
See Also: For information about choosing sizes for your rollback segments, see
Oracle8i Tuning.

Choosing the Number of DB_BLOCK_LRU_LATCHES

Contention for the LRU (least recently used) latch can impede performance on
symmetric multiprocessor (SMP) machines with a large number of CPUs. The LRU
latch controls the replacement of buffers in the buffer cache. For SMP systems,
Oracle automatically sets the number of LRU latches to be one half the number of
CPUs on the system. For non-SMP systems, one LRU latch is sufficient.
You can specify the number of LRU latches on your system with the initialization
parameter DB_BLOCK_LRU_LATCHES. This parameter sets the maximum value
for the desired number of LRU latches. Each LRU latch will control a set of buffers and
Oracle balances allocation of replacement buffers among the sets.
See Also: For more information on LRU latches, see Oracle8i Tuning.

Distributing I/O
Proper distribution of I/O can improve database performance dramatically. I/O can
be distributed during installation of Oracle. Distributing I/O during installation can
reduce the need to distribute I/O later when Oracle is running.
There are several ways to distribute I/O when you install Oracle:
■ redo log file placement
■ datafile placement
■ separation of tables and indexes

Creating an Oracle Database 2-15

Initial Tuning Guidelines

■ density of data (rows per data block)

See Also: For information about ways to distribute I/O, see Oracle8i Tuning.

2-16 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 3
Starting Up and Shutting Down

This chapter describes the procedures for starting and stopping an Oracle database,
and includes the following topics:
■ Starting Up a Database
■ Altering Database Availability
■ Shutting Down a Database
■ Suspending and Resuming a Database
■ Using Parameter Files

Starting Up and Shutting Down 3-1

Starting Up a Database

Starting Up a Database
This section includes the following topics:
■ Preparing to Start an Instance
■ Starting an Instance: Scenarios
To start up a database or an instance from the command line, use SQL*Plus to
connect to Oracle with administrator privileges and then issue the STARTUP
command. You can also use Recovery Manager to execute STARTUP and
SHUTDOWN commands. If you are using the Enterprise Manager GUI and prefer
not to use the command line, refer to the Oracle Enterprise Manager Administrator’s
Guide for instructions.
You can start an instance and database in a variety of ways:
■ start the instance without mounting a database
■ start the instance and mount the database, but leave it closed
■ start the instance, and mount and open the database in:
– unrestricted mode (accessible to all users)
– restricted mode (accessible to database administrators only)

Note: You cannot start a database instance if you are connected to

the database via a multi-threaded server process.

In addition, you can force the instance to start, or start the instance and have
complete media recovery begin immediately. If your operating system supports the
Oracle Parallel Server, you may start an instance and mount the database in either
exclusive or shared mode.
See Also: For more information about starting a database in an OPS environment,
see Oracle8i Parallel Server Concepts and Administration.
For more information on SQL*Plus command syntax, see SQL*Plus User’s Guide and
Reference.
For more information about Recovery Manager commands, see the Oracle8i Backup
and Recovery Guide.

Preparing to Start an Instance

You need to perform several tasks before attempting to start an instance.

3-2 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Starting Up a Database

1. Start SQL*Plus without connecting to the database by entering:

sqlplus /nolog

2. Connect to Oracle as SYSDBA:

connect username/password as sysdba

Note that you cannot be connected via a multi-threaded server.

3. When you enter a STARTUP command, specify the database name and full path
of the parameter file:
STARTUP database_name PFILE=myinit.ora

If you do not specify the PFILE option, Oracle uses the standard parameter file.
If you do not specify a database name Oracle uses the value for DB_NAME in
the parameter file that starts the instance.
See Also: The use of filenames is specific to your operating system. See your
operating system-specific Oracle documentation.
For information about the DB_NAME parameter, see Oracle8i Reference.

Starting an Instance: Scenarios

The following scenarios describe the many ways in which you can start up an
instance.

Note: You may encounter problems starting up an instance if

control files, database files, or redo log files are not available. If one
or more of the files specified by the CONTROL_FILES parameter
does not exist or cannot be opened when you attempt to mount a
database, Oracle returns a warning message and does not mount
the database. If one or more of the datafiles or redo log files is not
available or cannot be opened when attempting to open a database,
Oracle returns a warning message and does not open the database.

Starting an Instance Without Mounting a Database

You can start an instance without mounting a database; typically, you do so only
during database creation. Use the STARTUP command with the NOMOUNT
option:
STARTUP NOMOUNT;

Starting Up and Shutting Down 3-3

Starting Up a Database

Starting an Instance and Mounting a Database

You can start an instance and mount a database without opening it, which you can
do when you want to perform specific maintenance operations. For example, the
database must be mounted but not open during the following tasks:
■ renaming datafiles
■ adding, dropping, or renaming redo log files
■ enabling and disabling redo log archiving options
■ performing full database recovery
Start an instance and mount the database, but leave it closed by using the STARTUP
command with the MOUNT option:
STARTUP MOUNT;

Starting an Instance, and Mounting and Opening a Database

Normal database operation means that an instance is started and the database is
mounted and open; this mode allows any valid user to connect to the database and
perform typical data access operations.
Start an instance and then mount and open the database by using the STARTUP
command by itself:
STARTUP;

Restricting Access to a Database at Startup

You can start an instance and mount and open a database in restricted mode so that
the database is available only to administrative personnel (not general database
users). Use this mode of database startup when you need to accomplish one of the
following tasks:
■ perform structure maintenance, such as rebuilding indexes
■ perform an export or import of database data
■ perform a data load (with SQL*Loader)
■ temporarily prevent typical users from using data
Typically, all users with the CREATE SESSION system privilege can connect to an
open database. Opening a database in restricted mode allows database access only
to users with both the CREATE SESSION and RESTRICTED SESSION system
privilege; only database administrators should have the RESTRICTED SESSION
system privilege.

3-4 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Starting Up a Database

Start an instance (and, optionally, mount and open the database) in restricted mode
by using the STARTUP command with the RESTRICT option:
STARTUP RESTRICT;

Later, use the ALTER SYSTEM statement to disable the RESTRICTED SESSION
feature.
See Also: For more information on the ALTER SYSTEM statement, see the Oracle8i
SQL Reference.

Forcing an Instance to Start

In unusual circumstances, you might experience problems when attempting to start
a database instance. You should not force a database to start unless you are faced
with the following:
■ You cannot shut down the current instance with the SHUTDOWN NORMAL,
SHUTDOWN IMMEDIATE, or SHUTDOWN TRANSACTIONAL commands.
■ You experience problems when starting an instance.
If one of these situations arises, you can usually solve the problem by starting a new
instance (and optionally mounting and opening the database) using the STARTUP
command with the FORCE option:
STARTUP FORCE;

If an instance is running, STARTUP FORCE shuts it down with mode ABORT

before restarting it.

Starting an Instance, Mounting a Database, and Starting Complete Media

Recovery
If you know that media recovery is required, you can start an instance, mount a
database to the instance, and have the recovery process automatically start by using
the STARTUP command with the RECOVER option:
STARTUP OPEN RECOVER;

If you attempt to perform recovery when no recovery is required, Oracle issues an

error message.

Starting Up and Shutting Down 3-5

Starting Up a Database

Starting in Exclusive or Parallel Mode

If your Oracle server allows multiple instances to access a single database
concurrently, choose whether to mount the database exclusively or in parallel. For
example, open in parallel mode you can issue:
STARTUP OPEN sales PFILE=INITSALE.ORA PARALLEL;

Starting Up an Instance and Database: Example

The following statement starts an instance using the parameter file INITSALE.ORA,
mounts and opens the database named sales in exclusive mode, and restricts
access to administrative personnel. The database administrator is already connected
with administrator privileges.
STARTUP OPEN sales PFILE=INITSALE.ORA EXCLUSIVE RESTRICT;

Automatic Database Startup at Operating System Start

Many sites use procedures to enable automatic startup of one or more Oracle
instances and databases immediately following a system start. The procedures for
performing this task are specific to each operating system.

Starting Remote Instances

If your local Oracle server is part of a distributed database, you might need to start
a remote instance and database. Procedures for starting and stopping remote
instances vary widely depending on communication protocol and operating
system.
See Also: For more information about making a database available to non-
privileged users, see "Restricting Access to an Open Database" on page 3-8.
For more information about recovering control files, database files, and redo logs,
see Chapter 6, "Managing the Online Redo Log" and Chapter 7, "Managing
Archived Redo Logs".
For more information about the side effects of aborting the current instance, see
"Shutting Down with the ABORT Option" on page 3-12.
For more information about starting up in exclusive or parallel mode, see the
Oracle8i Parallel Server Concepts and Administration manual.
For more information about the restrictions that apply when combining options of
the STARTUP statement, see the Oracle8i SQL Reference.
For more information about automatic startup procedure topics, see your operating
system-specific Oracle documentation.

3-6 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Altering Database Availability

Altering Database Availability

You can make a database partially available by starting an instance and opening a
mounted database. The following sections explain how to alter a database’s
availability:
■ Mounting a Database to an Instance
■ Opening a Closed Database
■ Opening a Database in Read-Only Mode
■ Restricting Access to an Open Database

Mounting a Database to an Instance

When you need to perform specific administrative operations, the database must be
started and mounted to an instance, but closed. You can achieve this scenario by
starting the instance and mounting the database.
When mounting the database, indicate whether to mount the database exclusively
to this instance or concurrently to other instances.
To mount a database to a previously started instance, use the SQL statement ALTER
DATABASE with the MOUNT option. Use the following statement when you want
to mount a database in exclusive mode:
ALTER DATABASE MOUNT;

See Also: For a list of operations that require the database to be mounted and
closed (and procedures to start an instance and mount a database in one step), see
"Starting an Instance and Mounting a Database" on page 3-4.

Opening a Closed Database

You can make a mounted but closed database available for general use by opening
the database. To open a mounted database, use the SQL ALTER DATABASE
statement with the OPEN option:
ALTER DATABASE OPEN;

After executing this statement, any valid Oracle user with the CREATE SESSION
system privilege can connect to the database.

Starting Up and Shutting Down 3-7

Altering Database Availability

Opening a Database in Read-Only Mode

Opening a database in read-only mode enables you to query an open database
while eliminating any potential for online data content changes. While opening a
database in read-only mode guarantees that datafile and redo log files are not
written to, it does not restrict database recovery or "state" modifications that don’t
generate redo. For example, you can take datafiles offline or bring them online since
these operations do not effect data content.
Ideally, you open a database read-only when you alternate a standby database
between read-only and recovery mode; note that these are mutually exclusive
modes.
The following statement opens a database in read-only mode:
ALTER DATABASE OPEN READ ONLY;

You can also open a database in read-write mode as follows:

ALTER DATABASE OPEN READ WRITE;

Note: You cannot use the RESETLOGS clause with a READ ONLY
clause.

See Also: For more information about the ALTER DATABASE statement, see the
Oracle8i SQL Reference.
For more conceptual details about opening a database in read-only mode, see
Oracle8i Concepts.

Restricting Access to an Open Database

Under normal conditions, all users with the CREATE SESSION system privilege can
connect to an instance. However, you can take an instance in and out of restricted
mode. When an instance is in restricted mode, only users who have both the
CREATE SESSION and RESTRICTED SESSION system privileges can connect to it.
Typically, only administrators have the RESTRICTED SESSION system privilege.
Restricted mode is useful when you need to perform the following tasks:
■ perform structure maintenance, such as rebuilding indexes
■ perform an export or import of database data
■ perform a data load (with SQL*Loader)

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 Shutting Down a Database

■ temporarily prevent non-administrator users from using data

To place an instance in restricted mode, use the SQL statement ALTER SYSTEM
with the ENABLE RESTRICTED SESSION option. After placing an instance in
restricted mode, you might want to kill all current user sessions before performing
any administrative tasks. To lift an instance from restricted mode, use ALTER
SYSTEM with the DISABLE RESTRICTED SESSION option.
See Also: For more information about starting a database instance, and mounting
and opening the database in restricted mode, see "Restricting Access to a Database
at Startup" on page 3-4.
For more information on the ALTER SYSTEM statement, see the Oracle8i SQL
Reference.

Shutting Down a Database

The following sections describe shutdown procedures:
■ Shutting Down with the NORMAL Option
■ Shutting Down with the IMMEDIATE Option
■ Shutting Down with the TRANSACTIONAL Option
■ Shutting Down with the ABORT Option
To initiate database shutdown, use the SQL*Plus SHUTDOWN command. Control
is not returned to the session that initiates a database shutdown until shutdown is
complete. Users who attempt connections while a shutdown is in progress receive a
message like the following:
ORA-01090: shutdown in progress - connection is not permitted

Attention: You cannot shut down a database if you are connected

to the database via a multi-threaded server process.

Starting Up and Shutting Down 3-9

Shutting Down a Database

To shut down a database and instance, first connect as SYSOPER or SYSDBA.

Figure 3–1 shows the sequence of events when the different SHUTDOWN
commands are entered during a transfer of funds from one bank account to another.

Figure 3–1 Sequence of Events During Different Types of SHUTDOWN.

Transfer Shutdown Shutdown Shutdown

of funds Normal Immediate Transactional

Check account
balances Database
down

Insert new
funds

Remove funds
from old
account

Commit
Database
down

Database
down

Logout

Shutting Down with the NORMAL Option

Normal database shutdown proceeds with the following conditions:
■ No new connections are allowed after the statement is issued.
■ Before the database is shut down, Oracle waits for all currently connected users
to disconnect from the database.

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 Shutting Down a Database

■ The next startup of the database will not require any instance recovery
procedures.
To shut down a database in normal situations, use the SHUTDOWN command with
the NORMAL option:
SHUTDOWN NORMAL;

Shutting Down with the IMMEDIATE Option

Use immediate database shutdown only in the following situations:
■ A power shutdown is going to occur soon.
■ The database or one of its applications is functioning irregularly.
Immediate database shutdown proceeds with the following conditions:
■ Any uncommitted transactions are rolled back. (If long uncommitted
transactions exist, this method of shutdown might not complete quickly, despite
its name.)
■ Oracle does not wait for users currently connected to the database to
disconnect; Oracle implicitly rolls back active transactions and disconnects all
connected users.
To shut down a database immediately, use the SHUTDOWN command with the
IMMEDIATE option
SHUTDOWN IMMEDIATE;

Note: The SHUTDOWN IMMEDIATE statement disconnects all

existing idle connections and shuts down the database. If, however,
you have submitted processes (for example, inserts, selects or
updates) that are awaiting results, the SHUTDOWN
TRANSACTIONAL statement allows the process to complete
before disconnecting.

Shutting Down with the TRANSACTIONAL Option

When you wish to perform a planned shutdown of an instance while allowing
active transactions to complete first, use the SHUTDOWN command with the
TRANSACTIONAL option:
SHUTDOWN TRANSACTIONAL;

Starting Up and Shutting Down 3-11

Suspending and Resuming a Database

After submitting this statement, no client can start a new transaction on this
instance. If clients attempt to start a new transaction, they are disconnected. After
all transactions have completed, any client still connected to the instance is
disconnected. At this point, the instance shuts down just as it would when a
SHUTDOWN IMMEDIATE statement is submitted.
A transactional shutdown prevents clients from losing work, and at the same time,
does not require all users to log off.

Shutting Down with the ABORT Option

You can shut down a database instantaneously by aborting the database’s instance.
If possible, perform this type of shutdown only in the following situations:
■ The database or one of its applications is functioning irregularly and neither of
the other types of shutdown work.
■ You need to shut down the database instantaneously (for example, if you know
a power shutdown is going to occur in one minute).
■ You experience problems when starting a database instance.
Aborting an instance shuts down a database and yields the following results:
■ Current client SQL statements being processed by Oracle are immediately
terminated.
■ Uncommitted transactions are not rolled back.
■ Oracle does not wait for users currently connected to the database to
disconnect; Oracle implicitly disconnects all connected users.
If both the normal and immediate shutdown options do not work, abort the current
database instance immediately by issuing the SHUTDOWN command with the
ABORT option:
SHUTDOWN ABORT;

Suspending and Resuming a Database

The ALTER SYSTEM SUSPEND statement suspends all I/O (datafile, control file,
and file header) as well as queries, in all instances, enabling you to make copies of
the database without having to handle ongoing transactions. Do not start a new
instance while you suspend another instance, since the new instance will not be

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 Using Parameter Files

suspended. Use the ALTER SYSTEM RESUME statement to resume normal

database operations.
The suspend/resume feature is useful in systems that allow you to mirror a disk or
file and then split the mirror. If you use a system that is unable to split a mirrored
disk from an existing database while writes are occurring, then you can use the
suspend/ resume feature to facilitate the split. The suspend/resume feature is not a
handy substitute for normal shutdown operations, however, since copies of a
suspended database can contain uncommitted updates.
Note that you can issue SUSPEND and RESUME statements from different
instances. For example, if instances 1, 2, and 3 are running, and you issue a
SUSPEND statement from instance 1, then you can issue the RESUME statement
from instance 1, 2, or 3 with the same effect.
To Facilitate Mirror Splits Using SUSPEND and RESUME:
1. Place the database tablespaces in hot backup mode using the ALTER
TABLESPACE BEGIN BACKUP statement.
2. If your mirror system has problems with splitting a mirror while disk writes are
occurring, issue the ALTER SYSTEM SUSPEND statement.
3. Split your mirrors.
4. Issue the ALTER SYSTEM RESUME statement to resume your database.
5. Take the tablespaces out of hot backup mode using the ALTER TABLESPACE
END BACKUP statement.
6. Copy the control file and archive the online redo logs as usual for a backup.

WARNING: Do not use the SUSPEND statement as a substitute

for placing a tablespace in hot backup mode.

See Also: For more information about the ALTER SYSTEM SUSPEND/RESUME
and ALTER TABLESPACE statements, see the Oracle8i SQL Reference.

Using Parameter Files

The following sections include information about how to use parameter files:
■ The Sample Parameter File
■ The Number of Parameter Files

Starting Up and Shutting Down 3-13

Using Parameter Files

■ The Location of the Parameter File in Distributed Environments

To start an instance, Oracle must read a parameter file, which is a text file containing a
list of instance configuration parameters. Often, although not always, this file is named
INIT.ORA or INITsid.ORA, where sid is operating system specific.

Note: If you are using Oracle Enterprise Manager, see the Oracle
Enterprise Manager Administrator’s Guide information about using
stored configurations as an alternative to the initialization
parameter file.

You can edit parameter values in a parameter file with a basic text editor; however,
editing methods are operating system-specific. For detailed information about
initialization parameters, see the Oracle8i Reference.
Oracle treats string literals defined for National Language Support (NLS)
parameters in the file as if they are in the database character set.
See Also: For more information about initialization parameter file, see your
operating system-specific Oracle documentation.

The Sample Parameter File

A sample parameter file (INIT.ORA or INITsid.ORA) is included in the Oracle
distribution set. This sample file’s parameters are adequate for initial installations of an
Oracle database. After your system is operating and you have some experience with
Oracle, you will probably want to change some parameter values.
See Also: For more information about optimizing a database’s performance using
the parameter file, see the Oracle8i Tuning manual.

The Number of Parameter Files

Each Oracle database has at least one parameter file that corresponds only to that
database. This way, database-specific parameters such as DB_NAME and
CONTROL_FILES in a given file always pertain to a particular database. It is also
possible to have several different parameter files for a single database. For example,
you can have several different parameter files for a single database so you can
optimize the database’s performance in different situations.

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 Using Parameter Files

The Location of the Parameter File in Distributed Environments

The client you use to access the database must be able to read a database’s
parameter file to start a database’s instance. Therefore, always store a database’s
parameter file on the computer executing the client.
In non-distributed processing installations, the same computer executes Oracle and
the client. This computer already has the parameter file stored on one of its disk
drives. In distributed processing installations, however, local client workstations
can administer a database stored on a remote machine. In this type of configuration,
the local client machines must each store a copy of the parameter file for the
corresponding databases.
See Also: For more information about using administering Oracle in a distributed
environment, see Oracle8i Distributed Database Systems.

Starting Up and Shutting Down 3-15

Using Parameter Files

3-16 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Part II
Oracle Server Configuration
 4
Managing Oracle Processes

This chapter describes how to manage the processes of an Oracle instance, and
includes the following topics:
■ Setting Up Server Processes
■ Configuring Oracle for Multi-Threaded Server Architecture
■ Modifying Server Processes
■ Tracking Oracle Processes
■ Managing Processes for the Parallel Query Option
■ Managing Processes for External Procedures
■ Terminating Sessions

Managing Oracle Processes 4-1

Setting Up Server Processes

Setting Up Server Processes

When a user process executes the database application, and a separate, distinct
server process executes the associated Oracle server on behalf of each user, the
separate server process is a dedicated server process (see Figure 4–1). Oracle is
automatically installed for this configuration. If your operating system can support
Oracle in this configuration, it may also support multi-threaded server processes.

Figure 4–1 Oracle Dedicated Server Processes

User User
Process Process

Application Application
Code Code

Client Workstation

Database Server
Dedicated
Server
Process
Oracle Oracle
Server Code Server Code

Program
Interface

System Global Area

When to Connect to a Dedicated Server Process

If possible, users should connect to an instance via a dispatcher. This keeps the
number of processes required for the running instance low. In the following

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 Configuring Oracle for Multi-Threaded Server Architecture

situations, however, users and administrators should explicitly connect to an

instance using a dedicated server process:
■ to submit a batch job (for example, when a job can allow little or no idle time for
the server process)
■ to use Enterprise Manager to start up, shut down, or perform media recovery
on a database
■ to use Recovery Manager to back up, restore or recover a database
To request a dedicated server connection, users must include the
SERVER=DEDICATED clause in their Net8 TNS connect string.
See Also: For a complete description of Net8 connect string syntax, see your
operating system-specific Oracle documentation and your Net8 Administrator’s
Guide.
For more information about initialization parameters and parameter files, see the
Oracle8i Reference.

Configuring Oracle for Multi-Threaded Server Architecture

Consider an order entry system with dedicated server processes. A customer places
an order as a clerk enters the order into the database. For most of the transaction,
the clerk is on the telephone talking to the customer and the server process
dedicated to the clerk’s user process remains idle. The server process is not needed
during most of the transaction, and the system is slower for other clerks entering
orders because the idle server process is holding system resources.
The multi-threaded server architecture eliminates the need for a dedicated server
process for each connection (see Figure 4–2). A small number of shared server
processes can perform the same amount of processing as many dedicated server
processes. Also, since the amount of memory required for each user is relatively
small, less memory and process management are required, and more users can be
supported.

Managing Oracle Processes 4-3

Configuring Oracle for Multi-Threaded Server Architecture

Figure 4–2 Oracle Multi-Threaded Sever Processes

User
Process

Code
Code
Code
Application
Code
Code
Code
Code
Code
Code

7 Client Workstation

Database Server
1

Dispatcher Processes
6

Shared
Server
Oracle Processes
Oracle
Oracle
Oracle
Server
ServerCode
Code
Server
Server Code
Code
3
4

2 System Global Area 5

Request
Queue Response
Queues

To set up your system in a multi-threaded server configuration, start a network

listener process and set the MTS_DISPATCHERS parameter (which is a required
parameter that sets the initial number of dispatchers).
After setting this initialization parameter, restart the instance, which at this point
will use the multi-threaded server configuration. The multi-threaded server
architecture requires Net8. User processes targeting the multi-threaded server must
connect through Net8, even if they are on the same machine as the Oracle instance.

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 Configuring Oracle for Multi-Threaded Server Architecture

See Also: For more information about starting and managing the network listener
process, see Oracle8i Distributed Database Systems and the Oracle Net8 Administrator’s
Guide.

MTS_DISPATCHERS: Setting the Initial Number of Dispatchers (Required)

The number of dispatcher processes started at instance startup is controlled by the
parameter MTS_DISPATCHERS. Estimate the number of dispatchers to start for
each network protocol before instance startup.
When setting the MTS_DISPATCHERS parameter, you can include any valid
protocol.
The appropriate number of dispatcher processes for each instance depends upon
the performance you want from your database, the host operating system’s limit on
the number of connections per process, (which is operating system dependent) and
the number of connections required per network protocol.
The instance must be able to provide as many connections as there are concurrent
users on the database system. After instance startup, you can start more dispatcher
processes if needed.
See Also: For more information about dispatcher processes, see "Adding and
Removing Dispatcher Processes" on page 4-7.

Calculating the Initial Number of Dispatcher Processes

Once you know the number of possible connections per process for your operating
system, calculate the initial number of dispatcher processes to create during
instance startup, per network protocol, using the following formula.
number maximum number of concurrent sessions
of = CEIL (—————————————————————————————————————)
dispatchers connections per dispatcher

Note: Here, connections per dispatcher is operating system dependent.

For example, assume that your system typically has 900 users concurrently
connected via TCP/IP and 600 users connected via SPX, and supports 255
connections per process. In this case, the MTS_DISPATCHERS parameter should be
set as follows:
MTS_DISPATCHERS = "(PROTOCOL=TCP) (DISPATCHERS=4)"
MTS_DISPATCHERS = "(PROTOCOL=SPX) (DISPATCHERS=3)"

Managing Oracle Processes 4-5

Modifying Server Processes

Examples

Example 1 To force the IP address used for the dispatchers, enter the following:
MTS_DISPATCHERS="(ADDRESS=(PARTIAL=TRUE)(PROTOCOL=TCP)\
(HOST=144.25.16.201))(DISPATCHERS=2)"

This will start two dispatchers that will listen in on HOST=144.25.16.201, which
must be a card that is accessible to the dispatchers.

Example 2 To force the exact location of dispatchers, add the PORT as follows:
MTS_DISPATCHERS="(ADDRESS=(PARTIAL=TRUE)(PROTOCOL=TCP)\
(HOST=144.25.16.201)(PORT=5000))(DISPATCHERS=1)"
MTS_DISPATCHERS="(ADDRESS=(PARTIAL=TRUE)(PROTOCOL=TCP)\
(HOST=144.25.16.201)(PORT=5001))(DISPATCHERS=1)"

Note: You can specify multiple MTS_DISPATCHERS in the

INIT.ORA file, but they must be adjacent to each other. Also,
MTS_DISPATCHERS defaults to 1.

Modifying Server Processes

This section describes changes you can make after starting an instance, and includes
the following topics:
■ Changing the Minimum Number of Shared Server Processes
■ Adding and Removing Dispatcher Processes

Changing the Minimum Number of Shared Server Processes

After starting an instance, you can change the minimum number of shared server
processes by using the SQL command ALTER SYSTEM.
Oracle will eventually terminate servers that are idle when there are more shared
servers than the minimum limit you specify.
If you set MTS_SERVERS to 0, Oracle will terminate all current servers when they
become idle and will not start any new servers until you increase MTS_SERVERS.
Thus, setting MTS_SERVERS to 0 may be used to effectively disables the multi-
threaded server.
To control the minimum number of shared server processes, you must have the
ALTER SYSTEM privilege.

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 Tracking Oracle Processes

The following statement sets the number of shared server processes to two:
ALTER SYSTEM SET MTS_SERVERS = 2

Adding and Removing Dispatcher Processes

You can control the number of dispatcher processes in the instance. If the
V$QUEUE, V$DISPATCHER and V$DISPATCHER_RATE views indicate that the
load on the dispatcher processes is consistently high, starting additional dispatcher
processes to route user requests may improve performance; you can start additional
dispatchers until the number of dispatchers equals MTS_MAX_DISPATCHER. In
contrast, if the load on dispatchers is consistently low, reducing the number of
dispatchers may improve performance.
To change the number of dispatcher processes, use the SQL command ALTER
SYSTEM. Changing the number of dispatchers for a specific protocol has no effect
on dispatchers for other protocols.
You can start new dispatcher processes for protocols specified in the
MTS_DISPATCHERS parameter, or you may add new MTS_DISPATCHERS
configurations. Therefore, you can add dispatchers for protocols for which there are
dispatchers, and you can start dispatchers for protocols for which there are
currently no dispatchers.
If you reduce the number of dispatchers for a particular protocol, the dispatchers
are not immediately removed. Rather, Oracle eventually terminates dispatchers
down to the limit you specify in MTS_DISPATCHERS.
To control the number of dispatcher processes, you must have the ALTER SYSTEM
privilege.
The following example shows how to add a dispatcher process for the SPX protocol
(where previously there was only one MTS_DISPATCHER configuration):
ALTER SYSTEM
SET MTS_DISPATCHERS = ’(INDEX=1) (PRO=SPX)’;

See Also: For more information about tuning the multi-threaded server, see Oracle8i
Tuning.

Tracking Oracle Processes

An Oracle instance can have many background processes, which you should track if
possible. This section describes how to track these processes, and includes the
following topics:

Managing Oracle Processes 4-7

Tracking Oracle Processes

■ Monitoring the Processes of an Oracle Instance

■ Trace Files, the ALERT File, and Background Processes
■ Starting the Checkpoint Process
See Also: For more information about tuning Oracle processes, see Oracle8i Tuning.

Monitoring the Processes of an Oracle Instance

Monitors provide a means of tracking database activity and resource usage. You can
operate several monitors simultaneously. Table 4–1 lists the Enterprise Manager
monitors that can help you track Oracle processes:

Table 4–1 Enterprise Manager Monitors

Monitor Name Description
Process The Process monitor summarizes information about
all Oracle processes, including client-server, user,
server, and background processes, currently accessing
the database via the current database instance.
Session The Session monitor shows the session ID and status
of each connected Oracle session.

Monitoring Locks
Table 4–2 describes two methods of monitoring locking information for ongoing
transactions within an instance:

Table 4–2 Oracle Monitoring Facilities

Monitor Name Description
Enterprise Manager The Monitor feature of Enterprise Manager/GUI
Monitors provides two monitors for displaying lock
information for an instance: Lock and Latch Monitors.
UTLLOCKT.SQL The UTLLOCKT.SQL script displays a simple
character lock wait-for graph in tree-structured
fashion. Using an ad hoc query tool (such as
Enterprise Manager or SQL*Plus), the script prints the
sessions in the system that are waiting for locks and
the corresponding blocking locks. The location of this
script file is operating system dependent; see your
operating system-specific Oracle documentation. (A
second script, CATBLOCK.SQL, creates the lock
views that UTLLOCKT.SQL needs, so you must run it
before running UTLLOCKT.SQL.)

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 Tracking Oracle Processes

Monitoring Dynamic Performance Tables

The following views, created on the dynamic performance tables, are useful for
monitoring Oracle instance processes:

View (Monitor) Name Description

V$CIRCUIT Contains information about virtual circuits, which are

user connections through dispatchers and servers.

V$QUEUE Contains information about the multi-threaded message

queues.

V$DISPATCHER Contains information about dispatcher processes.

V$DISPATCHER_RATE Contains rate statistics for dispatcher processes.

V$SHARED_SERVER Contains information about shared server processes.

V$SQLAREA Contains statistics about shared SQL area and contains

one row per SQL string. Also provides statistics about
SQL statements that are in memory, parsed, and ready
for execution.

V$SESS_IO Contains I/O statistics for each user session.

V$LATCH Contains statistics for non-parent latches and summary

statistics for parent latches.

V$SYSSTAT Contains system statistics.

Following is a typical query of one of the dynamic performance tables,

V$DISPATCHER. The output displays the processing load on each dispatcher
process in the system:
SELECT (busy/(busy + idle)) * 100 "% OF TIME BUSY"
FROM v$dispatcher;

Distinguishing Oracle Background Processes from Operating System

Background Processes
When you run many Oracle databases concurrently on one computer, Oracle
provides a mechanism for naming the processes of an instance. The background
process names are prefixed by an instance identifier to distinguish the set of
processes for each instance.
For example, an instance named TEST might have background processes with the
following names:

Managing Oracle Processes 4-9

Tracking Oracle Processes

■ ORA_TEST_DBWR
■ ORA_TEST_LGWR
■ ORA_TEST_SMON
■ ORA_TEST_PMON
■ ORA_TEST_RECO
■ ORA_TEST_LCK0
■ ORA_TEST_ARCH
■ ORA_TEST_D000
■ ORA_TEST_S000
■ ORA_TEST_S001
See Also: For more information about views and dynamic performance tables see
the Oracle8i Reference.
For more information about the instance identifier and the format of the Oracle
process names, see your operating system-specific Oracle documentation.

Trace Files, the ALERT File, and Background Processes

Each server and background process can write to an associated trace file. When an
internal error is detected by a process, it dumps information about the error to its
trace file. Some of the information written to a trace file is intended for the database
administrator, while other information is for Oracle WorldWide Support. Trace file
information is also used to tune applications and instances.
The ALERT file is a special trace file. The ALERT file of a database is a chronological
log of messages and errors, which includes the following:
■ all internal errors (ORA-600), block corruption errors (ORA-1578), and deadlock
errors (ORA-60) that occur
■ administrative operations, such as CREATE/ALTER/DROP DATABASE/
TABLESPACE/ROLLBACK SEGMENT SQL statements and STARTUP,
SHUTDOWN, and ARCHIVE LOG
■ several messages and errors relating to the functions of shared server and
dispatcher processes
■ errors occurring during the automatic refresh of a snapshot

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 Tracking Oracle Processes

■ the values of all initialization parameters at the time the database and instance
start
Oracle uses the ALERT file to keep a log of these special operations as an alternative
to displaying such information on an operator’s console (although many systems
display information on the console). If an operation is successful, a "completed"
message is written in the ALERT file, along with a timestamp.

Using the Trace Files

You can periodically check the ALERT file and other trace files of an instance to see
if the background processes have encountered errors. For example, when the Log
Writer process (LGWR) cannot write to a member of a group, an error message
indicating the nature of the problem is written to the LGWR trace file and the
database’s ALERT file. If you see such error messages, a media or I/O problem has
occurred, and should be corrected immediately.
Oracle also writes values of initialization parameters to the ALERT file, in addition
to other important statistics. For example, when you shut down an instance
normally or immediately (but do not abort), Oracle writes the highest number of
sessions concurrently connected to the instance, since the instance started, to the
ALERT file. You can use this number to see if you need to upgrade your Oracle
session license.

Specifying the Location of Trace Files

All trace files for background processes and the ALERT file are written to the
destination specified by the initialization parameter
BACKGROUND_DUMP_DEST. All trace files for server processes are written to the
destination specified by the initialization parameter USER_DUMP_DEST. The
names of trace files are operating system specific, but usually include the name of
the process writing the file (such as LGWR and RECO).

Controlling the Size of Trace Files

You can control the maximum size of all trace files (excluding the ALERT file) using
the initialization parameter MAX_DUMP_FILE_SIZE. This limit is set as a number
of operating system blocks. To control the size of an ALERT file, you must manually
delete the file when you no longer need it; otherwise Oracle continues to append to
the file. You can safely delete the ALERT file while the instance is running, although
you might want to make an archived copy of it first.

Managing Oracle Processes 4-11

Managing Processes for the Parallel Query Option

Controlling When Oracle Writes to Trace Files

Background processes always write to a trace file when appropriate. However, trace
files are written on behalf of server processes (in addition to being written to during
internal errors) only if the initialization parameter SQL_TRACE is set to TRUE.
Regardless of the current value of SQL_TRACE, each session can enable or disable
trace logging on behalf of the associated server process by using the SQL command
ALTER SESSION with the SET SQL_TRACE parameter.
ALTER SESSION SET SQL_TRACE TRUE;

For the multi-threaded server, each session using a dispatcher is routed to a shared
server process, and trace information is written to the server’s trace file only if the
session has enabled tracing (or if an error is encountered). Therefore, to track tracing
for a specific session that connects using a dispatcher, you might have to explore
several shared server’s trace files. Because the SQL trace facility for server processes
can cause significant system overhead, enable this feature only when collecting
statistics.
See Also: For information about the names of trace files, see your operating system-
specific Oracle documentation.
For complete information about the ALTER SESSION command, see the Oracle8i
SQL Reference.

Starting the Checkpoint Process

If the Checkpoint process (CKPT) is not enabled, the Log Writer process (LGWR) is
responsible for updating the headers of all control files and data files to reflect the
latest checkpoint. To reduce the time necessary to complete a checkpoint, especially
when a database is comprised of many data files, enable the CKPT background
process by setting the CHECKPOINT_PROCESS parameter in the database’s
parameter file to TRUE. (The default is FALSE.)

Managing Processes for the Parallel Query Option

This section describes how, with the parallel query option, Oracle can perform
parallel processing. In this configuration Oracle can divide the work of processing
certain types of SQL statements among multiple query server processes. The
following topics are included:
■ Managing the Query Servers
■ Variations in the Number of Query Server Processes

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 Managing Processes for the Parallel Query Option

See Also: For more information about the parallel query option, see Oracle8i Tuning.

Managing the Query Servers

When you start your instance, the Oracle Server creates a pool of query server
processes available for any query coordinator. Specify the number of query server
processes that the Oracle Server creates at instance startup via the initialization
parameter PARALLEL_MIN_SERVERS.
Query server processes remain associated with a statement throughout its execution
phase. When the statement is completely processed, its query server processes
become available to process other statements. The query coordinator process
returns any resulting data to the user process issuing the statement.

Variations in the Number of Query Server Processes

If the volume of SQL statements processed concurrently by your instance changes
drastically, the Oracle Server automatically changes the number of query server
processes in the pool to accommodate this volume.
If this volume increases, the Oracle Server automatically creates additional query
server processes to handle incoming statements. The maximum number of query
server processes for your instance is specified by the initialization parameter
PARALLEL_MAX_SERVERS.
If this volume subsequently decreases, the Oracle Server terminates a query server
process if it has been idle for the period of time specified by the initialization
parameter PARALLEL_SERVER_IDLE_TIME. The Oracle Server does not reduce
the size of the pool below the value of PARALLEL_MIN_SERVERS, no matter how
long the query server processes have been idle.
If all query servers in the pool are occupied and the maximum number of query
servers has been started, a query coordinator processes the statement sequentially.
See Also: For more information about monitoring an instance’s pool of query
servers and determining the appropriate values of the initialization parameters, see
Oracle8i Tuning.

Managing Oracle Processes 4-13

Managing Processes for External Procedures

Managing Processes for External Procedures

You may have shared libraries of C functions that you wish to call from an Oracle
database. This section describes how to set up an environment for calling those
external procedures.

Note: Although not required, it is recommended that you perform

these tasks during installation.

The database administrator grants execute privileges for appropriate libraries to

application developers, who in turn create external procedures and grant execute
privilege on the specific external procedures to other users.
To Set Up an Environment for Calling External Procedures
1. Edit the tnsnames.ora file by adding an entry that enables you to connect to the
listener process (and subsequently, the EXTPROC process).
2. Edit the listener.ora file by adding an entry for the "external procedure listener."
3. Start a separate listener process to exclusively handle external procedures.
4. The EXTPROC process spawned by the listener inherits the operating system
privileges of the listener, so Oracle strongly recommends that you restrict the
privileges for the separate listener process. The process should not have
permission to read or write to database files, or the Oracle server address space.
Also, the owner of this separate listener process should not be "oracle" (which is
the default owner of the server executable and database files).
5. If not already installed, place the extproc executable in $ORACLE_HOME/bin.
Be aware that the external library (DLL file) must be statically linked. In other
words, it must not reference any external symbols from other external libraries
(DLL files). These symbols are not resolved and can cause your external procedure
to fail.

Sample Entry in tnsnames.ora

The following is a sample entry for the external procedure listener in tnsnames.ora.
extproc_connection_data = (DESCRIPTION =
(ADDRESS = (PROTOCOL=IPC)
(KEY=extproc_key)
)
(CONNECT_DATA = (SID = extproc_agent)

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 Terminating Sessions

In this example, and all callouts for external procedures, the entry name
extproc_connection_data cannot be changed; it must be entered exactly as it
appears here. The key you specify—in this case extproc_key—must match the
KEY you specify in the listener.ora file. Additionally, the SID name you specify—in
this case extproc_agent—must match the SID_NAME entry in the listener.ora file.

Sample Entry in listener.ora

The following is a sample entry for the external procedure in listener.ora.
EXTERNAL_PROCEDURE_LISTENER =

(ADDRESS_LIST =
(ADDRESS = (PROTOCOL=ipc)
(KEY=extproc_key)
)
)
...
SID_LIST_EXTERNAL_PROCEDURE_LISTENER =

(SID_LIST =
(SID_DESC = (SID_NAME=extproc_agent)
(ORACLE_HOME=/oracle)
(PROGRAM=extproc)
)
)

In this example, the PROGRAM must be extproc, and cannot be changed; it must be
entered exactly as it appears in this example. The SID_NAME must match the SID
name in the tnsnames.ora file. The ORACLE_HOME must be set to the directory
where your Oracle software is installed. The extproc executable must reside in
$ORACLE_HOME/bin.
See Also: For more information about external procedures, see the PL/SQL User’s
Guide and Reference.

Terminating Sessions
In some situations, you might want to terminate current user sessions. For example,
you might want to perform an administrative operation and need to terminate all
non-administrative sessions.
This section describes the various aspects of terminating sessions, and includes the
following topics:

Managing Oracle Processes 4-15

Terminating Sessions

■ Identifying Which Session to Terminate

■ Terminating an Active Session
■ Terminating an Inactive Session
When a session is terminated, the session’s transaction is rolled back and resources
(such as locks and memory areas) held by the session are immediately released and
available to other sessions.
Terminate a current session using the SQL statement ALTER SYSTEM KILL
SESSION.
The following statement terminates the session whose SID is 7 and serial number is
15:
ALTER SYSTEM KILL SESSION ’7,15’;

Identifying Which Session to Terminate

To identify which session to terminate, specify the session’s index number and
serial number. To identify the index (SID) and serial numbers of a session, query the
V$SESSION dynamic performance table.
The following query identifies all sessions for the user JWARD:
SELECT sid, serial#
FROM v$session
WHERE username = ’JWARD’;
SID SERIAL# STATUS
--------- --------- --------
7 15 ACTIVE
12 63 INACTIVE

A session is ACTIVE when it is making a SQL call to Oracle. A session is INACTIVE

if it is not making a SQL call to Oracle.
See Also: For a complete description of the status values for a session, see Oracle8i
Tuning.

Terminating an Active Session

If a user session is making a SQL call to Oracle (is ACTIVE) when it is terminated,
the transaction is rolled back and the user immediately receives the following
message:
ORA-00028: your session has been killed

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 Terminating Sessions

If, after receiving the ORA-00028 message, a user submits additional statements
before reconnecting to the database, Oracle returns the following message:
ORA-01012: not logged on

If an active session cannot be interrupted (for example, it is performing network I/

O or rolling back a transaction), the session cannot be terminated until the operation
completes. In this case, the session holds all resources until it is terminated.
Additionally, the session that issues the ALTER SYSTEM statement to terminate a
session waits up to 60 seconds for the session to be terminated; if the operation that
cannot be interrupted continues past one minute, the issuer of the ALTER SYSTEM
statement receives a message indicating that the session has been "marked" to be
terminated. A session marked to be terminated is indicated in V$SESSION with a
status of "KILLED" and a server that is something other than "PSEUDO."

Terminating an Inactive Session

If the session is not making a SQL call to Oracle (is INACTIVE) when it is
terminated, the ORA-00028 message is not returned immediately. The message is
not returned until the user subsequently attempts to use the terminated session.
When an inactive session has been terminated, STATUS in the view V$SESSION is
"KILLED." The row for the terminated session is removed from V$SESSION after
the user attempts to use the session again and receives the ORA-00028 message.
In the following example, the administrator terminates an inactive session:
SELECT sid,serial#,status,server
FROM v$session
WHERE username = ’JWARD’;

SID SERIAL# STATUS SERVER

---------- -------- --------- ---------
7 15 INACTIVE DEDICATED
12 63 INACTIVE DEDICATED
2 rows selected.

ALTER SYSTEM KILL SESSION ’7,15’;

Statement processed.

SELECT sid, serial#, status, server

FROM v$session
WHERE username = ’JWARD’;

SID SERIAL# STATUS SERVER

--------- -------- --------- ---------
7 15 KILLED PSEUDO

Managing Oracle Processes 4-17

Terminating Sessions

12 63 INACTIVE DEDICATED
2 rows selected.

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 5
Managing Control Files

This chapter explains how to create and maintain the control files for your database,
and includes the following topics:
■ Guidelines for Control Files
■ Creating Control Files
■ Troubleshooting After Creating Control Files
■ Dropping Control Files

Managing Control Files 5-1

Guidelines for Control Files

Guidelines for Control Files

This section describes guidelines you can use to manage the control files for a
database, and includes the following topics:
■ Name Control Files
■ Multiplex Control Files on Different Disks
■ Place Control Files Appropriately
■ Manage the Size of Control Files

Name Control Files

Assign control file names via the CONTROL_FILES initialization parameter in the
database’s parameter file. CONTROL_FILES indicates one or more names of control
files separated by commas. The instance startup procedure recognizes and opens all
the listed files. The instance maintains all listed control files during database
operation.
During database operation, Oracle writes to all necessary files listed for the
CONTROL_FILES parameter.

Multiplex Control Files on Different Disks

Every Oracle database should have at least two control files, each stored on a
different disk. If a control file is damaged due to a disk failure, the associated
instance must be shut down. Once the disk drive is repaired, the damaged control
file can be restored using an intact copy of the control file and the instance can be
restarted; no media recovery is required.

Behavior of Multiplexed Control Files

The following list describes the behavior of multiplexed control files:
■ Two or more filenames are listed for the initialization parameter
CONTROL_FILES in the database’s parameter file.
■ The first file listed in the CONTROL_FILES parameter is the only file read by
the Oracle Server during database operation.
■ If any of the control files become unavailable during database operation, the
instance becomes inoperable and should be aborted.

5-2 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Creating Control Files

The only disadvantage of having multiple control files is that all operations that
update the control files (such as adding a datafile or checkpointing the database)
can take slightly longer. However, this difference is usually insignificant (especially
for operating systems that can perform multiple, concurrent writes) and does not
justify using only a single control file.

Attention:Oracle strongly recommends that your database has a

minimum of two control files on different disks.

Place Control Files Appropriately

Each copy of a control file should be stored on a different disk drive. Furthermore, a
control file copy should be stored on every disk drive that stores members of online
redo log groups, if the online redo log is multiplexed. By storing control files in
these locations, you minimize the risk that all control files and all groups of the
online redo log will be lost in a single disk failure.

Manage the Size of Control Files

The main determinants of a control file’s size are the values set for the
MAXDATAFILES, MAXLOGFILES, MAXLOGMEMBERS, MAXLOGHISTORY, and
MAXINSTANCES parameters in the CREATE DATABASE statement that created
the associated database. Increasing the values of these parameters increases the size
of a control file of the associated database.
See Also: The maximum control file size is operating system specific. See your
operating system-specific Oracle documentation for more information.

Creating Control Files

Every Oracle database has a control file. A control files records the physical structure
of the database and contains:
■ the database name
■ names and locations of associated databases and online redo log files
■ the timestamp of the database creation
■ the current log sequence number
■ checkpoint information

Managing Control Files 5-3

Creating Control Files

The control file of an Oracle database is created at the same time as the database. By
default, at least one copy of the control file must be created during database
creation. On some operating systems, Oracle creates multiple copies. You should
create two or more copies of the control file during database creation. You might
also need to create control files later, if you lose control files or want to change
particular settings in the control files.
This section describes ways to create control files, and includes the following topics:
■ Creating Initial Control Files
■ Creating Additional Control File Copies, and Renaming and Relocating Control
Files
■ New Control Files
■ Creating New Control Files

Creating Initial Control Files

You create the initial control files of an Oracle database by specifying one or more
control filenames in the CONTROL_FILES parameter in the parameter file used
during database creation. The filenames specified in CONTROL_FILES should be
fully specified. Filename specification is operating system-specific.
If files with the specified names currently exist at the time of database creation, you
must specify the CONTROLFILE REUSE parameter in the CREATE DATABASE
statement, or else an error occurs. Also, if the size of the old control file differs from
that of the new one, you cannot use the REUSE option. The size of the control file
changes between some releases of Oracle, as well as when the number of files
specified in the control file changes. Configuration parameters such as
MAXLOGFILES, MAXLOGMEMBERS, MAXLOGHISTORY, MAXDATAFILES, and
MAXINSTANCES affect control file size.
If you do not specify files for CONTROL_FILES before database creation, Oracle
uses a default filename. The default name is also operating system-specific.
You can subsequently change the value of the CONTROL_FILES parameter to add
more control files or to change the names or locations of existing control files.
See Also: For more information about specifying control files, see your operating
system-specific Oracle documentation.

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 Creating Control Files

Creating Additional Control File Copies, and Renaming and Relocating Control Files
You add a new control file by copying an existing file to a new location and adding
the file’s name to the list of control files.
Similarly, you rename an existing control file by copying the file to its new name or
location, and changing the file’s name in the control file list.
In both cases, to guarantee that control files do not change during the procedure,
shut down the instance before copying the control file.
To Multiplex or Move Additional Copies of the Current Control Files
1. Shut down the database.
2. Copy an existing control file to a different location, using operating system
commands.
3. Edit the CONTROL_FILES parameter in the database’s parameter file to add
the new control file’s name, or to change the existing control filename.
4. Restart the database.

New Control Files

You can create a new control file for a database using the CREATE CONTROLFILE
statement. This is recommended in the following situations:
■ All control files for the database have been permanently damaged and you do
not have a control file backup.
■ You want to change one of the permanent database settings originally specified
in the CREATE DATABASE statement, including the database’s name,
MAXLOGFILES, MAXLOGMEMBERS, MAXLOGHISTORY, MAXDATAFILES,
and MAXINSTANCES.
For example, you might need to change a database’s name if it conflicts with
another database’s name in a distributed environment. As another example,
you might need to change one of the previously mentioned parameters if the
original setting is too low.
The following statement creates a new control file for the PROD database (formerly
a database that used a different database name):
CREATE CONTROLFILE
SET DATABASE prod
LOGFILE GROUP 1 (’logfile1A’, ’logfile1B’) SIZE 50K,
GROUP 2 (’logfile2A’, ’logfile2B’) SIZE 50K

Managing Control Files 5-5

Creating Control Files

NORESETLOGS
DATAFILE ’datafile1’ SIZE 3M, ’datafile2’ SIZE 5M
MAXLOGFILES 50
MAXLOGMEMBERS 3
MAXDATAFILES 200
MAXINSTANCES 6
ARCHIVELOG;

WARNING: The CREATE CONTROLFILE statement can

potentially damage specified datafiles and online redo log files;
omitting a filename can cause loss of the data in that file, or loss
of access to the entire database. Employ caution when using this
command and be sure to follow the steps in the next section.

See Also: For more information about the CREATE CONTROLFILE statement, see
the Oracle8i SQL Reference.

Creating New Control Files

This section provides step-by-step instructions for creating new control files.

To Create New Control Files

1. Make a list of all datafiles and online redo log files of the database.
If you followed the recommendations for database backups, you should already
have a list of datafiles and online redo log files that reflect the current structure
of the database.
If you have no such lists and your control file has been damaged so that the
database cannot be opened, try to locate all of the datafiles and online redo log
files that constitute the database. Any files not specified in Step 5 are not
recoverable once a new control file has been created. Moreover, if you omit any
of the files that make up the SYSTEM tablespace, you might not be able to
recover the database.
2. Shut down the database.
If the database is open, shut down the database with normal priority, if
possible. Use the IMMEDIATE or ABORT options only as a last resort.
3. Back up all datafiles and online redo log files of the database.
4. Start up an new instance, but do not mount or open the database.

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 Creating Control Files

5. Create a new control file for the database using the CREATE CONTROLFILE
statement.
When creating the new control file, select the RESETLOGS option if you have
lost any online redo log groups in addition to the control files. In this case, you
will need to recover from the loss of the redo logs (Step 8). You must also
specify the RESETLOGS option if you have renamed the database. Otherwise,
select the NORESETLOGS option.
6. Store a backup of the new control file on an offline storage device.
7. Edit the parameter files of the database.
Edit the parameter files of the database to indicate all of the control files created
in Step 5 and Step 6 (not including the backup control file) in the
CONTROL_FILES parameter.
8. Recover the database if necessary.
If you are creating the control file as part of recovery, recover the database. If the
new control file was created using the NORESETLOGS option (Step 5), you can
recover the database with complete, closed database recovery.
If the new control file was created using the RESETLOGS option, you must
specify USING BACKUP CONTROL FILE. If you have lost online or archived
redo logs or datafiles, use the procedures for recovering those files.
9. Open the database.
Open the database using one of the following methods:
■ If you did not perform recovery, open the database normally.
■ If you performed complete, closed database recovery in Step 8, start up the
database.
■ If you specified RESETLOGS when creating the control file, use the ALTER
DATABASE statement, indicating RESETLOGS.
The database is now open and available for use.
See Also: See the Oracle8i Backup and Recovery Guide for more information about:
■ listing database files
■ backing up all datafiles and online redo log files of the database
■ recovering online or archived redo log files
■ closed database recovery

Managing Control Files 5-7

Troubleshooting After Creating Control Files

Troubleshooting After Creating Control Files

After issuing the CREATE CONTROLFILE statement, you may encounter some
common errors. This section describes the most common control file usage errors,
and includes the following topics:
■ Checking for Missing or Extra Files
■ Handling Errors During CREATE CONTROLFILE

Checking for Missing or Extra Files

After creating a new control file and using it to open the database, check the ALERT
log to see if Oracle has detected inconsistencies between the data dictionary and the
control file, such as a datafile that the data dictionary includes but the control file
does not list.
If a datafile exists in the data dictionary but not in the new control file, Oracle
creates a placeholder entry in the control file under the name MISSINGnnnn (where
nnnn is the file number in decimal). MISSINGnnnn is flagged in the control file as
being offline and requiring media recovery.
In the following two cases only, the actual datafile corresponding to MISSINGnnnn
can be made accessible by renaming MISSINGnnnn to point to it.
Case 1: The new control file was created using the CREATE CONTROLFILE
statement with the NORESETLOGS option, thus allowing the database to be
opened without using the RESETLOGS option. This would be possible only if all
online redo logs are available.
Case 2: It was necessary to use the RESETLOGS option of the CREATE
CONTROLFILE statement, thus forcing the database to be opened using the
RESETLOGS option, but the actual datafile corresponding to MISSINGnnnn was
read-only or offline normal.
If, on the other hand, it was necessary to open the database using the RESETLOGS
option, and MISSINGnnnn corresponds to a datafile that was not read-only or
offline normal, then the rename operation cannot be used to make the datafile
accessible (since the datafile requires media recovery that is precluded by the results
of RESETLOGS). In this case, the tablespace containing the datafile must be
dropped.
In contrast, if a datafile indicated in the control file is not present in the data
dictionary, Oracle removes references to it from the new control file. In both cases,

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 Dropping Control Files

Oracle includes an explanatory message in the ALERT file to let you know what it
found.

Handling Errors During CREATE CONTROLFILE

If Oracle sends you an error (usually error ORA-01173, ORA-01176, ORA-01177,
ORA-01215, or ORA-01216) when you attempt to mount and open the database
after creating a new control file, the most likely cause is that you omitted a file from
the CREATE CONTROLFILE statement or included one that should not have been
listed. In this case, you should restore the files you backed up in Step 3 and repeat
the procedure from Step 4, using the correct filenames.

Dropping Control Files

You can drop control files from the database. For example, you might want to do so
if the location of a control file is inappropriate. Remember that the database must
have at least two control files at all times.
1. Shut down the database.
2. Edit the CONTROL_FILES parameter in the database’s parameter file to delete
the old control file’s name.
3. Restart the database.

WARNING: This operation does not physically delete the

unwanted control file from the disk. Use operating system
commands to delete the unnecessary file after you have dropped
the control file from the database.

Managing Control Files 5-9

Dropping Control Files

5-10 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 6
Managing the Online Redo Log

This chapter explains how to manage the online redo log and includes the following
topics:
■ What Is the Online Redo Log?
■ Planning the Online Redo Log
■ Creating Online Redo Log Groups and Members
■ Renaming and Relocating Online Redo Log Members
■ Dropping Online Redo Log Groups and Members
■ Forcing Log Switches
■ Verifying Blocks in Redo Log Files
■ Clearing an Online Redo Log File
■ Listing Information about the Online Redo Log
See Also: For more information about managing the online redo logs of the
instances when using Oracle Parallel Server, see Oracle8i Parallel Server Concepts and
Administration.
To learn how checkpoints and the redo log impact instance recovery, see Oracle8i
Tuning.

Managing the Online Redo Log 6-1

What Is the Online Redo Log?

What Is the Online Redo Log?

The most crucial structure for recovery operations is the online redo log, which
consists of two or more pre-allocated files that store all changes made to the
database as they occur. Every instance of an Oracle database has an associated
online redo log to protect the database in case of an instance failure.

Note: Oracle does not recommend backing up the online redo log.

Redo Threads
Each database instance has its own online redo log groups. These online redo log
groups, multiplexed or not, are called an instance’s thread of online redo. In typical
configurations, only one database instance accesses an Oracle database, so only one
thread is present. When running the Oracle Parallel Server, however, two or more
instances concurrently access a single database; each instance has its own thread.
This chapter describes how to configure and manage the online redo log when the
Oracle Parallel Server is not used. Hence, the thread number can be assumed to be 1
in all discussions and examples of commands.
See Also: For complete information about configuring the online redo log with the
Oracle Parallel Server, see Oracle8i Parallel Server Concepts and Administration.

Online Redo Log Contents

Online redo log files are filled with redo records. A redo record, also called a redo
entry, is made up of a group of change vectors, each of which is a description of a
change made to a single block in the database. For example, if you change a salary
value in an employee table, you generate a redo record containing change vectors
that describe changes to the data segment block for the table, the rollback segment
data block, and the transaction table of the rollback segments.
Redo entries record data that you can use to reconstruct all changes made to the
database, including the rollback segments. Therefore, the online redo log also
protects rollback data. When you recover the database using redo data, Oracle reads
the change vectors in the redo records and applies the changes to the relevant
blocks.
Redo records are buffered in a circular fashion in the redo log buffer of the SGA and
are written to one of the online redo log files by the Oracle background process Log
Writer (LGWR). Whenever a transaction is committed, LGWR writes the
transaction’s redo records from the redo log buffer of the SGA to an online redo log

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 What Is the Online Redo Log?

file, and a system change number (SCN) is assigned to identify the redo records for
each committed transaction. Only once all redo records associated with a given
transaction are safely on disk in the online logs is the user process notified that the
transaction has been committed.
Redo records can also be written to an online redo log file before the corresponding
transaction is committed. If the redo log buffer fills, or another transaction commits,
LGWR flushes all of the redo log entries in the redo log buffer to an online redo log
file, even though some redo records may not be committed. If necessary, Oracle can
roll back these changes.

How Oracle Writes to the Online Redo Log

The online redo log of a database consists of two or more online redo log files.
Oracle requires a minimum of two files to guarantee that one is always available for
writing while the other is being archived (if in ARCHIVELOG mode).
LGWR writes to online redo log files in a circular fashion; when the current online
redo log file fills, LGWR begins writing to the next available online redo log file.
When the last available online redo log file is filled, LGWR returns to the first online
redo log file and writes to it, starting the cycle again. Figure 6–1 illustrates the
circular writing of the online redo log file. The numbers next to each line indicate
the sequence in which LGWR writes to each online redo log file.
Filled online redo log files are available to LGWR for re-use depending on whether
archiving is enabled:
■ If archiving is disabled (NOARCHIVELOG mode), a filled online redo log file is
available once the changes recorded in it have been written to the datafiles.
■ If archiving is enabled (ARCHIVELOG mode), a filled online redo log file is
available to LGWR once the changes recorded in it have been written to the
datafiles and once the file has been archived.

Managing the Online Redo Log 6-3

What Is the Online Redo Log?

Figure 6–1 Circular Use of Online Redo Log Files by LGWR

Online Redo 1, 4, 7, ...

Log File
#1

LGWR

Online Redo 2, 5, 8, ...

Log File
#2

Online Redo 3, 6, 9, ...

Log File
#3

Active (Current) and Inactive Online Redo Log Files

At any given time, Oracle uses only one of the online redo log files to store redo
records written from the redo log buffer. The online redo log file that LGWR is
actively writing is called the current online redo log file.
Online redo log files that are required for instance recovery are called active online
redo log files. Online redo log files that are not required for instance recovery are
called inactive.
If you have enabled archiving, Oracle cannot re-use or overwrite an active online
log file until ARCn has archived its contents. If archiving is disabled, when the last
online redo log file fills, writing continues by overwriting the first available active
file.

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 Planning the Online Redo Log

Log Switches and Log Sequence Numbers

A log switch is the point at which Oracle ends writing to one online redo log file and
begins writing to another. A log switch always occurs when the current online redo
log file is completely filled and writing must continue to the next online redo log
file. You can also force log switches manually.
Oracle assigns each online redo log file a new log sequence number every time that a
log switch occurs and LGWR begins writing to it. If Oracle archives online redo log
files, the archived log retains its log sequence number. The online redo log file that
is cycled back for use is given the next available log sequence number.
Each online or archived redo log file is uniquely identified by its log sequence
number. During crash, instance, or media recovery, Oracle properly applies redo log
files in ascending order by using the log sequence number of necessary archived
and online redo log files.

Planning the Online Redo Log

This section describes guidelines you should consider when configuring a database
instance’s online redo log, and includes the following topics:
■ Multiplexing Online Redo Log Files
■ Placing Online Redo Log Members on Different Disks
■ Setting the Size of Online Redo Log Members
■ Choosing the Number of Online Redo Log Files

Multiplexing Online Redo Log Files

Oracle provides the capability to multiplex an instance’s online redo log files to
safeguard against damage to its online redo log files. When multiplexing online
redo log files, LGWR concurrently writes the same redo log information to multiple
identical online redo log files, thereby eliminating a single point of redo log failure.

Note: Oracle recommends that you multiplex your redo log files;
the loss of the log file data can be catastrophic if recovery is
required.

Managing the Online Redo Log 6-5

Planning the Online Redo Log

,

,,
Figure 6–2 Multiplexed Online Redo Log Files

Disk A Disk B

1, 3, 5, ...
Group 1
A_LOG1 B_LOG1
LGWR



Group 2
A_LOG2 2, 4, 6, ... B_LOG2

Group 1

Group 2

The corresponding online redo log files are called groups. Each online redo log file in
a group is called a member. In Figure 6–2, A_LOG1 and B_LOG1 are both members
of Group 1; A_LOG2 and B_LOG2 are both members of Group 2, and so forth. Each
member in a group must be exactly the same size.
Notice that each member of a group is concurrently active, or, concurrently written
to by LGWR, as indicated by the identical log sequence numbers assigned by
LGWR. In Figure 6–2, first LGWR writes to A_LOG1 in conjunction with B_LOG1,
then A_LOG2 in conjunction with B_LOG2, etc. LGWR never writes concurrently to
members of different groups (for example, to A_LOG1 and B_LOG2).

Responding to Online Redo Log Failure

Whenever LGWR cannot write to a member of a group, Oracle marks that member
as stale and writes an error message to the LGWR trace file and to the database’s
alert file to indicate the problem with the inaccessible files. LGWR reacts differently
when certain online redo log members are unavailable, depending on the reason for
the unavailability.

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 Planning the Online Redo Log

If Then
LGWR can successfully write to at Writing proceeds as normal; LGWR simply writes to
least one member in a group the available members of a group and ignores the
unavailable members.
LGWR cannot access the next Database operation temporarily halts until the group
group at a log switch because the becomes available, or, until the group is archived.
group needs to be archived
All members of the next group are Oracle returns an error and the database instance
inaccessible to LGWR at a log shuts down. In this case, you may need to perform
switch because of media failure media recovery on the database from the loss of an
online redo log file.
If the database checkpoint has moved beyond the lost
redo log (which is not the current log in this
example), media recovery is not necessary since
Oracle has saved the data recorded in the redo log to
the datafiles. Simply drop the inaccessible redo log
group. If Oracle did not archive the bad log, use
ALTER DATABASE CLEAR UNARCHIVED LOG to
disable archiving before the log can be dropped.
If all members of a group suddenly Oracle returns an error and the database instance
become inaccessible to LGWR immediately shuts down. In this case, you may need
while it is writing to them to perform media recovery. If the media containing
the log is not actually lost— for example, if the drive
for the log was inadvertently turned off — media
recovery may not be needed. In this case, you only
need to turn the drive back on and let Oracle perform
instance recovery.

Legal and Illegal Configurations

To safeguard against a single point of online redo log failure, a multiplexed online
redo log is ideally symmetrical: all groups of the online redo log have the same
number of members. Nevertheless, Oracle does not require that a multiplexed online
redo log be symmetrical. For example, one group can have only one member, while
other groups have two members. This configuration protects against disk failures
that temporarily affect some online redo log members but leave others intact.
The only requirement for an instance’s online redo log is that it have at least two
groups. Figure 6–3 shows legal and illegal multiplexed online redo log
configurations. The second configuration is illegal because it has only one group.

Managing the Online Redo Log 6-7

 ,


,,

Planning the Online Redo Log

Figure 6–3 Legal and Illegal Multiplexed Online Redo Log Configuration
LEGAL
Disk A Disk B


,
Group 1 A_LOG1 B_LOG1



Group 2 A_LOG2 B_LOG2

Group 3

,
,

A_LOG3 B_LOG3

ILLEGAL
Disk A Disk B

Group 1 A_LOG1 B_LOG1


Group 2

Group 3

Group 1

Group 2

Group 3

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 Planning the Online Redo Log

Placing Online Redo Log Members on Different Disks

When setting up a multiplexed online redo log, place members of a group on
different disks. If a single disk fails, then only one member of a group becomes
unavailable to LGWR and other members remain accessible to LGWR, so the
instance can continue to function.
If you archive the redo log, spread online redo log members across disks to
eliminate contention between the LGWR and ARCn background processes. For
example, if you have two groups of duplexed online redo log members, place each
member on a different disk and set your archiving destination to a fifth disk.
Consequently, there is never contention between LGWR (writing to the members)
and ARCn (reading the members).
Datafiles and online redo log files should also be on different disks to reduce
contention in writing data blocks and redo records.
See Also: For more information about how the online redo log affects backup and
recovery, see Oracle8i Backup and Recovery Guide.

Setting the Size of Online Redo Log Members

When setting the size of online redo log files, consider whether you will be
archiving the redo log. Online redo log files should be sized so that a filled group
can be archived to a single unit of offline storage media (such as a tape or disk),
with the least amount of space on the medium left unused. For example, suppose
only one filled online redo log group can fit on a tape and 49% of the tape’s storage
capacity remains unused. In this case, it is better to decrease the size of the online
redo log files slightly, so that two log groups could be archived per tape.
With multiplexed groups of online redo logs, all members of the same group must
be the same size. Members of different groups can have different sizes; however,
there is no advantage in varying file size between groups. If checkpoints are not set
to occur between log switches, make all groups the same size to guarantee that
checkpoints occur at regular intervals.
See Also: The default size of online redo log files is operating system-dependent;
for more details see your operating system-specific Oracle documentation.

Choosing the Number of Online Redo Log Files

The best way to determine the appropriate number of online redo log files for a
database instance is to test different configurations. The optimum configuration has

Managing the Online Redo Log 6-9

Planning the Online Redo Log

the fewest groups possible without hampering LGWR’s writing redo log
information.
In some cases, a database instance may require only two groups. In other situations,
a database instance may require additional groups to guarantee that a recycled
group is always available to LGWR. During testing, the easiest way to determine if
the current online redo log configuration is satisfactory is to examine the contents of
the LGWR trace file and the database’s alert log. If messages indicate that LGWR
frequently has to wait for a group because a checkpoint has not completed or a
group has not been archived, add groups.
Consider the parameters that can limit the number of online redo log files before
setting up or altering the configuration of an instance’s online redo log. The
following parameters limit the number of online redo log files that you can add to a
database:
■ The MAXLOGFILES parameter used in the CREATE DATABASE statement
determines the maximum number of groups of online redo log files per
database; group values can range from 1 to MAXLOGFILES. The only way to
override this upper limit is to re-create the database or its control file; thus, it is
important to consider this limit before creating a database. If MAXLOGFILES is not
specified for the CREATE DATABASE statement, Oracle uses an operating system
default value.
■ The LOG_FILES initialization parameter (in the parameter file) can temporarily
decrease the maximum number of groups of online redo log files for the
duration of the current instance. Nevertheless, LOG_FILES cannot override
MAXLOGFILES to increase the limit. If LOG_FILES is not set in the database’s
parameter file, Oracle uses an operating system-specific default value.
■ The MAXLOGMEMBERS parameter used in the CREATE DATABASE
statement determines the maximum number of members per group. As with
MAXLOGFILES, the only way to override this upper limit is to re-create the
database or control file; thus, it is important to consider this limit before creating a
database. If no MAXLOGMEMBERS parameter is specified for the CREATE
DATABASE statement, Oracle uses an operating system default value.
See Also: For the default and legal values of the MAXLOGFILES and
MAXLOGMEMBERS parameters, and the LOG_FILES initialization parameter, see
your operating system-specific Oracle documentation.

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 Creating Online Redo Log Groups and Members

Creating Online Redo Log Groups and Members

You can create groups and members of online redo log files during or after database
creation. Plan the online redo log of a database and create all required groups and
members of online redo log files during database creation. To create new online
redo log groups and members, you must have the ALTER DATABASE system
privilege.
In some cases, you might need to create additional groups or members of online
redo log files. For example, adding groups to an online redo log can correct redo log
group availability problems. A database can have up to MAXLOGFILES groups.

Creating Online Redo Log Groups

To create a new group of online redo log files, use the SQL statement ALTER
DATABASE with the ADD LOGFILE parameter.
The following statement adds a new group of redo logs to the database:
ALTER DATABASE ADD LOGFILE (’/oracle/dbs/log1c.rdo’, ’/oracle/dbs/log2c.rdo’) SIZE 500K;

Note: Use fully specify filenames of new log members to indicate

where the operating system file should be created; otherwise, the
file is created in the default directory of the database server, which
is operating system-dependent. To reuse an existing operating
system file, you do not have to indicate the file size.

Using the ALTER DATABASE statement with the ADD LOGFILE option, you can
specify the number that identifies the group with the GROUP option:
ALTER DATABASE ADD LOGFILE GROUP 10 (’/oracle/dbs/log1c.rdo’, ’/oracle/dbs/log2c.rdo’)
SIZE 500K;

Using group numbers can make administering redo log groups easier. However, the
group number must be between 1 and MAXLOGFILES; do not skip redo log file
group numbers (that is, do not number your groups 10, 20, 30, and so on), or you
will consume space in the control files of the database.

Creating Online Redo Log Members

In some cases, you might not need to create a complete group of online redo log
files; the group may already exist, but not be complete because one or more

Managing the Online Redo Log 6-11

Renaming and Relocating Online Redo Log Members

members of the group were dropped (for example, because of a disk failure). In this
case, you can add new members to an existing group.
To create new online redo log members for an existing group, use the SQL
statement ALTER DATABASE with the ADD LOG MEMBER parameter.
The following statement adds a new redo log member to redo log group number 2:
ALTER DATABASE ADD LOGFILE MEMBER ’/oracle/dbs/log2b.rdo’ TO GROUP 2;

Notice that filenames must be specified, but sizes need not be; the size of the new
members is determined from the size of the existing members of the group.
When using the ALTER DATABASE command, you can alternatively identify the
target group by specifying all of the other members of the group in the TO
parameter, as shown in the following example:
ALTER DATABASE ADD LOGFILE MEMBER ’/oracle/dbs/log2c.rdo’ TO
(’/oracle/dbs/log2a.rdo’, ’/oracle/dbs/log2b.rdo’);

Note: Fully specify the filenames of new log members to indicate

where the operating system files should be created; otherwise, the
files will be created in the default directory of the database server.

Renaming and Relocating Online Redo Log Members

You can rename online redo log members to change their locations. This procedure
is necessary, for example, if the disk currently used for some online redo log files is
going to be removed, or if datafiles and a number of online redo log files are stored
on the same disk and should be separated to reduce contention.
To rename online redo log members, you must have the ALTER DATABASE system
privilege. Additionally, you might also need operating system privileges to copy
files to the desired location and privileges to open and back up the database.
Before renaming any online redo log members, ensure that the new online redo log
files already exist.

WARNING: The following steps only modify the internal file

pointers in a database’s control files; they do not physically
rename or create any operating system files. Use your computer’s
operating system to copy the existing online redo log files to the
new location.

6-12 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Renaming and Relocating Online Redo Log Members

To Rename Online Redo Log Members

1. Back up the database.
Before making any structural changes to a database, such as renaming or
relocating online redo log members, completely back up the database
(including the control file) in case you experience any problems while
performing this operation.
2. Copy the online redo log files to the new location.
Operating system files, such as online redo log members, must be copied using
the appropriate operating system commands. See your operating system
manual for more information about copying files.

Note: You can execute an operating system command to copy a

file without exiting SQL*Plus by using the HOST command.

3. Rename the online redo log members.

Use the ALTER DATABASE statement with the RENAME FILE clause to
rename the database’s online redo log files.
4. Open the database for normal operation.
The online redo log alterations take effect the next time that the database is
opened. Opening the database may require shutting down the current instance
(if the database was previously opened by the current instance) or just opening
the database using the current instance.
5. Back up the control file.
As a precaution, after renaming or relocating a set of online redo log files,
immediately back up the database’s control file.
The following example renames the online redo log members. However, first
assume that:
■ The database is currently mounted by, but closed to, the instance.
■ The log files are located on two disk: diska and diskb.
■ The online redo log is duplexed: one group consists of the members /diska/
logs/log1a.rdo and /diskb/logs/log1b.rdo, and the second group
consists of the members /diska/logs/log2a.rdo and /diskb/logs/
log2b.rdo.

Managing the Online Redo Log 6-13

Dropping Online Redo Log Groups and Members

■ The online redo log files located on diska must be relocated to diskc. The
new filenames will reflect the new location: /diskc/logs/log1c.rdo and /
diskc/logs/log2c.rdo.
The files /diska/logs/log1a.rdo and /diska/logs/log2a.rdo on diska
must be copied to the new files /diskc/logs/log1c.rdo and /diskc/logs/
log2c.rdo on diskc.
ALTER DATABASE RENAME FILE ’/diska/logs/log1a.rdo’, ’/diska/logs/log2a.rdo’
TO ’/diskc/logs/log1c.rdo’, ’/diskc/logs/log2c.rdo’;

Dropping Online Redo Log Groups and Members

In some cases, you may want to drop an entire group of online redo log members.
For example, you want to reduce the number of groups in an instance’s online redo
log. In a different case, you may want to drop one or more specific online redo log
members. For example, if a disk failure occurs, you may need to drop all the online
redo log files on the failed disk so that Oracle does not try to write to the
inaccessible files. In other situations, particular online redo log files become
unnecessary; for example, a file might be stored in an inappropriate location.

Dropping Log Groups

To drop an online redo log group, you must have the ALTER DATABASE system
privilege. Before dropping an online redo log group, consider the following
restrictions and precautions:
■ An instance requires at least two groups of online redo log files, regardless of
the number of members in the groups. (A group is one or more members.)
■ You can drop an online redo log group only if it is not the active group. If you
need to drop the active group, first force a log switch to occur; see "Forcing Log
Switches" on page 6-16.
■ Make sure an online redo log group is archived (if archiving is enabled) before
dropping it. To see whether this has happened, use the SQL*Plus ARCHIVE
LOG statement with the LIST parameter.
Drop an online redo log group with the SQL statement ALTER DATABASE with the
DROP LOGFILE clause.
The following statement drops redo log group number 3:
ALTER DATABASE DROP LOGFILE GROUP 3;

6-14 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Dropping Online Redo Log Groups and Members

When an online redo log group is dropped from the database, the operating system
files are not deleted from disk. Rather, the control files of the associated database are
updated to drop the members of the group from the database structure. After
dropping an online redo log group, make sure that the drop completed successfully,
and then use the appropriate operating system command to delete the dropped
online redo log files.

Dropping Online Redo Log Members

To drop an online redo log member, you must have the ALTER DATABASE system
privilege.
Consider the following restrictions and precautions before dropping individual
online redo log members:
■ It is permissible to drop online redo log files so that a multiplexed online redo
log becomes temporarily asymmetric. For example, if you use duplexed groups
of online redo log files, you can drop one member of one group, even though all
other groups have two members each. However, you should rectify this
situation immediately so that all groups have at least two members, and
thereby eliminate the single point of failure possible for the online redo log.
■ An instance always requires at least two valid groups of online redo log files,
regardless of the number of members in the groups. (A group is one or more
members.) If the member you want to drop is the last valid member of the
group, you cannot drop the member until the other members become valid; to
see a redo log file’s status, use the V$LOGFILE view. A redo log file becomes
INVALID if Oracle cannot access it. It becomes STALE if Oracle suspects that it
is not complete or correct; a stale log file becomes valid again the next time its
group is made the active group.
■ You can drop an online redo log member only if it is not part of an active group.
If you want to drop a member of an active group, first force a log switch to
occur.
■ Make sure the group to which an online redo log member belongs is archived
(if archiving is enabled) before dropping the member. To see whether this has
happened, use the SQL*Plus ARCHIVE LOG command with the LIST
parameter.
To drop specific inactive online redo log members, use the SQL ALTER DATABASE
statement with the DROP LOGFILE MEMBER clause.
The following statement drops the redo log /oracle/dbs/log3c.rdo:

Managing the Online Redo Log 6-15

Forcing Log Switches

ALTER DATABASE DROP LOGFILE MEMBER ’/oracle/dbs/log3c.rdo’;

When an online redo log member is dropped from the database, the operating
system file is not deleted from disk. Rather, the control files of the associated
database are updated to drop the member from the database structure. After
dropping an online redo log file, make sure that the drop completed successfully,
and then use the appropriate operating system command to delete the dropped
online redo log file.
See Also: For information on dropping a member of an active group, see "Forcing
Log Switches" on page 6-16.
For more information about SQL*Plus command syntax, see the SQL*Plus User’s
Guide and Reference.

Forcing Log Switches

A log switch occurs when LGWR stops writing to one online redo log group and
starts writing to another. By default, a log switch occurs automatically when the
current online redo log file group fills.
You can force a log switch to make the currently active group inactive and available
for online redo log maintenance operations. For example, you want to drop the
currently active group, but are not able to do so until the group is inactive. You may
also wish to force a log switch if the currently active group needs to be archived at a
specific time before the members of the group are completely filled; this option is
useful in configurations with large online redo log files that take a long time to fill.
To force a log switch, you must have the ALTER SYSTEM privilege. To force a log switch, use
either the SQL statement ALTER SYSTEM with the SWITCH LOGFILE option.
The following statement forces a log switch:
ALTER SYSTEM SWITCH LOGFILE;

See Also: For information on forcing log switches with the Oracle Parallel Server,
see Oracle8i Parallel Server Concepts and Administration.

Verifying Blocks in Redo Log Files

You can configure Oracle to use checksums to verify blocks in the redo log files. Set
the initialization parameter LOG_BLOCK_CHECKSUM to TRUE to enable redo log
block checking. The default value of LOG_BLOCK_CHECKSUM is FALSE.

6-16 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Clearing an Online Redo Log File

If you enable redo log block checking, Oracle computes a checksum for each redo log
block written to the current log. Oracle writes the checksums in the header of the
block.
Oracle uses the checksum to detect corruption in a redo log block. Oracle tries to
verify the redo log block when it writes the block to an archive log file and when the
block is read from an archived log during recovery.
If Oracle detects a corruption in a redo log block while trying to archive it, the
system tries to read the block from another member in the group. If the block is
corrupted in all members the redo log group, then archiving cannot proceed.

Clearing an Online Redo Log File

If you have enabled redo log block checking, Oracle verifies each block before
archiving it. If a particular redo log block is corrupted in all members of a group,
archiving stops. Eventually all the redo logs become filled and database activity is
halted until archiving can resume.
In this situation, use the SQL statement ALTER DATABASE ... CLEAR LOGFILE to
clear the corrupted redo logs and avoid archiving them. The cleared redo logs are
available for use even though they were not archived.
The following statement clears the log files in redo log group number 3:
ALTER DATABASE CLEAR UNARCHIVED LOGFILE GROUP 3;

Restrictions
You can clear a redo log file whether it is archived or not. When it is not archived,
however, you must include the keyword UNARCHIVED in your ALTER
DATABASE CLEAR LOGFILE statement.
If you clear a log file that is needed for recovery of a backup, then you can no longer
recover from that backup. Oracle writes a message in the alert log describing the
backups from which you cannot recover.

Note: If you clear an unarchived redo log file, you should make
another backup of the database.

If you want to clear an unarchived redo log that is needed to bring an offline
tablespace online, use the clause UNRECOVERABLE DATAFILE in the ALTER
DATABASE CLEAR LOGFILE statement.

Managing the Online Redo Log 6-17

Listing Information about the Online Redo Log

If you clear a redo log needed to bring an offline tablespace online, you will not be
able to bring the tablespace online again. You will have to drop the tablespace or
perform an incomplete recovery. Note that tablespaces taken offline normal do not
require recovery.
See Also: For a complete description of the ALTER DATABASE statement, see the
Oracle8i SQL Reference.

Listing Information about the Online Redo Log

Use the V$LOG, V$LOGFILE, and V$THREAD views to see information about the
online redo log of a database; the V$THREAD view is of particular interest for
Parallel Server administrators.
The following query returns information about the online redo log of a database
used without the Parallel Server:
SELECT group#, bytes, members FROM sys.v$log;

GROUP# BYTES MEMBERS

---------- ---------- ----------
1 81920 2
2 81920 2

To see the names of all of the member of a group, use a query similar to the
following:
SELECT * FROM sys.v$logfile
WHERE group# = 2;

GROUP# STATUS MEMBER

---------- ---------- ---------
2 LOG2A
2 STALE LOG2B
2 LOG2C

If STATUS is blank for a member, then the file is in use.

6-18 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 7
Managing Archived Redo Logs

This chapter describes how to archive redo data. It includes the following topics:
■ What Is the Archived Redo Log?
■ Choosing Between NOARCHIVELOG and ARCHIVELOG Mode
■ Turning Archiving On and Off
■ Specifying the Archive Destination
■ Specifying the Mode of Log Transmission
■ Managing Archive Destination Failure
■ Tuning Archive Performance
■ Displaying Archived Redo Log Information
■ Using LogMiner to Analyze Online and Archived Redo Logs
See Also: If you are using Oracle with the Parallel Server, see Oracle8i Parallel Server
Concepts and Administration for additional information about archiving in the OPS
environment.

Managing Archived Redo Logs 7-1

What Is the Archived Redo Log?

What Is the Archived Redo Log?

Oracle allows you to save filled groups of online redo log files, known as archived
redo logs, to one or more offline destinations. Archiving is the process of turning
online redo logs into archived redo logs. The background process ARCn automates
archiving operations. You can use archived logs to:
■ Recover a database.
■ Update a standby database.
■ Gain information about the history of a database via the LogMiner utility.
An archived redo log file is a copy of one of the identical filled members of an
online redo log group: it includes the redo entries present in the identical members
of a group and also preserves the group’s unique log sequence number. For
example, if you are multiplexing your online redo logs, and if Group 1 contains
member files A_LOG1 and B_LOG1, then ARCn will archive one of these identical
members. Should A_LOG1 become corrupted, then ARCn can still archive the
identical B_LOG1.
If you enable archiving, LGWR is not allowed to re-use and hence overwrite an
online redo log group until it has been archived. Therefore, the archived redo log
contains a copy of every group created since you enabled archiving. Figure 7–1
shows how ARCn archives redo logs:

7-2 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 What Is the Archived Redo Log?

Figure 7–1 Archival of online redo logs

LGWR

LOG1 LOG2 LOG3 LOG4 LOG5

(inactive) (inactive) (inactive) (inactive) (active)

ARC0 ARC1 ARC2

Destination
1

Destination
2

WARNING: Oracle recommends that you do not copy a current

online log. If you do, and then restore that copy, the copy will
appear at the end of the redo thread. Since additional redo may
have been generated in the thread, when you attempt to execute
recovery by supplying the redo log copy, recovery will
erroneously detect the end of the redo thread and prematurely
terminate, possibly corrupting the database. The best way to back
up the contents of the current online log is always to archive it,
then back up the archived log.

Managing Archived Redo Logs 7-3

Choosing Between NOARCHIVELOG and ARCHIVELOG Mode

Choosing Between NOARCHIVELOG and ARCHIVELOG Mode

This section describes the issues you must consider when choosing to run your
database in NOARCHIVELOG or ARCHIVELOG mode, and includes the following
topics:
■ Running a Database in NOARCHIVELOG Mode
■ Running a Database in ARCHIVELOG Mode

Running a Database in NOARCHIVELOG Mode

When you run your database in NOARCHIVELOG mode, you disable the archiving
of the online redo log. The database’s control file indicates that filled groups are not
required to be archived. Therefore, when a filled group becomes inactive after a log
switch, the group is available for reuse by LGWR.
The choice of whether to enable the archiving of filled groups of online redo log
files depends on the availability and reliability requirements of the application
running on the database. If you cannot afford to lose any data in your database in
the event of a disk failure, use ARCHIVELOG mode. Note that the archiving of
filled online redo log files can require you to perform extra administrative
operations.
NOARCHIVELOG mode protects a database only from instance failure, but not
from media failure. Only the most recent changes made to the database, which are
stored in the groups of the online redo log, are available for instance recovery. In
other words, if you are using NOARCHIVELOG mode, you can only restore (not
recover) the database to the point of the most recent full database backup. You
cannot recover subsequent transactions.
Also, in NOARCHIVELOG mode you cannot perform online tablespace backups.
Furthermore, you cannot use online tablespace backups previously taken while the
database operated in ARCHIVELOG mode. You can only use whole database
backups taken while the database is closed to restore a database operating in
NOARCHIVELOG mode. Therefore, if you decide to operate a database in
NOARCHIVELOG mode, take whole database backups at regular, frequent
intervals.

Running a Database in ARCHIVELOG Mode

When you run a database in ARCHIVELOG mode, you enable the archiving of the
online redo log. The database control file indicates that a group of filled online redo

7-4 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Choosing Between NOARCHIVELOG and ARCHIVELOG Mode

log files cannot be used by LGWR until the group is archived. A filled group is
immediately available for archiving after a redo log switch occurs.
The archiving of filled groups has these advantages:
■ A database backup, together with online and archived redo log files, guarantees
that you can recover all committed transactions in the event of an operating
system or disk failure.
■ You can use a backup taken while the database is open and in normal system
use if you keep an archived log.
■ You can keep a standby database current with its original database by
continually applying the original’s archived redo logs to the standby.
Decide how you plan to archive filled groups of the online redo log. You can
configure an instance to archive filled online redo log files automatically, or you can
archive manually. For convenience and efficiency, automatic archiving is usually
best. Figure 7–2 illustrate how the process archiving the filled groups (ARCn in this
illustration) generates the database’s online redo log.

Managing Archived Redo Logs 7-5

Choosing Between NOARCHIVELOG and ARCHIVELOG Mode

Figure 7–2 Online Redo Log File Use in ARCHIVELOG Mode

0001
0001 Archived
Redo Log
0001 0002
0002 Files
0001

0001 0002
0002 0003
0003

ARCH ARCH ARCH

LGWR LGWR LGWR LGWR

Online
Log Log Log Log Redo Log
0001 0002 0003 0004 Files

TIME

Distributed Database Recovery If all databases in a distributed database operate in

ARCHIVELOG mode, you can perform coordinated distributed database recovery.
If any database in a distributed database uses NOARCHIVELOG mode, however,
recovery of a global distributed database (to make all databases consistent) is
limited by the last full backup of any database operating in NOARCHIVELOG
mode.
See Also: You can also configure Oracle to verify redo log blocks when they are
archived. For more information, see "Verifying Blocks in Redo Log Files" on
page 6-16.

7-6 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Turning Archiving On and Off

Turning Archiving On and Off

This section describes aspects of archiving, and includes the following topics:
■ Setting the Initial Database Archiving Mode
■ Changing the Database Archiving Mode
■ Enabling Automatic Archiving
■ Disabling Automatic Archiving
■ Performing Manual Archiving
See Also: If a database is automatically created during Oracle installation, the initial
archiving mode of the database is operating system specific. See your operating
system-specific Oracle documentation.

Setting the Initial Database Archiving Mode

You set a database’s initial archiving mode as part of database creation in the
CREATE DATABASE statement. Usually, you can use the default of
NOARCHIVELOG mode at database creation because there is no need to archive
the redo information generated then. After creating the database, decide whether to
change from the initial archiving mode.

Changing the Database Archiving Mode

To switch a database’s archiving mode between NOARCHIVELOG and
ARCHIVELOG mode, use the SQL statement ALTER DATABASE with the
ARCHIVELOG or NOARCHIVELOG option. The following statement switches the
database’s archiving mode from NOARCHIVELOG to ARCHIVELOG:
ALTER DATABASE ARCHIVELOG;

Before switching the database’s archiving mode, perform the following operations:
1. Shut down the database instance.
An open database must be closed and dismounted and any associated instances
shut down before you can switch the database’s archiving mode. You cannot
disable archiving if any datafiles need media recovery.
2. Back up the database.
Before making any major change to a database, always back up the database to
protect against any problems.

Managing Archived Redo Logs 7-7

Turning Archiving On and Off

3. Start a new instance and mount but do not open the database.
To enable or disable archiving, the database must be mounted but not open.

Note: If you are using the Oracle Parallel Server, you must mount
the database exclusively, using one instance, to switch the
database’s archiving mode.

4. Switch the database’s archiving mode.

After using the ALTER DATABASE command to switch a database’s archiving
mode, open the database for normal operation. If you switched to ARCHIVELOG
mode, you should also set the archiving options—decide whether to enable Oracle
to archive groups of online redo log files automatically as they fill.
If you want to archive filled groups, you may have to execute some additional
steps, depending on your operating system; see your O/S-specific Oracle
documentation for details for your system.
See Also: See Oracle8i Parallel Server Concepts and Administration for more
information about switching the archiving mode when using the Oracle Parallel
Server.

Enabling Automatic Archiving

If your operating system permits, you can enable automatic archiving of the online
redo log. Under this option, no action is required to copy a group after it fills; Oracle
automatically archives it. For this convenience alone, automatic archiving is the
method of choice for archiving.
You can enable automatic archiving before or after instance startup. To enable
automatic archiving after instance startup, you must be connected to Oracle with
administrator privileges.

WARNING: Oracle does not automatically archive log files

unless the database is also in ARCHIVELOG mode.

See Also: Always specify an archived redo log destination and filename format
when enabling automatic archiving; see "Specifying Archive Destinations" on
page 7-11. If automatic archiving is enabled, you can still perform manual archiving;
see "Performing Manual Archiving" on page 7-10.

7-8 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Turning Archiving On and Off

Enabling Automatic Archiving at Instance Startup

To enable automatic archiving of filled groups each time an instance is started,
include the initialization parameter LOG_ARCHIVE_START parameter in the
database’s parameter file and set it to TRUE:
LOG_ARCHIVE_START=TRUE

The new value takes effect the next time you start the database.

Enabling Automatic Archiving After Instance Startup

To enable automatic archiving of filled online redo log groups without shutting
down the current instance, use the SQL statement ALTER SYSTEM with the
ARCHIVE LOG START parameter; you can optionally include the archiving
destination.
ALTER SYSTEM ARCHIVE LOG START;

If you use the ALTER SYSTEM method, you do not need to shut down the instance
to enable automatic archiving. If an instance is shut down and restarted after
automatic archiving is enabled, however, the instance is reinitialized using the
settings of the parameter file, which may or may not enable automatic archiving.

Disabling Automatic Archiving

You can disable automatic archiving of the online redo log groups at any time. Once
you disable automatic archiving, however, you must manually archive groups of
online redo log files in a timely fashion. If you run a database in ARCHIVELOG
mode and disable automatic archiving, and if all groups of online redo log files are
filled but not archived, then LGWR cannot reuse any inactive groups of online redo
log groups to continue writing redo log entries. Therefore, database operation is
temporarily suspended until you perform the necessary archiving.
You can disable automatic archiving at or after instance startup. To disable
automatic archiving after instance startup, you must be connected with
administrator privilege and have the ALTER SYSTEM privilege.

Disabling Automatic Archiving at Instance Startup

To disable the automatic archiving of filled online redo log groups each time a
database instance is started, set the LOG_ARCHIVE_START parameter of a
database’s parameter file to FALSE:
LOG_ARCHIVE_START=FALSE

Managing Archived Redo Logs 7-9

Turning Archiving On and Off

The new value takes effect the next time the database is started.

Disabling Automatic Archiving after Instance Startup

To disable the automatic archiving of filled online redo log groups without shutting
down the current instance, use the SQL statement ALTER SYSTEM with the
ARCHIVE LOG STOP parameter. The following statement stops archiving:
ALTER SYSTEM ARCHIVE LOG STOP;

If ARCn is archiving a redo log group when you attempt to disable automatic
archiving, ARCn finishes archiving the current group, but does not begin archiving
the next filled online redo log group.
The instance does not have to be shut down to disable automatic archiving. If an
instance is shut down and restarted after automatic archiving is disabled, however,
the instance is reinitialized using the settings of the parameter file, which may or
may not enable automatic archiving.

Performing Manual Archiving

If you operate your database in ARCHIVELOG mode, then you must archive
inactive groups of filled online redo log files. You can manually archive groups of
the online redo log whether or not automatic archiving is enabled:
■ If automatic archiving is not enabled, then you must manually archive groups
of filled online redo log files in a timely fashion. If all online redo log groups are
filled but not archived, LGWR cannot reuse any inactive groups of online redo
log members to continue writing redo log entries. Therefore, database operation
is temporarily suspended until the necessary archiving is performed.
■ If automatic archiving is enabled, but you want to rearchive an inactive group
of filled online redo log members to another location, you can use manual
archiving. Note that the instance can decide to reuse the redo log group before
you have finished manually archiving, and thereby overwrite the files; if this
happens, Oracle will put an error message in the ALERT file.
To archive a filled online redo log group manually, connect with administrator
privileges. Use the SQL statement ALTER SYSTEM with the ARCHIVE LOG clause
to manually archive filled online redo log files. The following statement archives all
unarchived log files:
ALTER SYSTEM ARCHIVE LOG ALL;

7-10 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Specifying the Archive Destination

See Also: With both manual or automatic archiving, you need to specify a thread
only when you are using the Oracle Parallel Server. See Oracle8i Parallel Server
Concepts and Administration for more information.

Specifying the Archive Destination

When archiving redo logs, determine the destination to which you will archive. You
should familiarize yourself with the various destination states as well as the
practice of using fixed views to access archive information.

Specifying Archive Destinations

You must decide whether to make a single destination for the logs or multiplex them,
i.e., archive the logs to more than one location.
Specify the number of locations for your primary database archived logs by setting
the following initialization parameters:

Parameter Host Example

LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_n Remote LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_1 = ’LOCATION =
(where n is an integer from 1 to 5) or local /disk1/arc’
LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_2 = ’SERVICE =
standby1’
LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST and Local LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST = /oracle/arc
LOG_ARCHIVE_DUPLEX_DEST only
LOG_ARCHIVE_DUPLEX_DEST = /bak

The first method is to use the LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_n parameter (where n is an

integer from 1 to 5) to specify from one to five different destinations for archival.
Each numerically-suffixed parameter uniquely identifies an individual destination,
For example, LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_1, LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_2, and so on.
Specify the location for LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_n using these keywords:

Keyword Indicates Example

LOCATION A local filesystem LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_1= 'LOCATION=/arc'
location.
SERVICE Remote archival via LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_2 = 'SERVICE=standby1'
Net8 service name.

Managing Archived Redo Logs 7-11

Specifying the Archive Destination

If you use the LOCATION keyword, specify a valid pathname for your operating
system. If you specify SERVICE, Oracle translates the net service name through the
tnsnames.ora file to a connect descriptor. The descriptor contains the information
necessary for connecting to the remote database. Note that the service name must
have an associated database SID, so that Oracle correctly updates the log history of
the control file for the standby database.
The second method, which allows you to specify a maximum of two locations, is to
use the LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST parameter to specify a primary archive destination
and the LOG_ARCHIVE_DUPLEX_DEST to determine an optional secondary
location. Whenever Oracle archives a redo log, it archives it to every destination
specified by either set of parameters.

To Set the Destination for Archived Redo Logs Using LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_n:

1. Use SQL*Plus to shut down the database.
SHUTDOWN IMMEDIATE;

2. Edit the LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_n parameter to specify from one to five

archiving locations. The LOCATION keyword specifies an O/S-specific
pathname. For example, enter:
LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_1 = ’LOCATION = /disk1/archive’
LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_2 = ’LOCATION = /disk2/archive’
LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_3 = ’LOCATION = /disk3/archive’

If you are archiving to a standby database, use the SERVICE keyword to specify
a valid net service name from the tnsnames.ora file. For example, enter:
LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_4 = ’SERVICE = standby1’

3. Edit the LOG_ARCHIVE_FORMAT parameter, using %s to include the log

sequence number as part of the filename and %t to include the thread number.
Use capital letters (%S and %T) to pad the filename to the left with zeroes. For
example, enter:
LOG_ARCHIVE_FORMAT = arch%s.arc

For example, the above settings will generate archived logs as follows for log
sequence numbers 100, 101, and 102:
/disk1/archive/arch100.arc, /disk1/archive/arch101.arc, /disk1/archive/arch102.arc
/disk2/archive/arch100.arc, /disk2/archive/arch101.arc, /disk2/archive/arch102.arc
/disk3/archive/arch100.arc, /disk3/archive/arch101.arc, /disk3/archive/arch102.arc

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 Specifying the Archive Destination

To Set the Destination for Archived Redo Logs Using LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST and
LOG_ARCHIVE_DUPLEX_DEST:
1. Use SQL*Plus to shut down the database.
SHUTDOWN IMMEDIATE;

2. Specify destinations for the LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST and

LOG_ARCHIVE_DUPLEX_DEST parameter (you can also specify
LOG_ARCHIVE_DUPLEX_DEST dynamically using the ALTER SYSTEM
command). For example, enter:
LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST = ’/disk1/archive’
LOG_ARCHIVE_DUPLEX_DEST = ’/disk2/archive’

3. Edit the LOG_ARCHIVE_FORMAT parameter, using %s to include the log

sequence number as part of the filename and %t to include the thread number.
Use capital letters (%S and %T) to pad the filename to the left with zeroes. For
example, enter:
LOG_ARCHIVE_FORMAT = arch_%t_%s.arc

For example, the above settings will generate archived logs as follows for log
sequence numbers 100 and 101 in thread 1:
/disk1/archive/arch_1_100.arc, /disk1/archive/arch_1_101.arc
/disk2/archive/arch_1_100.arc, /disk2/archive/arch_1_100.arc

See Also: For more information about archiving to standby databases, see Oracle8i
Backup and Recovery Guide.

Understanding Archive Destination States

The LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_STATE_n (where n is an integer from 1 to 5) parameter
identifies the status of the specified destination. The destination parameters can
have two values: ENABLE and DEFER. ENABLE indicates that Oracle can use the
destination, whereas DEFER indicates that it should not.
Each archive destination has three variable characteristics:
■ Valid/Invalid, which indicates whether the disk location or service name
information is specified.
■ Enabled/Disabled, which indicates whether Oracle should use the destination
information.

Managing Archived Redo Logs 7-13

Specifying the Mode of Log Transmission

■ Active/Inactive, which indicates whether there was a problem accessing the

destination.
Several destination states are possible. Obtain the current destination status
information for each instance by querying the V$ARCHIVE_DEST view. You will
access the most recently entered parameter definition—which does not necessarily
contain the complete archive destination data.
The status information that appears in the view is shown in Table 7–1:

Table 7–1 Destination States

VALID ENABLED ACTIVE State Meaning
FALSE N/A N/A INACTIVE The user has not provided or
has deleted the destination
information.
TRUE TRUE TRUE VALID The user has properly
initialized the destination,
which is available for
archiving.
TRUE TRUE FALSE ERROR An error occurred creating or
writing to the destination file;
refer to error data.
TRUE FALSE TRUE DEFERRED The user manually and
temporarily disabled the
destination.
TRUE FALSE FALSE DISABLED The user manually and
temporarily disabled the
destination following an error;
refer to error data.
N/A N/A N/A BAD A parameter error occurred;
PARAM refer to error data. Usually this
state is only seen when
LOG_ARCHIVE_START is not
set.

See Also: For detailed information about V$ARCHIVE_DEST as well as the archive
destination parameters, see the Oracle8i Reference.

Specifying the Mode of Log Transmission

There are two modes of transmitting archived logs to their destination: normal
archiving transmission and standby transmission mode. Normal transmission involves

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 Specifying the Mode of Log Transmission

transmitting files to a local disk. Standby transmission involves transmitting files

via a network to either a local or remote standby database.

Normal Transmission Mode

In normal transmission mode, the archiving destination is another disk drive of the
database server, since in this configuration archiving does not contend with other
files required by the instance and completes quickly so the group can become
available to LGWR. Specify the destination with either the
LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_n or LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST parameters.
Ideally, you should permanently move archived redo log files and corresponding
database backups from the local disk to inexpensive offline storage media such as
tape. Because a primary value of archived logs is database recovery, you want to
ensure that these logs are safe should disaster strike your primary database.

Standby Transmission Mode

In standby transmission mode, the archiving destination is either a local or remote
standby database.

WARNING: You can maintain a standby database on a local disk,

but Oracle strongly encourages you to maximize disaster
protection by maintaining your standby database at a remote site.

If you are operating your standby database in managed recovery mode, you can keep
your standby database in sync with your source database by automatically
applying transmitted archive logs.
To transmit files successfully to a standby database, either ARCn or a server process
must do the following:
■ Recognize a remote location.
■ Transmit the archived logs by means of a remote file server (RFS) process.
Each ARCn process creates a corresponding RFS for each standby destination. For
example, if three ARCn processes are archiving to two standby databases, then
Oracle establishes six RFS connections.
You can transmit archived logs through a network to a remote location by using
Net8. Indicate a remote archival by specifying a Net8 service name as an attribute of
the destination. Oracle then translates the service name, which you set by means of

Managing Archived Redo Logs 7-15

Managing Archive Destination Failure

the SERVICE_NAME parameter, through the tnsnames.ora file to a connect

descriptor. The descriptor contains the information necessary for connecting to the
remote database. Note that the service name must have an associated database SID,
so that Oracle correctly updates the log history of the control file for the standby
database.
The RFS process, which runs on the destination node, acts as a network server to
the ARCn client. Essentially, ARCn pushes information to RFS, which transmits it to
the standby database.
The RFS process, which is required when archiving to a remote destination, is
responsible for the following tasks:
■ Consuming network I/O from the ARCn process.
■ Creating file names on the standby database by using the
STANDBY_ARCHIVE_DEST parameter.
■ Populating the log files at the remote site.
■ Updating the standby database’s control file (which Recovery Manager can
then use for recovery).
Archived redo logs are integral to maintaining a standby database, which is an exact
replica of a database. You can operate your database in standby archiving mode,
which automatically updates a standby database with archived redo logs from the
original database.
See Also: For a detailed description of standby databases, see the relevant chapter
in the Oracle8i Backup and Recovery Guide.
For information about Net8, see the Net8 Administrator’s Guide.

Managing Archive Destination Failure

Sometimes archive destinations can fail, which can obviously cause problems when
you operate in automatic archiving mode. To minimize the problems associated
with destination failure, Oracle8i allows you to specify:
■ The minimum number of destinations to which Oracle must successfully
archive.
■ When and how often ARCn attempts to re-archive to a failed destination.

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 Managing Archive Destination Failure

Specifying the Minimum Number of Successful Destinations

The optional parameter LOG_ARCHIVE_MIN_SUCCEED_DEST=n (where n is an
integer from 1 to 5) determines the minimum number of destinations to which
Oracle must successfully archive a redo log group before it can reuse online log
files. The default value is 1.

Specifying Mandatory and Optional Destinations

Using the LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_n parameter, you can specify whether a
destination has the attributes OPTIONAL (default) or MANDATORY. The
LOG_ARCHIVE_MIN_SUCCEED_DEST=n parameter uses all MANDATORY
destinations plus some number of OPTIONAL non-standby destinations to
determine whether LGWR can over-write the online log.
When determining whether how to set your parameters, note that:
■ Not specifying MANDATORY for a destination is the same as specifying
OPTIONAL.
■ You must have at least one local destination, which you can declare OPTIONAL
or MANDATORY.
■ When using LOG_ARCHIVE_MIN_SUCCEED_DEST=n at least one local
destination will operationally be treated as MANDATORY, since the minimum
value for LOG_ARCHIVE_MIN_SUCCEED_DEST is 1.
■ The failure of any MANDATORY destination, including a MANDATORY
standby destination, makes the LOG_ARCHIVE_MIN_SUCCEED_DEST
parameter irrelevant.
■ The LOG_ARCHIVE_MIN_SUCCEED_DEST value cannot be greater than the
number of destinations, nor greater than the number of MANDATORY
destinations plus the number of OPTIONAL local destinations.
■ If you DEFER a MANDATORY destination, and Oracle overwrites the online
log without transferring the archived log to the standby site, then you must
transfer the log to the standby manually.
If you wish, you can also determine whether destinations are mandatory or
optional by using the LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST and LOG_ARCHIVE_DUPLEX_DEST
parameters. Note the following rules:
■ Any destination declared via LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST is mandatory.

Managing Archived Redo Logs 7-17

Managing Archive Destination Failure

■ Any destination declared via LOG_ARCHIVE_DUPLEX_DEST is optional if

LOG_ARCHIVE_MIN_SUCCEED_DEST = 1 and mandatory if
LOG_ARCHIVE_MIN_SUCCEED_DEST = 2.

Sample Scenarios
You can see the relationship between the LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_n and
LOG_ARCHIVE_MIN_SUCCEED_DEST parameters most easily through sample
scenarios. In example 1, you archive to three local destinations, each of which you
declare as OPTIONAL. Table 7–2 illustrates the possible values for
LOG_ARCHIVE_MIN_SUCCEED_DEST=n in our example.

Table 7–2 LOG_ARCHIVE_MIN_SUCCEED_DEST Values for Example 1

Value Meaning
1 Oracle can reuse log files only if at least one of the OPTIONAL destinations
succeeds.
2 Oracle can reuse log files only if at least two of the OPTIONAL destinations
succeed.
3 Oracle can reuse log files only if all of the OPTIONAL destinations succeed.
4 ERROR: The value is greater than the number of destinations.
5 ERROR: The value is greater than the number of destinations.

This example shows that even though you do not explicitly set any of your
destinations to MANDATORY using the LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_n parameter,
Oracle must successfully archive to these locations when
LOG_ARCHIVE_MIN_SUCCEED_DEST is set to 1, 2, or 3.
In example 2, consider a case in which:
■ You specify two MANDATORY destinations.
■ You specify two OPTIONAL destinations.
■ No destination is a standby database.

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 Managing Archive Destination Failure

Table 7–3 shows the possible values for LOG_ARCHIVE_MIN_SUCCEED_DEST=n:

Table 7–3 LOG_ARCHIVE_MIN_SUCCEED_DEST Values for Example 2

Value Meaning
1 Oracle ignores the value and uses the number of MANDATORY destinations
(in this example, 2).
2 Oracle can reuse log files even if no OPTIONAL destination succeeds.
3 Oracle can reuse logs only if at least one OPTIONAL destination succeeds.
4 Oracle can reuse logs only if both OPTIONAL destinations succeed.
5 ERROR: The value is greater than the number of destinations.

This example shows that Oracle must archive to the destinations you specify as
MANDATORY, regardless of whether you set
LOG_ARCHIVE_MIN_SUCCEED_DEST to archive to a smaller number.
See Also: For additional information about
LOG_ARCHIVE_MIN_SUCCEED_DEST=n or any other parameters that relate to
archiving, see the Oracle8i Reference.

Re-Archiving to a Failed Destination

Use the REOPEN attribute of the LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_n parameter to determine
whether and when ARCn attempts to re-archive to a failed destination following an
error. REOPEN applies to all errors, not just OPEN errors.
REOPEN=n sets the minimum number of seconds before ARCn should try to
reopen a failed destination. The default value for n is 300 seconds. A value of 0 is
the same as turning off the REOPEN option, in other words, ARCn will not attempt
to archive after a failure. If you do not specify the REOPEN keyword, ARCn will
never reopen a destination following an error.
You cannot use REOPEN to specify a limit on the number of attempts to reconnect
and transfer archived logs. The REOPEN attempt either succeeds or fails, in which
case the REOPEN information is reset.
If you specify REOPEN for an OPTIONAL destination, Oracle can overwrite online
logs if there is an error. If you specify REOPEN for a MANDATORY destination,
Oracle stalls the production database when it cannot successfully archive. This
scenario requires you to:
■ Archive manually to the failed destination.

Managing Archived Redo Logs 7-19

Tuning Archive Performance

■ Change the destination by deferring the destination, specifying the destination

as optional, or changing the service.
■ Drop the destination.
When using the REOPEN keyword, note that:
■ ARCn reopens a destination only when starting an archive operation from the
beginning of the log file, never during a current operation. ARCn always retries
the log copy from the beginning.
■ If a REOPEN time was specified or defaulted, ARCn checks to see whether the
time of the recorded error plus the REOPEN interval is less than the current
time. If it is, ARCn retries the log copy.
■ The REOPEN clause successfully affects the ACTIVE=TRUE destination state;
the VALID and ENABLED states are not changed.

Tuning Archive Performance

For most databases, ARCn has no effect on overall system performance. On some
large database sites, however, archiving can have an impact on system performance.
On one hand, if ARCn works very quickly, overall system performance can be
reduced while ARCn runs, since CPU cycles are being consumed in archiving. On
the other hand, if ARCn runs extremely slowly, it has little detrimental effect on
system performance, but it takes longer to archive redo log files, and can create a
bottleneck if all redo log groups are unavailable because they are waiting to be
archived.
Use the following methods to tune archiving:
■ Specifying Multiple ARCn Processes
■ Setting Archive Buffer Parameters
See Also: For more information about tuning a database, see Oracle8i Tuning.

Specifying Multiple ARCn Processes

Specify up to ten ARCn processes for each database instance. Enable the multiple
processing feature at startup or at runtime by setting the parameter
LOG_ARCHIVE_MAX_PROCESSES=n (where n is any integer from 1 to 10). By
default, the parameter is set to 0.
Because LGWR automatically increases the number of ARCn processes should the
current number be insufficient to handle the current workload, the parameter is

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 Tuning Archive Performance

intended to allow you to specify the initial number of ARCn processes or to increase
or decrease the current number.
Creating multiple processes is especially useful when you:
■ Use more than two online redo logs.
■ Archive to more than one destination.
Multiple ARCn processing prevents the bottleneck that occurs when LGWR
switches through the multiple online redo logs faster than a single ARCn process
can write inactive logs to multiple destinations. Note that each ARCn process works
on only one inactive log at a time, but must archive to each specified destination.
For example, if you maintain five online redo log files, then you may decide to start
the instance using three ARCn processes. As LGWR actively writes to one of the log
files, the ARCn processes can simultaneously archive up to three of the inactive log
files to various destinations. As Figure illustrates, each instance of ARCn assumes
responsibility for a single log file and archives it to all of the defined destinations.

Managing Archived Redo Logs 7-21

Tuning Archive Performance

Figure 7–3 Using Multiple Arch Processes

LGWR

LOG1 LOG2 LOG3 LOG4 LOG5

(inactive) (inactive) (inactive) (inactive) (active)

ARC0 ARC1 ARC2

Destination
1

Destination
2

Setting Archive Buffer Parameters

This section describes aspects of using the archive buffer initialization parameters
for tuning, and includes the following topics:
■ Minimizing the Impact on System Performance
■ Improving Archiving Speed
You can tune archiving to cause it to run either as slowly as possible without being
a bottleneck or as quickly as possible without reducing system performance
substantially. To do so, adjust the values of the initialization parameters
LOG_ARCHIVE_BUFFERS (the number of buffers allocated to archiving) and
LOG_ARCHIVE_BUFFER_SIZE (the size of each such buffer).

Note: When you change the value of LOG_ARCHIVE_BUFFERS

or LOG_ARCHIVE_BUFFER_SIZE, the new value takes effect the
next time you start the instance.

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 Displaying Archived Redo Log Information

Minimizing the Impact on System Performance

To make ARCn work as slowly as possible without forcing the system to wait for
redo logs, begin by setting the number of archive buffers
(LOG_ARCHIVE_BUFFERS) to 1 and the size of each buffer
(LOG_ARCHIVE_BUFFER_SIZE) to the maximum possible.
If the performance of the system drops significantly while ARCn is working, make
the value of LOG_ARCHIVE_BUFFER_SIZE lower until system performance is no
longer reduced when ARCn runs.

Note: If you want to set archiving to be very slow, but find that
Oracle frequently has to wait for redo log files to be archived before
they can be reused, you can create additional redo log file groups.
Adding groups can ensure that a group is always available for
Oracle to use.

Improving Archiving Speed

To improve archiving performance, use multiple archive buffers to force the ARCn
process or processes to read the archive log at the same time that they write the
output log. You can set LOG_ARCHIVE_BUFFERS to 2, but for a very fast tape
drive you may want to set it to 3 or more. Then,set the size of the archive buffers to
a moderate number, and increase it until archiving is as fast as you want it to be
without impairing system performance.
See Also: This maximum is operating system dependent; see your operating
system-specific Oracle documentation. For more information about the
LOG_ARCHIVE parameters, see the Oracle8i Reference.

Displaying Archived Redo Log Information

There are several fixed views that contain useful information about archived redo
logs.

Fixed View Description

V$DATABASE Identifies whether the database is in ARCHIVELOG or
NOARCHIVELOG mode.

Managing Archived Redo Logs 7-23

Displaying Archived Redo Log Information

Fixed View Description

V$ARCHIVED_LOG Displays historical archived log information from the
control file. If you use a recovery catalog, the
RC_ARCHIVED_LOG view contains similar
information.
V$ARCHIVE_DEST Describes the current instance, all archive destinations,
and the current value, mode, and status of these
destinations.
V$BACKUP_REDOLOG Contains information about any backups of archived
logs. If you use a recovery catalog, the
RC_BACKUP_REDOLOG contains similar
information.
V$LOG Displays all online redo log groups for the database
and indicates which need to be archived.
V$LOG_HISTORY Contains log history information such as which logs
have been archived and the SCN range for each
archived log.

For example, the following query displays which online redo log group requires
archiving:
SELECT group#, archived
FROM sys.v$log;

GROUP# ARC
---------- ---
1 YES
2 NO

To see the current archiving mode, query the V$DATABASE view:

SELECT log_mode FROM sys.v$database;

LOG_MODE
------------
NOARCHIVELOG

The SQL statement ARCHIVE LOG LIST also shows archiving information for the
connected instance:
ARCHIVE LOG LIST;

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 Using LogMiner to Analyze Online and Archived Redo Logs

Database log mode ARCHIVELOG

Automatic archival ENABLED
Archive destination destination
Oldest online log sequence 30
Next log sequence to archive 32
Current log sequence number 33

This display tells you all the necessary information regarding the archived redo log
settings for the current instance:
■ The database is currently operating in ARCHIVELOG mode.
■ Automatic archiving is enabled.
■ The destination of the archived redo log (operating system specific).
■ The oldest filled online redo log group has a sequence number of 30.
■ The next filled online redo log group to archive has a sequence number of 32.
■ The current online redo log file has a sequence number of 33.
You must archive all redo log groups with a sequence number equal to or greater
than the Next log sequence to archive, yet less than the Current log sequence number. For
example, the display above indicates that the online redo log group with sequence
number 32 needs to be archived.
See Also: For more information on the data dictionary views, see the Oracle8i
Reference.

Using LogMiner to Analyze Online and Archived Redo Logs

The Oracle utility LogMiner allows you to read information contained in online and
archived redo logs based on selection criteria. LogMiner’s fully relational SQL
interface provides direct access to a complete historical view of a database—without
forcing you to restore archived redo log files.
This section contains the following topics:
■ How Can You Use LogMiner?
■ Restrictions
■ Creating a Dictionary File
■ Specifying Redo Logs for Analysis
■ Using LogMiner

Managing Archived Redo Logs 7-25

Using LogMiner to Analyze Online and Archived Redo Logs

■ Using LogMiner: Scenarios

How Can You Use LogMiner?

LogMiner is especially useful for identifying and undoing logical corruption.
LogMiner processes redo log files, translating their contents into SQL statements
that represent the logical operations performed to the database. The
V$LOGMNR_CONTENTS view then lists the reconstructed SQL statements that
represent the original operations (SQL_REDO column) and the corresponding SQL
statement to undo the operations (SQL_UNDO column). Apply the SQL_UNDO
statements to roll back the original changes to the database.
Furthermore, you can use the V$LOGMNR_CONTENTS view to:
■ Determine when a logical corruption to the database may have begun,
pinpointing the time or SCN to which you need to perform incomplete
recovery.
■ Track changes to a specific table.
■ Track changes made by a specific user.
■ Map data access patterns.
■ Use archived data for tuning and capacity planning.
See Also: For more information about the LogMiner data dictionary views, see the
Oracle8i Reference.

Restrictions
LogMiner has the following usage and compatibility requirements. LogMiner only:
■ Runs in Oracle version 8.1 or later.
■ Analyzes redo log files from any version 8.0 or later database that uses the same
database character set and runs on the same hardware platform as the
analyzing instance.
■ Analyzes the contents of the redo log files completely with the aid of a
dictionary created by a PL/SQL package. The dictionary allows LogMiner to
translate internal object identifiers and data types to object name and external
data formats.
■ Obtains information about DML operations on conventional tables. It does not
support operations on:

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 Using LogMiner to Analyze Online and Archived Redo Logs

■ Index-organized tables
■ Clustered tables/indexes
■ Non-scalar data types
■ Chained rows

Creating a Dictionary File

LogMiner runs in an Oracle instance with the database either mounted or
unmounted. LogMiner uses a dictionary file, which is a special file that indicates the
database that created it as well as the time the file was created. The dictionary file is
not required, but is recommended.
Without a dictionary file, the equivalent SQL statements will use Oracle internal
object IDs for the object name and present column values as hex data. For example,
instead of the SQL statement:
INSERT INTO emp(name, salary) VALUES ('John Doe', 50000);

LogMiner will display:

insert into Object#2581(col#1, col#2) values (hextoraw('4a6f686e20446f65'),
hextoraw('c306'));"

Create a dictionary file by mounting a database and then extracting dictionary

information into an external file. You must create the dictionary file from the same
database that generated the log files you want to analyze. Once created, you can use
the dictionary file to analyze redo logs.
When creating the dictionary, specify the following:
■ DICTIONARY_FILENAME to name the dictionary file.
■ DICTIONARY_LOCATION to specify the location of the file.

To Create a Dictionary File on an Oracle8i Database:

1. Make sure to specify a directory for use by the PL/SQL procedure by setting
the init.ora parameter UTL_FILE_DIR. If you do not reference this
parameter, the procedure will fail. For example, set the following to use /
oracle/logs:
UTL_FILE_DIR = /oracle/logs

2. Use SQL*Plus to mount and then open the database whose files you want to
analyze. For example, enter:

Managing Archived Redo Logs 7-27

Using LogMiner to Analyze Online and Archived Redo Logs

STARTUP

3. Execute the PL/SQL procedure DBMS_LOGMNR_D.BUILD. Specify both a

filename for the dictionary and a directory pathname for the file. This
procedure creates the dictionary file, which you should use to analyze log files.
For example, enter the following to create file dictionary.ora in /oracle/
logs:
EXECUTE dbms_logmnr_d.build(
dictionary_filename =>'dictionary.ora',
dictionary_location => '/oracle/logs');

To Create a Dictionary File on an Oracle8 Database:

Although LogMiner only runs on databases of release 8.1 or higher, you can use it
to analyze redo logs from release 8.0 databases.
1. Use an O/S utility to copy the dbmslogmnrd.sql script, which is contained in
the $ORACLE_HOME/rdbms/admin directory on the Oracle8i database, to the
same directory in the Oracle8 database. For example, enter:
% cp /8.1/oracle/rdbms/admin/dbmslogmnrd.sql /8.0/oracle/rdbms/admin/dbmslogmnrd.sql

2. Use SQL*Plus to mount and then open the database whose files you want to
analyze. For example, enter:
STARTUP

3. Execute the copied dbmslogmnrd.sql script on the 8.0 database to create the
DBMS_LOGMNR_D package. For example, enter:
@dbmslogmnrd.sql

4. Specify a directory for use by the PL/SQL package by setting the init.ora
parameter UTL_FILE_DIR. If you do not reference this parameter, the
procedure will fail. For example, set the following to use /8.0/oracle/logs:
UTL_FILE_DIR = /8.0/oracle/logs

5. Execute the PL/SQL procedure DBMS_LOGMNR_D.BUILD. Specify both a

filename for the dictionary and a directory pathname for the file. This
procedure creates the dictionary file, which you should use to analyze log files.
For example, enter the following to create file dictionary.ora in /8.0/
oracle/logs:
EXECUTE dbms_logmnr_d.build(
dictionary_filename =>'dictionary.ora',
dictionary_location => '/8.0/oracle/logs');

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 Using LogMiner to Analyze Online and Archived Redo Logs

See Also: For information about DBMS_LOGMNR_D, see the Oracle8i Supplied
Packages Reference.

Specifying Redo Logs for Analysis

Once you have created a dictionary file, you can begin analyzing redo logs. Your
first step is to specify the log files that you want to analyze using the
ADD_LOGFILE procedure. Use the following constants:
■ NEW to create a new list.
■ ADDFILE to add redo logs to a list.
■ REMOVEFILE to remove redo logs from the list.

To Use the LogMiner:

1. Use SQL*Plus to start an Oracle instance, with the database either mounted or
unmounted. For example, enter:
startup

2. Create a list of logs by specifying the NEW option when executing the
DBMS_LOGMNR.ADD_LOGFILE procedure. For example, enter the following
to specify /oracle/logs/log1.f:
execute dbms_logmnr.add_logfile(
LogFileName => '/oracle/logs/log1.f',
Options => dbms_logmnr.NEW);

3. If desired, add more logs by specifying the ADDFILE option. For example,
enter the following to add /oracle/logs/log2.f:
execute dbms_logmnr.add_logfile(
LogFileName => '/oracle/logs/log2.f',
Options => dbms_logmnr.ADDFILE);

4. If desired, remove logs by specifying the REMOVEFILE option. For example,

enter the following to remove /oracle/logs/log2.f:
execute dbms_logmnr.add_logfile(
LogFileName => '/oracle/logs/log2.f',
Options => dbms_logmnr.REMOVEFILE);

See Also: For information about DBMS_LOGMNR, see the Oracle8i Supplied
Packages Reference.

Managing Archived Redo Logs 7-29

Using LogMiner to Analyze Online and Archived Redo Logs

Using LogMiner
Once you have created a dictionary file and specified which logs to analyze, you can
start LogMiner and begin your analysis. Use the following options to narrow the
range of your search at start time:

This option Specifies

StartScn The beginning of an SCN range.
EndScn The termination of an SCN range.
StartTime The beginning of a time interval.
EndTime The end of a time interval.
DictFileName The name of the dictionary file.

Once you have started LogMiner, you can make use of the following data dictionary
views for analysis:

This view Displays information about

V$LOGMNR_DICTIONARY The dictionary file in use.
V$LOGMNR_PARAMETERS Current parameter settings for the LogMiner.
V$LOGMNR_FILES Which redo log files are being analyzed.
V$LOGMNR_CONTENTS The contents of the redo log files being analyzed.

To Use the LogMiner:

1. Issue the DBMS_LOGMNR.START_LOGMNR procedure to start the LogMiner
utility. For example, to start LogMiner using /oracle/dictionary.ora,
issue:
execute dbms_logmnr.start_logmnr(
DictFileName =>'/oracle/dictionary.ora');

Optionally, set the StartTime and EndTime parameters to filter data by time.
Note that the procedure expects date values: use the TO_DATE function to
specify date and time, as in this example:
execute dbms_logmnr.start_logmnr(
DictFileName => ‘/oracle/dictionary.ora’,
StartTime => to_date(‘01-Jan-98 08:30:00’, 'DD-MON-YYYY HH:MI:SS')
EndTime => to_date('01-Jan-1998 08:45:00', 'DD-MON-YYYY HH:MI:SS'));

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 Using LogMiner to Analyze Online and Archived Redo Logs

Use the StartScn and EndScn parameters to filter data by SCN, as in this
example:
execute dbms_logmnr.start_logmnr(
DictFileName => '/oracle/dictionary.ora',
StartScn => 100,
EndScn => 150);

2. View the output via the V$LOGMNR_CONTENTS table. LogMiner returns all
rows in SCN order, which is the same order applied in media recovery. For
example, the following query lists information about operations:

SELECT operation, sql_redo FROM v$logmnr_contents;

OPERATION SQL_REDO
--------- ----------------------------------------------------------
INTERNAL
INTERNAL
START set transaction read write;
UPDATE update SYS.UNDO$ set NAME = 'RS0', USER# = 1, FILE# = 1, BLOCK# = 2450, SCNBAS =
COMMIT commit;
START set transaction read write;
UPDATE update SYS.UNDO$ set NAME = 'RS0', USER# = 1, FILE# = 1, BLOCK# = 2450, SCNBAS =
COMMIT commit;
START set transaction read write;
UPDATE update SYS.UNDO$ set NAME = 'RS0', USER# = 1, FILE# = 1, BLOCK# = 2450, SCNBAS =
COMMIT commit;
11 rows selected.

See Also: For information about DBMS_LOGMNR, see the Oracle8i Supplied
Packages Reference.
For more information about the LogMiner data dictionary views, see Oracle8i
Reference.

Analyzing Archived Redo Log Files from Other Databases You can run LogMiner on an
instance of a database while analyzing redo log files from a different database. To
analyze archived redo log files from other databases, LogMiner must:
■ Access a dictionary file that is both created from the same database as the redo
log files and created with the same database character set.
■ Run on the same hardware platform that generated the log files, although it
does not need to be on the same system.
■ Use redo log files that can be applied for recovery from Oracle version 8.0 and
later.

Managing Archived Redo Logs 7-31

Using LogMiner to Analyze Online and Archived Redo Logs

Using LogMiner: Scenarios

This section contains the following LogMiner scenarios:
■ Tracking a User
■ Calculating Table Access Statistics

Tracking a User
In this example, you are interested in seeing all changes to the database in a specific
time range by one of yours users: JOEDEVO. You perform this operation in the
following steps:
■ Step 1: Creating the Dictionary
■ Step 2: Adding Logs and Limiting the Search Range
■ Step 3: Starting the LogMiner and Analyzing the Data

Step 1: Creating the Dictionary To use the LogMiner to analyze JOEDEVO’s data, you
must create a dictionary file before starting LogMiner.
You decide to do the following:
■ Call the dictionary file orc1dict.ora.
■ Place the dictionary in directory /user/local/dbs.
■ Set the initialization parameter UTL_FILE_DIR to /user/local/dbs.
# Set the initialization parameter UTL_FILE_DIR in the init.ora file
UTL_FILE_DIR = /user/local/dbs

# Start SQL*Plus and then connect to the database

connect system/manager

# Open the database to create the dictionary file

startup

# Create the dictionary file

execute dbms_logmnr_d.build(
dictionary_filename => ‘orcldict.ora’,
dictionary_location => ‘/usr/local/dbs’);

# The dictionary has been created and can be used later

shutdown;

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Step 2: Adding Logs and Limiting the Search Range Now that the dictionary is created,
you decide to view the changes that happened at a specific time. You do the
following:
■ Create a list of log files for use and specify log log1orc1.ora.
■ Add log log2orc1.ora to the list.
■ Start LogMiner and limit the search to the range between 8:30 a.m. and 8:45
a.m. on January 1, 1998.
# Start SQL*Plus, connect as SYSTEM, then start the instance
connect system/manager
startup nomount

# Supply the list of logfiles to the reader. The Options flag is set to indicate this is a
# new list.

execute dbms_logmnr.add_logfile(Options => dbms_logmnr.NEW,

LogFileName => ‘log1orc1.ora’);

# Add a file to the existing list. The Options flag is clear to indicate that you are
# adding a file to the existing list

execute dbms_logmnr.add_logfile(Options => dbms_logmnr.ADDFILE,

LogFileName => ‘log2orc1.ora’);

Step 3: Starting the LogMiner and Analyzing the Data At this point the
V$LOGMNR_CONTENTS table is available for queries. You decide to find all
changes made by user JOEDEVO to the salary table. As you discover, JOEDEVO
requested two operations: he deleted his old salary and then inserted a new, higher
salary. You now have the data necessary to undo this operation (and perhaps to
justify firing JOEDEVO!).

# Start the LogMiner. Limit the search to the specified time range.
execute dbms_logmnr.start_logmnr(
DictFileName => ‘orcldict.ora’,
StartTime => to_date(‘01-Jan-98 08:30:00’, 'DD-MON-YYYY HH:MI:SS')
EndTime => to_date('01-Jan-1998 08:45:00', 'DD-MON-YYYY HH:MI:SS'));

SELECT sql_redo, sql_undo FROM v$logmnr_contents

WHERE username = ‘JOEDEVO’ AND tablename = ‘SALARY’;

# The following data is displayed (properly formatted)

SQL_REDO SQL_UNDO
-------- --------
delete * from SALARY insert into SALARY(NAME,EMPNO, SAL)

Managing Archived Redo Logs 7-33

Using LogMiner to Analyze Online and Archived Redo Logs

where EMPNO = 12345 values (‘JOEDEVO’, 12345,500)

and ROWID = ‘AAABOOAABAAEPCABA’;

insert into SALARY(NAME, EMPNO, SAL) delete * from SALARY

values(‘JOEDEVO’,12345,2500) where EMPNO = 12345
and ROWID = ‘AAABOOAABAAEPCABA’;
2 rows selected

Calculating Table Access Statistics

The redo logs generated by Oracle RDBMS contain the history of all changes made
to the database. Mining the redo logs can thus generate a wealth of information that
can be used for tuning the database. In this example, you manage a direct
marketing database and want to determine how productive the customer contacts
have been in generating revenue for a two week period in August.
First, you start LogMiner and specify a range of times:
execute dbms_logmnr.start_logmnr(
StartTime => ‘07-Aug-98’,
EndTime => ‘15-Aug-98’,
DictFileName => ‘/usr/local/dict.ora’);

Next, you query V$LOGMNR_CONTENTS to determine which tables have been

modified in the time range you specified:
select seg_owner, seg_name, count(*) as Hits from
V$LOGMNR_CONTENTS where seg_name not like ‘%$’ group by
seg_owner, seg_name;

SEG_OWNER SEG_NAME Hits

--------- -------- ----
CUST ACCOUNT 384
SCOTT EMP 12
SYS DONOR 12
UNIV DONOR 234
UNIV EXECDONOR 325
UNIV MEGADONOR 32

See Also: For detailed information about V$LOGMNR_CONTENTS or any of the

LogMiner views or initialization parameters, see the Oracle8i Reference.
For information about DBMS_LOGMNR.ADD_LOGFILE or any other PL/SQL
packages, see the Oracle8i Supplied Packages Reference.

7-34 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 8
Managing Job Queues

This chapter describes how to use job queues to schedule periodic execution of
PL/SQL code, and includes the following topics:
■ SNP Background Processes
■ Managing Job Queues
■ Viewing Job Queue Information

Managing Job Queues 8-1

SNP Background Processes

SNP Background Processes

This section describes SNP background processes and their role in managing job
queues, and includes the following topics:
■ Multiple SNP processes
■ Starting up SNP processes
You can schedule routines to be performed periodically using the job queue. A
routine is any PL/SQL code. To schedule a job, you submit it to the job queue and
specify the frequency at which the job is to be run. You can also alter, disable, or
delete jobs you have submitted.
To maximize performance and accommodate many users, a multi-process Oracle
system uses some additional processes called background processes. Background
processes consolidate functions that would otherwise be handled by multiple
Oracle programs running for each user process. Background processes
asynchronously perform I/O and monitor other Oracle processes to provide
increased parallelism for better performance and reliability.
SNP background processes execute job queues. SNP processes periodically wake up
and execute any queued jobs that are due to be run. You must have at least one SNP
process running to execute your queued jobs in the background.
SNP background processes differ from other Oracle background processes, in that
the failure of an SNP process does not cause the instance to fail. If an SNP process
fails, Oracle restarts it.
SNP background processes will not execute jobs if the system has been started in
restricted mode. However, you can use the ALTER SYSTEM command to turn this
behavior on and off as follows:
ALTER SYSTEM ENABLE RESTRICTED SESSION;
ALTER SYSTEM DISABLE RESTRICTED SESSION;

When you ENABLE a restricted session, SNP background processes do not execute
jobs; when you DISABLE a restricted session, SNP background processes execute
jobs.
See Also: For more information on SNP background processes, see Oracle8i
Concepts.

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 Managing Job Queues

Multiple SNP processes

An instance can have up to 36 SNP processes, named SNP0 to SNP9, and SNPA to
SNPZ. If an instance has multiple SNP processes, the task of executing queued jobs
can be shared across these processes, thus improving performance. Note, however,
that each job is run at any point in time by only one process. A single job cannot be
shared simultaneously by multiple SNP processes.

Starting up SNP processes

Job queue initialization parameters enable you to control the operation of the SNP
background processes. When you set these parameters in the initialization
parameter file for an instance, they take effect the next time you start the instance.
Table 8–1 describes the job queue initialization parameters.

Table 8–1 Job Queue Initialization Parameters

Parameter Name Description
JOB_QUEUE_PROCESSES Default: 0
Range of values: 0...36
Multiple instances: can have different
values
Sets the number of SNP background processes
per instance.
JOB_QUEUE_INTERVAL Default: 60 (seconds)
Range of values: 1...3600 (seconds)
Multiple instances: can have different
values
Sets the interval between wake-ups for the
SNP background processes of the instance.

Managing Job Queues

This section describes the various aspects of managing job queues, and includes the
following topics:
■ DBMS_JOB Package
■ Submitting a Job to the Job Queue
■ How Jobs Execute
■ Removing a Job from the Job Queue

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Managing Job Queues

■ Altering a Job
■ Broken Jobs
■ Forcing a Job to Execute
■ Terminating a Job

DBMS_JOB Package
To schedule and manage jobs in the job queue, use the procedures in the DBMS_JOB
package. There are no database privileges associated with using job queues. Any
user who can execute the job queue procedures can use the job queue. Table 8–2 lists
the job queue procedures in the DBMS_JOB package.

Table 8–2 Procedures in the DBMS_JOB Package

Procedure Description Described
SUBMIT Submits a job to the job queue. on page 8-4
REMOVE Removes a specified job from the on page 8-11
job queue.
CHANGE Alters a specified job. You can alter on page 8-11
the job description, the time at
which the job will be run, or the
interval between executions of the
job.
WHAT Alters the job description for a on page 8-11
specified job.
NEXT_DATE Alters the next execution time for a on page 8-12
specified job.
INTERVAL Alters the interval between on page 8-12
executions for a specified job.
BROKEN Disables job execution. If a job is on page 8-12
marked as broken, Oracle does not
attempt to execute it.
RUN Forces a specified job to run. on page 8-13

Submitting a Job to the Job Queue

To submit a new job to the job queue, use the SUBMIT procedure in the DBMS_JOB
package:
DBMS_JOB.SUBMIT( job OUT BINARY_INTEGER,
what IN VARCHAR2,
next_date IN DATE DEFAULT SYSDATE,

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 Managing Job Queues

interval IN VARCHAR2 DEFAULT ’null’,

no_parse IN BOOLEAN DEFAULT FALSE)

The SUBMIT procedure returns the number of the job you submitted. Table 8–3
describes the procedure’s parameters.

Table 8–3 Parameters for DBMS_JOB.SUBMIT

Parameter Description
job This is the identifier assigned to the job you created. You must
use the job number whenever you want to alter or remove the
job.
For more information about job numbers, see "Job Numbers" on
page 8-7.
what This is the PL/SQL code you want to have executed.
For more information about defining a job, see "Job Definitions"
on page 8-7.
next_date This is the next date when the job will be run. The default value
is SYSDATE.
interval This is the date function that calculates the next time to execute
the job. The default value is NULL. INTERVAL must evaluate to
a future point in time or NULL.
For more information on how to specify an execution interval,
see "Job Execution Interval" on page 8-8.
no_parse This is a flag. The default value is FALSE.
If NO_PARSE is set to FALSE (the default), Oracle parses the
procedure associated with the job. If NO_PARSE is set to TRUE,
Oracle parses the procedure associated with the job the first time
that the job is executed. If, for example, you want to submit a job
before you have created the tables associated with the job, set
NO_PARSE to TRUE.

As an example, let’s submit a new job to the job queue. The job calls the procedure
DBMS_DDL.ANALYZE_OBJECT to generate optimizer statistics for the table
DQUON.ACCOUNTS. The statistics are based on a sample of half the rows of the
ACCOUNTS table. The job is run every 24 hours:
VARIABLE jobno number;
begin
2> DBMS_JOB.SUBMIT(:jobno,
3> ’dbms_ddl.analyze_object(’’TABLE’’,
4> ’’DQUON’’, ’’ACCOUNTS’’,
5> ’’ESTIMATE’’, NULL, 50);’
6> SYSDATE, ’SYSDATE + 1’);
7> commit;

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Managing Job Queues

8> end;
9> /
Statement processed.
print jobno
JOBNO
----------
14144

Job Environment
When you submit a job to the job queue or alter a job’s definition, Oracle records the
following environment characteristics:
■ the current user
■ the user submitting or altering a job
■ the current schema
■ MAC privileges (if appropriate)
Oracle also records the following NLS parameters:
■ NLS_LANGUAGE
■ NLS_TERRITORY
■ NLS_CURRENCY
■ NLS_ISO_CURRENCY
■ NLS_NUMERIC_CHARACTERS
■ NLS_DATE_FORMAT
■ NLS_DATE_LANGUAGE
■ NLS_SORT
Oracle restores these environment characteristics every time a job is executed.
NLS_LANGUAGE and NLS_TERRITORY parameters are defaults for unspecified
NLS parameters.
You can change a job’s environment by using the DBMS_SQL package and the
ALTER SESSION command.

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Jobs and Import/Export

Jobs can be exported and imported. Thus, if you define a job in one database, you
can transfer it to another database. When exporting and importing jobs, the job’s
number, environment, and definition remain unchanged.

Note: If the job number of a job you want to import matches the
number of a job already existing in the database, you will not be
allowed to import that job. Submit the job as a new job in the
database.

Job Owners
When you submit a job to the job queue, Oracle identifies you as the owner of the
job. Only a job’s owner can alter the job, force the job to run, or remove the job from
the queue.

Job Numbers
A queued job is identified by its job number. When you submit a job, its job number
is automatically generated from the sequence SYS.JOBSEQ.
Once a job is assigned a job number, that number does not change. Even if the job is
exported and imported, its job number remains the same.

Job Definitions
The job definition is the PL/SQL code specified in the WHAT parameter of the SUBMIT
procedure.
Normally the job definition is a single call to a procedure. The procedure call can
have any number of parameters.

Note: In the job definition, use two single quotation marks around
strings. Always include a semicolon at the end of the job definition.

Managing Job Queues 8-7

Managing Job Queues

There are special parameter values that Oracle recognizes in a job definition.
Table 8–4 lists these parameters.

Table 8–4 Special Parameter Values for Job Definitions

Parameter Mode Description
job IN The number of the current job.
next_date IN/OUT The date of the next execution of the job.
The default value is SYSDATE.
broken IN/OUT Status of job, broken or not broken. The
IN value is FALSE.

The following are examples of valid job definitions:

’myproc(’’10-JAN-82’’, next_date, broken);’
’scott.emppackage.give_raise(’’JFEE’’, 3000.00);’
’dbms_job.remove(job);’

Job Execution Interval

The INTERVAL date function is evaluated immediately before a job is executed. If
the job completes successfully, the date calculated from INTERVAL becomes the
new NEXT_DATE. If the INTERVAL date function evaluates to NULL and the job
completes successfully, the job is deleted from the queue.
If a job should be executed periodically at a set interval, use a date expression
similar to ’SYSDATE + 7’ in the INTERVAL parameter. For example, if you set the
execution interval to ’SYSDATE + 7’ on Monday, but for some reason (such as a
network failure) the job is not executed until Thursday, ’SYSDATE + 7’ then
executes every Thursday, not Monday.
If you always want to automatically execute a job at a specific time, regardless of the
last execution (for example, every Monday), the INTERVAL and NEXT_DATE
parameters should specify a date expression similar to
’NEXT_DAY(TRUNC(SYSDATE), "MONDAY")’.

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 Managing Job Queues

Table 8–5 lists some common date expressions used for job execution intervals.

Table 8–5 Common Job Execution Intervals

Date Expression Evaluation
’SYSDATE + 7’ exactly seven days from
the last execution
’SYSDATE + 1/48’ every half hour
’NEXT_DAY(TRUNC(SYSDATE), every Monday at 3PM
’’MONDAY’’) + 15/24’
’NEXT_DAY(ADD_MONTHS first Thursday of each
(TRUNC(SYSDATE, ’’Q’’), 3), quarter
’’THURSDAY’’)’

Note: When specifying NEXT_DATE or INTERVAL, remember

that date literals and strings must be enclosed in single quotation
marks. Also, the value of INTERVAL must be enclosed in single
quotation marks.

Database Links and Jobs

If you submit a job that uses a database link, the link must include a username and
password. Anonymous database links will not succeed.
See Also: For more information on the DBMS_SQL package, see the Oracle8i Supplied
Packages Reference.

How Jobs Execute

SNP background processes execute jobs. To execute a job, the process creates a
session to run the job.
When an SNP process runs a job, the job is run in the same environment in which it
was submitted and with the owner’s default privileges.
When you force a job to run using the procedure DBMS_JOB.RUN, the job is run by
your user process. When your user process runs a job, it is run with your default
privileges only. Privileges granted to you through roles are unavailable.

Job Queue Locks

Oracle uses job queue locks to ensure that a job is executed one session at a time.
When a job is being run, its session acquires a job queue (JQ) lock for that job.

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Managing Job Queues

Interpreting Information about JQ Locks You can use the Enterprise Manager Lock
Monitor or the locking views in the data dictionary to examine information about
locks currently held by sessions.
The following query lists the session identifier, lock type, and lock identifiers for all
sessions holding JQ locks:
SELECT sid, type, id1, id2
FROM v$lock
WHERE type = ’JQ’;

SID TY ID1 ID2

---------- -- ---------- ----------
12 JQ 0 14144
1 row selected.

In the query above, the identifier for the session holding the lock is 12. The ID1 lock
identifier is always 0 for JQ locks. The ID2 lock identifier is the job number of the
job the session is running.

Job Execution Errors

When a job fails, information about the failure is recorded in a trace file and the
alert log. Oracle writes message number ORA-12012 and includes the job number of
the failed job.
The following can prevent the successful execution of queued jobs:
■ not having any SNP background processes to run the job
■ a network or instance failure
■ an exception when executing the job

Job Failure and Execution Times If a job returns an error while Oracle is attempting to
execute it, Oracle tries to execute it again. The first attempt is made after one minute, the
second attempt after two minutes, the third after four minutes, and so on, with the interval
doubling between each attempt. When the retry interval exceeds the execution interval,
Oracle continues to retry the job at the normal execution interval. However, if the job fails
16 times, Oracle automatically marks the job as broken and no longer tries to execute it.
Thus, if you can correct the problem that is preventing a job from running before
the job has failed sixteen times, Oracle will eventually run that job again.
See Also: For more information about the locking views, see the Oracle8i Reference.
For more information about locking, see Oracle8i Concepts.

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Removing a Job from the Job Queue

To remove a job from the job queue, use the REMOVE procedure in the DBMS_JOB
package:
DBMS_JOB.REMOVE(job IN BINARY_INTEGER)

The following statement removes job number 14144 from the job queue:
DBMS_JOB.REMOVE(14144);

Restrictions
You can remove currently executing jobs from the job queue. However, the job will
not be interrupted, and the current execution will be completed.
You can remove only jobs you own. If you try to remove a job that you do not own,
you receive a message that states the job is not in the job queue.

Altering a Job
To alter a job that has been submitted to the job queue, use the procedures
CHANGE, WHAT, NEXT_DATE, or INTERVAL in the DBMS_JOB package.
In this example, the job identified as 14144 is now executed every three days:
DBMS_JOB.CHANGE(14144, null, null, ’SYSDATE + 3’);

Restrictions
You can alter only jobs that you own. If you try to alter a job that you do not own,
you receive a message that states the job is not in the job queue.

Syntax for CHANGE

You can alter any of the user-definable parameters associated with a job by calling
the DBMS_JOB.CHANGE procedure. Table 8–3 describes the procedure’s
parameters.

DBMS_JOB.CHANGE( job IN BINARY_INTEGER,

what IN VARCHAR2,
next_date IN DATE,
interval IN VARCHAR2)

Managing Job Queues 8-11

Managing Job Queues

If you specify NULL for WHAT, NEXT_DATE, or INTERVAL when you call the
procedure CHANGE, the current value remains unchanged.

Note: When you change a job’s definition using the WHAT

parameter in the procedure CHANGE, Oracle records your current
environment. This becomes the new environment for the job.

Syntax for WHAT

You can alter the definition of a job by calling the DBMS_JOB.WHAT procedure.
Table 8–3 describes the procedure’s parameters.
DBMS_JOB.WHAT( job IN BINARY_INTEGER,
what IN VARCHAR2)

Note: When you execute procedure WHAT, Oracle records your

current environment. This becomes the new environment for the
job.

Syntax for NEXT_DATE

You can alter the next date that Oracle executes a job by calling the
DBMS_JOB.NEXT_DATE procedure. Table 8–3 describes the procedure’s
parameters.
DBMS_JOB.NEXT_DATE( job IN BINARY_INTEGER,
next_date IN DATE)

Syntax for INTERVAL

You can alter the execution interval of a job by calling the DBMS_JOB.INTERVAL
procedure. Table 8–3 describes the procedure’s parameters.
DBMS_JOB.INTERVAL( job IN BINARY_INTEGER,
interval IN VARCHAR2)

Broken Jobs
A job is labeled as either broken or not broken. Oracle does not attempt to run
broken jobs. However, you can force a broken job to run by calling the procedure
DBMS_JOB.RUN.
When you submit a job it is considered not broken.

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There are two ways a job can break:

■ Oracle has failed to successfully execute the job after 16 attempts.
■ You have marked the job as broken, using the procedure DBMS_JOB.BROKEN.
To mark a job as broken or not broken, use the procedure BROKEN in the
DBMS_JOB package. Table 8–4 describes the procedure’s parameters:
DBMS_JOB.BROKEN( job IN BINARY_INTEGER,
broken IN BOOLEAN,
next_date IN DATE DEFAULT SYSDATE)

The following example marks job 14144 as not broken and sets its next execution
date to the following Monday:
DBMS_JOB.BROKEN(14144, FALSE, NEXT_DAY(SYSDATE, ’MONDAY’));

Once a job has been marked as broken, Oracle will not attempt to execute the job
until you either mark the job as not broken, or force the job to be executed by calling
the procedure DBMS_JOB.RUN.

Restrictions
You can mark as broken only jobs that you own. If you try to mark a job you do not
own, you receive a message stating that the job is not in the job queue.

Running Broken Jobs

If a problem has caused a job to fail 16 times, Oracle marks the job as broken. Once
you have fixed this problem, you can run the job by either:
■ forcing the job to run by calling DBMS_JOB.RUN
■ marking the job as not broken by calling DBMS_JOB.BROKEN and waiting for
Oracle to execute the job
If you force the job to run by calling the procedure DBMS_JOB.RUN, Oracle runs
the job immediately. If the job succeeds, then Oracle labels the job as not broken and
resets its count of the number of failed executions for the job.
Once you reset a job’s broken flag (by calling either RUN or BROKEN), job
execution resumes according to the scheduled execution intervals set for the job.

Managing Job Queues 8-13

Managing Job Queues

Forcing a Job to Execute

There may be times when you would like to manually execute a job. For example, if
you have fixed a broken job, you may want to test the job immediately by forcing it
to execute.
To force a job to be executed immediately, use the procedure RUN in the DBMS_JOB
package. Oracle attempts to run the job, even if the job is marked as broken:
DBMS_JOB.RUN( job IN BINARY_INTEGER)

When you run a job using DBMS_JOB.RUN, Oracle recomputes the next execution
date. For example, if you create a job on a Monday with a NEXT_DATE value of
’SYSDATE’ and an INTERVAL value of ’SYSDATE + 7’, the job is run every 7 days
starting on Monday. However, if you execute RUN on Wednesday, the next
execution date will be the next Wednesday.

Note: When you force a job to run, the job is executed in your
current session. Running the job reinitializes your session’s
packages.

Restrictions
You can only run jobs that you own. If you try to run a job that you do not own, you
receive a message that states the job is not in the job queue.
The following statement runs job 14144 in your session and recomputes the next
execution date:
DBMS_JOB.RUN(14144);

The procedure RUN contains an implicit commit. Once you execute a job using
RUN, you cannot roll back.

Terminating a Job
You can terminate a running job by marking the job as broken, identifying the
session running the job, and disconnecting that session. You should mark the job as
broken, so that Oracle does not attempt to run the job again.
After you have identified the session running the job (via V$SESSION), you can
disconnect the session using the SQL statement ALTER SYSTEM.
See Also: For examples of viewing information about jobs and sessions, see the
following section, "Viewing Job Queue Information".

8-14 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Viewing Job Queue Information

For more information on V$SESSION, see the Oracle8i Reference.

Viewing Job Queue Information

You can view information about jobs in the job queue via the data dictionary views
in Table 8–6:

Table 8–6 Views for Job Queue Information

View Description
DBA_JOBS Lists all the jobs in the database.
USER_JOBS Lists all jobs owned by the user.
DBA_JOBS_RUNNING Lists all jobs in the database that are currently
running. This view joins V$LOCK and JOB$.

For example, you can display information about a job’s status and failed executions.
The following sample query creates a listing of the job number, next execution time,
failures, and broken status for each job you have submitted:
SELECT job, next_date, next_sec, failures, broken
FROM user_jobs;

JOB NEXT_DATE NEXT_SEC FAILURES B

---------- --------- -------- ---------- -
9125 01-NOV-94 00:00:00 4 N
14144 24-OCT-94 16:35:35 0 N
41762 01-JAN-00 00:00:00 16 Y
3 rows selected.

You can also display information about jobs currently running. The following
sample query lists the session identifier, job number, user who submitted the job,
and the start times for all currently running jobs:
SELECT sid, r.job, log_user, r.this_date, r.this_sec
FROM dba_jobs_running r, dba_jobs j
WHERE r.job = j.job;

SID JOB LOG_USER THIS_DATE THIS_SEC

---------- ---------- -------------------- --------- --------
12 14144 JFEE 24-OCT-94 17:21:24
25 8536 SCOTT 24-OCT-94 16:45:12
2 rows selected.

See Also: For more information on data dictionary views, see the Oracle8i Reference.

Managing Job Queues 8-15

Viewing Job Queue Information

8-16 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Part III
Database Storage
 9
Managing Tablespaces

This chapter describes the various aspects of tablespace management, and includes
the following topics:
■ Guidelines for Managing Tablespaces
■ Creating Tablespaces
■ Managing Tablespace Allocation
■ Altering Tablespace Availability
■ Making a Tablespace Read-Only
■ Dropping Tablespaces
■ Using the DBMS_SPACE_ADMIN Package
■ Transporting Tablespaces Between Databases
■ Viewing Information About Tablespaces

Managing Tablespaces 9-1

Guidelines for Managing Tablespaces

Guidelines for Managing Tablespaces

Before working with tablespaces of an Oracle database, familiarize yourself with the
guidelines provided in the following sections:
■ Using Multiple Tablespaces
■ Specifying Tablespace Storage Parameters
■ Assigning Tablespace Quotas to Users

Using Multiple Tablespaces

Using multiple tablespaces allows you more flexibility in performing database
operations. For example, when a database has multiple tablespaces, you can
perform the following tasks:
■ Separate user data from data dictionary data.
■ Separate one application’s data from another’s.
■ Store different tablespaces’ datafiles on separate disk drives to reduce I/O
contention.
■ Separate rollback segment data from user data, preventing a single disk failure
from causing permanent loss of data.
■ Take individual tablespaces offline while others remain online.
■ Reserve a tablespace for a particular type of database use, such as high update
activity, read-only activity, or temporary segment storage.
■ Back up individual tablespaces.
Some operating systems set a limit on the number of files that can be
simultaneously open; these limits can affect the number of tablespaces that can be
simultaneously online. To avoid exceeding your operating system’s limit, plan your
tablespaces efficiently. Create only enough tablespaces to fill your needs, and create
these tablespaces with as few files as possible. If you need to increase the size of a
tablespace, add one or two large datafiles, or create datafiles with the autoextend
option set on, rather than many small datafiles.
Review your data in light of these advantages and decide how many tablespaces
you will need for your database design.

9-2 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Creating Tablespaces

Specifying Tablespace Storage Parameters

When you create a new tablespace, you can specify default storage parameters for
objects that will be created in the tablespace. Storage parameters specified when an
object is created override the default storage parameters of the tablespace
containing the object. However, if you do not specify storage parameters when
creating an object, the object’s segment automatically uses the default storage
parameters for the tablespace.
Set the default storage parameters for a tablespace to account for the size of a
typical object that the tablespace will contain (you estimate this size). You can
specify different storage parameters for an unusual or exceptional object when
creating that object.

Note: If you do not specify the default storage parameters for a

new tablespace, the default storage parameters of Oracle become
the tablespace’s default storage parameters.

See Also: For information about estimating the sizes of objects, see Chapters 11
through 17.

Assigning Tablespace Quotas to Users

Grant to users who will be creating tables, clusters, snapshots, indexes, and other
objects the privilege to create the object and a quota (space allowance or limit) in the
tablespace intended to hold the object’s segment. The security administrator is
responsible for granting the required privileges to create objects to database users
and for assigning tablespace quotas, as necessary, to database users.
See Also: To learn more about assigning tablespace quotas to database users, see
"Assigning Tablespace Quotas" on page 23-13.

Creating Tablespaces
The steps for creating tablespaces vary by operating system. On most operating
systems you indicate the size and fully specified filenames when creating a new
tablespace or altering a tablespace by adding datafiles. In each situation Oracle
automatically allocates and formats the datafiles as specified. However, on some
operating systems, you must create the datafiles before installation.

Managing Tablespaces 9-3

Creating Tablespaces

The first tablespace in any database is always the SYSTEM tablespace. Therefore,
the first datafiles of any database are automatically allocated for the SYSTEM
tablespace during database creation.
You might create a new tablespace for any of the following reasons:
■ You want to allocate more disk storage space for the associated database,
thereby enlarging the database.
■ You need to create a logical storage structure in which to store a specific type of
data separate from other database data.
To increase the total size of the database you can alternatively add a datafile to an
existing tablespace, rather than adding a new tablespace.

Note: No data can be inserted into any tablespace until the

current instance has acquired at least two rollback segments
(including the SYSTEM rollback segment).

To create a new tablespace, use the SQL statement CREATE TABLESPACE. You
must have the CREATE TABLESPACE system privilege to create a tablespace.
As an example, let’s create the tablespace RB_SEGS (to hold rollback segments for
the database), with the following characteristics:
■ The data of the new tablespace is contained in a single datafile, 50M in size.
■ The default storage parameters for any segments created in this tablespace are
explicitly set.
■ After the tablespace is created, it is left offline.
The following statement creates the tablespace RB_SEGS:
CREATE TABLESPACE rb_segs
DATAFILE ’datafilers_1’ SIZE 50M
DEFAULT STORAGE (
INITIAL 50K
NEXT 50K
MINEXTENTS 2
MAXEXTENTS 50
PCTINCREASE 0)
OFFLINE;

If you do not fully specify filenames when creating tablespaces, the corresponding
datafiles are created in the ORACLE_HOME/dbs directory.

9-4 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Creating Tablespaces

See Also: See your operating system-specific Oracle documentation for information
about initially creating a tablespace.
For more information about adding a datafile, see "Creating and Adding Datafiles
to a Tablespace" on page 10-5.
For more information about the CREATE TABLESPACE statement, see the Oracle8i
SQL Reference.

Creating Locally Managed Tablespaces

Typically, tablespaces are "dictionary mapped," which means that such tablespaces
rely on SQL dictionary tables to track space utilization. Locally managed tablespaces,
on the other hand, use bit maps (instead of SQL dictionary tables) to track used and
free space.
Creating and using locally managed tablespaces offers you the following benefits:
■ Improves concurrence of space operations
You allocate and deallocate space by changing the bit values (0 to 1 for
allocation, 1 to 0 for deallocation).
■ Eliminates recursion during space management operations
■ Supports temporary tablespace management in standby databases
■ Reduces user reliance on the data dictionary
Necessary information is stored in segment headers and bit map blocks.
The following statement creates a locally managed tablespace named TBS_1; every
extent is 128K, and each bit in the bit map describes 64 blocks:
CREATE TABLESPACE tbs_1 DATAFILE ’file_1.f’
BITMAP ALLOCATION UNIFORM SIZE 128K;

See Also: For detailed syntax on creating locally managed tablespaces, see the
Oracle8i SQL Reference.

Creating a Database with a Locally Managed SYSTEM Tablespace

You can create a database with a locally managed SYSTEM tablespace. However,
rollback segments for this database must also be created in uniform-managed
locally managed tablespaces. A locally managed SYSTEM tablespace is always
system-managed. Also, you cannot later revert to a version of Oracle earlier than
8.1.

Managing Tablespaces 9-5

Creating Tablespaces

See Also: For more information about creating a database with a locally managed
SYSTEM tablespace, see the Oracle8i SQL Reference.

Creating a Temporary Tablespace

If you wish to improve the concurrence of multiple sort operations, reduce their
overhead, or avoid Oracle space management operations altogether, you can create
temporary tablespaces.
Within a temporary tablespace, all sort operations for a given instance and
tablespace share a single sort segment. Sort segments exist in every instance that
performs sort operations within a given tablespace. You cannot store permanent
objects in a temporary tablespace. You can view the allocation and deallocation of
space in a temporary tablespace sort segment via the V$SORT_SEGMENT table.
To identify a tablespace as temporary during tablespace creation, issue the
following statement:
CREATE TABLESPACE tablespace TEMPORARY;

To identify a tablespace as temporary in an existing tablespace, issue the following

statement:
ALTER TABLESPACE tablespace TEMPORARY;

Note: You can take temporary tablespaces offline. Returning

temporary tablespaces online does not affect their temporary status.

See Also: For more information about the CREATE TABLESPACE and ALTER
TABLESPACE statements, see the Oracle8i SQL Reference.
For more information about V$SORT_SEGMENT, see the Oracle8i Reference.
For more information about Oracle space management, see Oracle8i Concepts.

Temporary Datafiles
Temporary datafiles differ from permanent datafiles in that they do not appear in
the DBA_DATA_FILES view. Instead, they appear in the DBA_TEMP_FILES view,
which is similar to DBA_DATA_FILES view except that it contains information
about temporary datafiles. In SQL, files belonging to temporary tablespaces are also
identified as TEMPFILES, rather than DATAFILES.

9-6 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Creating Tablespaces

See Also: For more information about temporary datafiles and DBA_TEMP_FILES,
see the Oracle8i Reference.

Creating a Locally Managed Temporary Tablespace

If you wish to allocate space that can contain schema objects for the duration of a
session in the database, you can create a locally managed temporary tablespace.
You must have the CREATE TABLESPACE system privilege to create a locally
managed temporary tablespace.
The following statement creates a temporary tablespace in which each extent is
16M. The default database block size is 2M; each bit in the map represents one
extent, thus each bit maps 8,000 blocks.
CREATE TEMPORARY TABLESPACE tbs_1 TEMPFILE ’file_1.f’
BITMAP ALLOCATION UNIFORM SIZE 16M;

See Also: For more information about creating a locally managed temporary
tablespace, see the Oracle8i SQL Reference.

Altering a Locally Managed Temporary Tablespace

You can alter or add a datafile (or temporary file) to a locally managed temporary
tablespace.
The following statement adds files to a locally managed temporary tablespace:
ALTER TABLESPACE tbs_1
ADD TEMPFILE ’file_1.f’;

The following statements take offline and bring online temporary files:
ALTER DATABASE TEMPFILE ’temp_file_1.f’ OFFLINE;
ALTER DATABASE TEMPFILE ’temp_file_1.f’ ONLINE;

The following statement resizes temporary file TEMP_FILE_1.F to 12K:

ALTER DATABASE TEMPFILE ’temp_file_1.f’ RESIZE 12K;

The following statement drops a temporary file:

ALTER DATABASE TEMPFILE ’temp_file_1.f’ DROP;

See Also: For details and restrictions about statements used to alter locally
managed temporary tablespaces, see the Oracle8i SQL Reference.

Managing Tablespaces 9-7

Managing Tablespace Allocation

Managing Tablespace Allocation

This section describes aspects of managing tablespace allocation, and includes the
following topics:
■ Altering Storage Settings for Tablespaces
■ Coalescing Free Space

Altering Storage Settings for Tablespaces

You can change the default storage parameters of a tablespace to change the default
specifications for future objects created in the tablespace. To change the default
storage parameters for objects subsequently created in the tablespace, use the SQL
statement ALTER TABLESPACE. Also, to alter the default storage parameters of a
tablespace, you must have the ALTER TABLESPACE system privilege.
ALTER TABLESPACE users
DEFAULT STORAGE (
INITIAL 50K
NEXT 50K
MINEXTENTS 2
MAXEXTENTS 20
PCTINCREASE 50);

New values for the default storage parameters of a tablespace affect only future
extents allocated for the segments within the tablespace.

Coalescing Free Space

Space for tablespace segments is managed using extents, which are made up of a
specific number of contiguous data blocks. The free extent closest in size to the
required extent is used when allocating new extents to a tablespace segment. Thus,
a larger free extent can be fragmented, or smaller contiguous free extents can be
coalesced into one larger free extent (see Figure 9–1). However, continuous
allocation and deallocation of free space fragments your tablespace and makes
allocation of larger extents more difficult. By default, SMON (system monitor)
processes incrementally coalesce the free extents of tablespaces in the background.
If desired, you can disable SMON coalescing.

9-8 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Managing Tablespace Allocation

Figure 9–1 Coalescing Free Space

Input
F F U F F F U F F EXTENT 1
JFEE1.ORA Output
F U F U F

Input
U U F F F F F U F F U EXTENT 2
Output
U U F U F U

F = free data block

U = used data block

If you find that fragmentation of space is high (contiguous space on your disk
appears as non-contiguous), you can coalesce your free space in a single space
transaction. After every eight coalesces the space transaction commits and other
transactions can allocate or deallocate space. You must have ALTER TABLESPACE
privileges to coalesce tablespaces. You can coalesce all available free space extents in
a tablespace into larger contiguous extents on a per tablespace basis by using the
following command:
ALTER TABLESPACE tablespace COALESCE;

You can also use this command to supplement SMON and extent allocation
coalescing, thereby improving space allocation performance in severely fragmented
tablespaces. Issuing this command does not effect the performance of other users
accessing the same tablespace. Like other options of the ALTER TABLESPACE
statement, the COALESCE option is exclusive; when specified, it should be the only
option.

Viewing Information about Tablespaces

To display statistics about coalesceable extents for tablespaces, you can view the
DBA_FREE_SPACE_COALESCED view. You can query this view to determine if
you need to coalesce space in a particular tablespace.
See Also: For information about the contents of DBA_FREE_SPACE_COALESCED,
see the Oracle8i Reference.

Managing Tablespaces 9-9

Altering Tablespace Availability

Altering Tablespace Availability

You can bring an offline tablespace online to make the schema objects within the
tablespace available to database users. Alternatively, you can take an online
tablespace offline while the database is open, so that this portion of the database is
temporarily unavailable for general use but the rest is open and available. This
section includes the following topics:
■ Bringing Tablespaces Online
■ Taking Tablespaces Offline

Bringing Tablespaces Online

You can bring any tablespace in an Oracle database online whenever the database is
open. The only exception is that the SYSTEM tablespace must always be online
because the data dictionary must always be available to Oracle. A tablespace is
normally online so that the data contained within it is available to database users.
To bring an offline tablespace online while the database is open, use the SQL
statement ALTER TABLESPACE. You must have the MANAGE TABLESPACE
system privilege to bring a tablespace online.

Note: If a tablespace to be brought online was not taken offline

"cleanly" (that is, using the NORMAL option of the ALTER
TABLESPACE OFFLINE statement), you must first perform media
recovery on the tablespace before bringing it online. Otherwise,
Oracle returns an error and the tablespace remains offline.

The following statement brings the USERS tablespace online:

ALTER TABLESPACE users ONLINE;

Taking Tablespaces Offline

You may wish to take a tablespace offline for any of the following reasons:
■ To make a portion of the database unavailable while allowing normal access to
the remainder of the database.
■ To perform an offline tablespace backup (even though a tablespace can be
backed up while online and in use).

9-10 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Altering Tablespace Availability

■ To make an application and its group of tables temporarily unavailable while

updating or maintaining the application.
To take an online tablespace offline while the database is open, use the SQL
command ALTER TABLESPACE. You must have the MANAGE TABLESPACE
system privilege to take a tablespace offline.
You can specify any of the following priorities when taking a tablespace offline:
normal offline A tablespace can be taken offline normally if no
error conditions exist for any of the datafiles of the
tablespace. No datafile in the tablespace can be
currently offline as the result of a write error. With
normal offline priority, Oracle takes a checkpoint
for all datafiles of the tablespace as it takes them
offline.
temporary offline A tablespace can be taken offline temporarily, even
if there are error conditions for one or more files of
the tablespace. With temporary offline priority,
Oracle takes offline the datafiles that are not already
offline, checkpointing them as it does so.
If no files are offline, but you use the temporary
option, media recovery is not required to bring the
tablespace back online. However, if one or more
files of the tablespace are offline because of write
errors, and you take the tablespace offline
temporarily, the tablespace will require recovery
before you can bring it back online.
immediate offline A tablespace can be taken offline immediately,
without Oracle’s taking a checkpoint on any of the
datafiles. With immediate offline priority, media
recovery for the tablespace is required before the
tablespace can be brought online. You cannot take a
tablespace offline immediately if the database is
running in NOARCHIVELOG mode.

Managing Tablespaces 9-11

Making a Tablespace Read-Only

WARNING: If you must take a tablespace offline, use the normal

option (the default) if possible; this guarantees that the
tablespace will not require recovery to come back online, even if
you reset the redo log sequence (using an ALTER DATABASE
OPEN RESETLOGS statement after incomplete media recovery)
before bringing the tablespace back online.

Take a tablespace offline temporarily only when you cannot take it offline normally;
in this case, only the files taken offline because of errors need to be recovered before
the tablespace can be brought online. Take a tablespace offline immediately only
after trying both the normal and temporary options.
The following example takes the USERS tablespace offline normally:
ALTER TABLESPACE users OFFLINE NORMAL;

See Also: Before taking an online tablespace offline, verify that the tablespace
contains no active rollback segments. For more information see "Taking Rollback
Segments Offline" on page 21-12.

Making a Tablespace Read-Only

This section describes issues related to making tablespaces read-only, and includes
the following topics:
■ Prerequisites
■ Making a Read-Only Tablespace Writeable
■ Creating a Read-Only Tablespace on a WORM Device
Making a tablespace read-only prevents further write operations on the datafiles in
the tablespace. After making the tablespace read-only, you should back it up.
Use the SQL statement ALTER TABLESPACE to change a tablespace to read-only.
You must have the ALTER TABLESPACE system privilege to make a tablespace
read-only. The following statement makes the FLIGHTS tablespace read-only:
ALTER TABLESPACE flights READ ONLY

After a tablespace is read-only, you can copy its files to read-only media. You must
then rename the datafiles in the control file to point to the new location by using the
SQL statement ALTER DATABASE RENAME.

9-12 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Making a Tablespace Read-Only

A read-only tablespace is neither online nor offline. Issuing the ALTER

TABLESPACE statement with the ONLINE or OFFLINE option does not change the
read-only state of the tablespace; rather, it causes all of the datafiles in the
tablespace to be brought online or offline.
The ALTER TABLESPACE...READ ONLY statement waits until active transactions
are complete before performing the read-only operation. Thus, you do not have to
wait for transactions to complete before making a tablspace read-only.

Prerequisites
Before you can make a tablespace read-only, the following conditions must be met.
It may be easiest to meet these restrictions by performing this function in restricted
mode, so that only users with the RESTRICTED SESSION system privilege can be
logged on.
■ The tablespace must be online.
This is necessary to ensure that there is no undo information that needs to be
applied to the tablespace.
■ The tablespace must not contain any active rollback segments.
For this reason, the SYSTEM tablespace can never be made read-only, since it
contains the SYSTEM rollback segment. Additionally, because the rollback
segments of a read-only tablespace are not accessible, it is recommended that
you drop the rollback segments before you make a tablespace read-only.
■ The tablespace must not currently be involved in an online backup, since the
end of a backup updates the header file of all datafiles in the tablespace.
■ The COMPATIBLE initialization parameter must be set to 7.1.0 or greater.
For better performance while accessing data in a read-only tablespace, you might
want to issue a query that accesses all of the blocks of the tables in the tablespace
just before making it read-only. A simple query, such as SELECT COUNT (*),
executed against each table will ensure that the data blocks in the tablespace can be
subsequently accessed most efficiently. This eliminates the need for Oracle to check
the status of the transactions that most recently modified the blocks.

WARNING: You cannot rename or resize datafiles belonging to a

read-only tablespace.

See Also: For more information about read-only tablespaces, see Oracle8i Concepts.

Managing Tablespaces 9-13

Dropping Tablespaces

Making a Read-Only Tablespace Writeable

Whenever you create a tablespace, it is both readable and writeable. To change a
read-only tablespace back to a read-write tablespace, use the SQL command ALTER
TABLESPACE. You must have the ALTER TABLESPACE system privilege to change
a read-only tablespace to a read-write tablespace. The following command makes
the FLIGHTS tablespace writeable:
ALTER TABLESPACE flights READ WRITE;

Making a read-only tablespace writeable updates the control file for the datafiles, so
that you can use the read-only version of the datafiles as a starting point for
recovery.

Prerequisites
To issue this command, all of the datafiles in the tablespace must be online. Use the
DATAFILE ONLINE option of the ALTER DATABASE command to bring a datafile
online. The V$DATAFILE view lists the current status of a datafile.

Creating a Read-Only Tablespace on a WORM Device

To create a read-only tablespace on a WORM (Write Once Read Many) device when
you have read-only files that do not require updating:
1. Create a writeable tablespace on another device. Create the objects that belong
in the tablespace and insert your data.
2. Issue the ALTER TABLESPACE command with the READ ONLY option to
change the tablespace to read-only.
3. Copy the datafiles of the tablespace onto the WORM device. Use operating
system commands to copy the files.
4. Take the tablespace offline.
5. Rename the datafiles to coincide with the names of the datafiles you copied
onto your WORM device. Renaming the datafiles changes their names in the
control file.
6. Bring the tablespace online.

Dropping Tablespaces
You can drop a tablespace and its contents (the segments contained in the
tablespace) from the database if the tablespace and its contents are no longer

9-14 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Dropping Tablespaces

required. Any tablespace in an Oracle database, except the SYSTEM tablespace, can
be dropped. You must have the DROP TABLESPACE system privilege to drop a
tablespace.

WARNING: Once a tablespace has been dropped, the

tablespace’s data is not recoverable. Therefore, make sure that all
data contained in a tablespace to be dropped will not be required
in the future. Also, immediately before and after dropping a
tablespace from a database, back up the database completely.
This is strongly recommended so that you can recover the database if
you mistakenly drop a tablespace, or if the database experiences a
problem in the future after the tablespace has been dropped.

When you drop a tablespace, only the file pointers in the control files of the
associated database are dropped. The datafiles that constituted the dropped
tablespace continue to exist. To free previously used disk space, delete the datafiles
of the dropped tablespace using the appropriate commands of your operating
system after completing this procedure.
You cannot drop a tablespace that contains any active segments. For example, if a
table in the tablespace is currently being used or the tablespace contains an active
rollback segment, you cannot drop the tablespace. For simplicity, take the
tablespace offline before dropping it.
After a tablespace is dropped, the tablespace’s entry remains in the data dictionary
(see the DBA_TABLESPACES view), but the tablespace’s status is changed to
INVALID.
To drop a tablespace, use the SQL command DROP TABLESPACE. The following
statement drops the USERS tablespace, including the segments in the tablespace:
DROP TABLESPACE users INCLUDING CONTENTS;

If the tablespace is empty (does not contain any tables, views, or other structures),
you do not need to check the Including Contained Objects checkbox. If the
tablespace contains any tables with primary or unique keys referenced by foreign
keys of tables in other tablespaces and you want to cascade the drop of the
FOREIGN KEY constraints of the child tables, select the Cascade Drop of Integrity
Constraints checkbox to drop the tablespace.
Use the CASCADE CONSTRAINTS option of the DROP TABLESPACE statement to
cascade the drop of the FOREIGN KEY constraints in the child tables.

Managing Tablespaces 9-15

Using the DBMS_SPACE_ADMIN Package

See Also: For more information about taking tablespaces offline, see "Taking
Tablespaces Offline" on page 9-10.
For more information about the DROP TABLESPACE statement, see the Oracle8i SQL
Reference.

Using the DBMS_SPACE_ADMIN Package

The DBMS_SPACE_ADMIN package provides administrators with defect diagnosis
and repair functionality. The following scenarios describe typical situations in
which you can use the DBMS_SPACE_ADMIN package to diagnose and resolve
problems.
The DBMS_SPACE_ADMIN package contains the following procedures:
■ SEGMENT_VERIFY
■ SEGMENT_CORRUPT
■ SEGMENT_DROP_CORRUPT
■ SEGMENT_DUMP
■ TABLESPACE_VERIFY
■ TABLESPACE_REBUILD_BITMAPS
■ TABLESPACE_FIX_BITMAPS
■ TABLESPACE_MIGRATE_TO_BITMAP
■ TABELSPACE_MIGRATE_FROM_BITMAP
See Also: For details about these procedures, see the Oracle8i Supplied Packages
Reference.

Scenario 1
The TABLESPACE_VERIFY procedure discovers that a segment has allocated
blocks that are marked "free" in the bit map, but no overlap between segments was
reported.
In this scenario, perform the following tasks:
■ Call the SEGMENT_EXTENT_MAP_DUMP procedure to dump the ranges that
the administrator allocated to the segment.

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 Using the DBMS_SPACE_ADMIN Package

■ For each range, call the TABLESPACE_FIX_BITMAPS procedure with the

TABLESPACE_MAKE_USED option to mark the space as used.

Scenario 2
You cannot drop a segment because the bit map has segment blocks marked "free."
The system has automatically marked it corrupt.
In this scenario, perform the following tasks:
■ Call the SEGMENT_VERIFY procedure with the SEGMENT_CHECK_ALL
option. If no overlaps are reported, perform the following:
■ Call the SEGMENT_EXTENT_MAP_DUMP procedure to dump the ranges
that the administrator allocated to the segment.
■ For each range, call the TABLESPACE_FIX_BITMAPS procedure with the
TABLESPACE_MAKE_FREE option to mark the space as "free."
■ Call the SEGMENT_DROP_CORRUPT procedure to drop the SEG$ entry.

Scenario 3
The TABLESPACE_VERIFY procedure has reported some overlapping. Some of the
real data must be sacrificed based on previous internal errors.
After choosing the object to be sacrificed, say table T1, perform the following tasks:
■ Make a list of all objects that T1 overlaps.
■ Drop table T1. If necessary, follow up by calling the
SEGMENT_DROP_CORRUPT procedure.
■ Call the SEGMENT_VERIFY procedure on all objects that T1 overlapped. If
necessary, call the TABLESPACE_FIX_BITMAPS procedure to mark appropriate
bit maps as used.
■ Rerun the TABLESPACE_VERIFY procedure to verify the problem is resolved.

Scenario 4
A set of bitmap blocks has media corruption.
In this scenario, perform the following tasks:
■ Call the TABLESPACE_REBUILD_MAPS procedure, either on all bitmap
blocks, or on a single block if only one is corrupt.

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Transporting Tablespaces Between Databases

■ Call the TABLESPACE_VERIFY procedure to verify that the bit maps are
consistent.
See Also: For more information about the DBMS_SPACE_ADMIN package, see the
Oracle8i Supplied Packages Reference.

Transporting Tablespaces Between Databases

This section describes how to transport tablespaces between databases, and
includes the following topics:
■ Introduction to Transportable Tablespaces
■ Current Limitations
■ Step 1: Pick a Self-contained Set of Tablespaces
■ Step 2: Generate a Transportable Tablespace Set
■ Step 3: Transport the Tablespace Set
■ Step 4: Plug In the Tablespace Set
■ Object Behaviors
■ Transporting and Attaching Partitions for Data Warehousing: Example
■ Publishing Structured Data on CDs
■ Mounting the Same Tablespace Read-only on Multiple Databases
■ Archive Historical Data via Transportable Tablespaces
■ Using Transportable Tablespaces to Perform TSPITR

Introduction to Transportable Tablespaces

Note: You must have the Oracle8i Enterprise Edition of Oracle to
generate a transportable tablespace set. However, you can use any
edition of Oracle (Enterprise, Work group, or Personal Oracle8i) to
plug a transportable tablespace set into an Oracle database.

You can use transportable tablespaces to move a subset of an Oracle database and
"plug" it in to another Oracle database, essentially moving tablespaces between the
databases. Transporting tablespaces is particularly useful for:

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■ Feeding data from OLTP systems to data warehouse staging systems

■ Updating data warehouses and data marts from staging systems
■ Loading data marts from central data warehouses
■ Archiving OLTP and data warehouse systems efficiently
■ Data publishing to internal and external customers
Moving data via transportable tablespaces can be much faster than performing
either an import/export or unload/load of the same data, because transporting a
tablespace only requires the copying of datafiles and integrating the tablespace
structural information. You can also use transportable tablespaces to move index
data, thereby avoiding the index rebuilds you would have to perform when
importing or loading table data.
To move or copy a set of tablespaces you must perform the following tasks:
■ Step 1: Pick a Self-contained Set of Tablespaces
■ Step 2: Generate a Transportable Tablespace Set
A transportable set consists of datafiles for the set of tablespaces being
transported and a file containing structural information for the set of
tablespaces.
■ Step 3: Transport the Tablespace Set
Copy the datafiles and the export file to the target database. You can do this
using any facility for copying flat files (for example, an O/S copying utility, ftp,
or publishing on CDs)
■ Step 4: Plug In the Tablespace Set
Invoke Import to plug the set of tablespaces into the target database.
See Also: For more details about transportable tablespaces and their use in data
marts and data warehousing, see Oracle8i Concepts.
For information about using transportable tablespaces to perform media recovery,
see the Oracle8i Backup and Recovery Guide.
For information about transportable tablespace compatibility issues (between
different Oracle releases), see Oracle8i Migration.

Managing Tablespaces 9-19

Transporting Tablespaces Between Databases

Current Limitations
Be aware of the following limitations as you plan for and use transportable
tablespaces:
■ The source and target database must be on the same hardware platform. For
example, you can transport tablespaces between Sun Solaris Oracle databases,
or you can transport tablespaces between NT Oracle databases. However, you
cannot transport a tablespace from a SUN Solaris Oracle database to an NT
Oracle database.
■ The source and target database must have the same database block size.
■ The source and target database must use the same character set.
■ You cannot transport a tablespace to a target database in which a tablespace
with the same name already exists.
■ Currently, transportable tablespaces do not support:
– snapshot/replication
– function-based indexes
– Scoped REFs
– domain indexes (a new type of index provided by extensible indexing)
– 8.0-compatible advanced queues with multiple recipients

Step 1: Pick a Self-contained Set of Tablespaces

You can only transport a set of tablespaces that is self-contained. In this context
"self-contained" means that there are no references from inside the set of tablespaces
pointing outside of the tablespaces. For example, if there is an index in the set of
tablespaces for a table that is outside of the set of tablespaces, then the set of
tablespaces is not self-contained.
The tablespace set you wish to copy must contain either all partitions of a
partitioned table, or none of the partitions of a partitioned table. If you wish to
transport a subset of a partition table, you must exchange the partitions into tables.
When transporting a set of tablespaces, you can choose to include referential
integrity constraints. However, doing so can determine whether or not a set of
tablespaces is self-contained. If you decide not to transport constraints, then the
constraints are not considered as pointers. Some examples of self contained
tablespace violations follow:

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■ An index inside the set of tablespaces is for a table outside of the set of
tablespaces.
■ A partitioned table is partially contained in the set of tablespaces.
■ A table inside the set of tablespaces contains a LOB column that points to LOBs
outside the set of tablespaces.
To determine whether a set of tablespaces is self-contained, you can invoke a built-
in PL/SQL procedure, giving it the list of the tablespace names and indicating that
you wish to transport referential integrity constraints. For example, suppose you
want to determine whether tablespaces ts1 and ts2 are self-contained (with
constraints taken into consideration). You can issue the following command:
execute dbms_tts.transport_set_check(’ts1,ts2’, TRUE)

Here, transport_set_check is a PL/SQL routine in the PL/SQL package

DBMS_TTS, with the following prototype:
PROCEDURE transport_set_check(ts_list IN varchar2, incl_constraints IN boolean)

ts_list - list of tablespace names separated by comma

incl_constraints - TRUE if one would like to take constraints into consideration. FALSE
otherwise.

After invoking this PL/SQL routine, you can see all violations by selecting from the
TRANSPORT_SET_VIOLATIONS view. If the set of tablespaces is self-contained,
this view will be empty. If the set of tablespaces is not self-contained, this view lists
all the violations. For example, suppose there are two violations: a foreign key
constraint, dept_fk, across the tablespace set boundary, and a partitioned table,
sales, that is partially contained in the tablespace set. Querying
TRANSPORT_SET_VIOLATIONS results in the following:
select * from transport_set_violations;
VIOLATIONS
------------------------------------
Constraint DEPT_FK between table JIM.EMP in tablespace FOO and table JIM.DEPT in
tablespace OTHER
Partitioned table JIM.SALES is partially contained in the transportable set

Object references (such as REFs) across the tablespace set are not considered
violations. REFs are not checked by the TRANSPORT_SET_CHECK routine. When
a tablespace containing dangling REFs is plugged into a database, queries following
that dangling REF indicate user error.
See Also: For more information about REFs, see the Oracle8i Application Developer’s
Guide - Fundamentals.

Managing Tablespaces 9-21

Transporting Tablespaces Between Databases

Step 2: Generate a Transportable Tablespace Set

After identifying the self-contained set of tablespaces you want to transport,
generate a transportable set by performing the following tasks:
1. Make all tablespaces in the set you are copying read-only. Of course, if the
tablespaces are already read-only, you do not have to perform this step.
ALTER TABLESPACE sales READ ONLY;

2. Invoke the Export utility and specify which tablespaces are in the transportable
set, as follows:
EXP TRANSPORT_TABLESPACE=y TABLESPACES=sales_1,sales_2
TRIGGERS=y/n CONSTRAINTS=y/n GRANTS=y/n FILE=expdat.dmp

Note: Although the Export utility is used, only data dictionary

structural information is exported. Hence, this operation is even
quicker for a large tablespace.

When prompted, connect as "sys as sysdba."

You must always specify TABLESPACES. The FILE parameter specifies the
name of the structural information export file to be created.
If you set TRIGGERS=n, triggers are not exported. If you set TRIGGERS=y,
triggers are exported without a validity check. Invalid triggers cause
compilation errors during the subsequent import.
If you set GRANTS=y, all grants on the exported tables are exported too;
otherwise, all GRANTS are ignored.
If you set CONSTRAINTS=y, referential integrity constraints are exported;
otherwise, referential integrity constraints are ignored.
The default setting for all of these options is ’y.’
3. Copy the datafiles to a separate storage space or to the target database.
4. If necessary, put the tablespaces in the copied set back into read-write mode as
follows:
ALTER TABLESPACE sales_1 READ WRITE;

If the tablespace sets being transported are not self-contained, export will fail and
indicate that the transportable set is not self-contained. You must then return to Step
1 to resolve all violations.

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Step 3: Transport the Tablespace Set

Transport both the datafiles and the export file to a place accessible to the target
database. You can use any facility for copying flat files (for example, an O/S
copying utility, ftp, or publishing on CDs).

Step 4: Plug In the Tablespace Set

To plug in a tablespace set, perform the following tasks:
1. Put the copied tablespace set datafiles in a location where the target database
can access them.
2. Plug in the tablespaces and integrate the structural information using the
following import statement:
IMP TRANSPORT_TABLESPACE=y DATAFILES=’/db/sales_jan’,’/db/sales_feb’,...fn
TABLESPACES=sales_1,sales_2,... TTS_OWNERS=dcranney,jfee
FROMUSER=dcranney,jfee TOUSER=smith,williams FILE=expdat.dmp

When prompted, connect as "sys as sysdba."

Following are two more examples:
IMP TRANSPORT_TABLESPACE=y DATAFILES=’(/db/staging1.f,/db/staging2.f)’

IMP TRANSPORT_TABLESPACE=y DATAFILES=’/db/staging.f’ TABLESPACES=jan OWNERS=smith

You must specify DATAFILES.

TABLESPACES,TTS_OWNERS, FROMUSER and TOUSER are optional. The
FILE parameter specifies the name of the structural information export file.
When you specify TABLESPACES, the supplied tablespace names are compared
to those in the export file. Import returns an error if there is any mismatch.
Otherwise, tablespace names are extracted from the export file.
TTS_OWNERS lists all users who own data in the tablespace set. When you
specify TTS_OWNERS, the user names are compared to those in the export file.
Import returns an error if there is any mismatch. Otherwise, owner names are
extracted from the export file.
If you do not specify FROMUSER and TOUSER, all database objects (such as
tables and indexes) will be created under the same user as in the source
database. Those users must already exist in the target database. If not, import
will return an error indicating that some required users do not exist in the target
database.

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Transporting Tablespaces Between Databases

You can use FROMUSER and TOUSER to change the owners of objects. For
example, if you specify FROMUSER=dcranney,jfee TOUSER=smith,
williams, objects in the tablespace set owned by dcranney in the source
database will be owned by smith in the target database after the tablespace set
is plugged in. Similarly, objects owned by jfee in the source database will be
owned by williams in the target database. In this case, the target database
does not have to have users dcranney and jfee, but must have users smith
and williams.
After this statement successfully executes, all tablespaces in the set being copied
remain in read-only mode. You should check the import logs to ensure no error
has occurred. At this point, you can issue the ALTER TABLESPACE...READ
WRITE statement to place the new tablespaces in read-write mode.
When dealing with a large number of datafiles, specifying the list of datafile names
in the command line can be a laborious process; it may even exceed the command
line limit. In this situation, you may use an import parameter file. For example, one
of the commands in this step is equivalent to the following:
IMP PARFILE=’par.f’

The file par.f contains the following:

TRANSPORT_TABLESPACE=y
DATAFILES=/db/staging.f
TABLESPACES=jan
TT_OWNERS=smith

To transport a tablespace between databases, both the source and target database
must be running Oracle8i, with the init.ora compatibility parameter set to 8.1.

Object Behaviors
Most objects, whether data in a tablespace or structural information associated with
the tablespace, behave normally after being transported to a different database.
However, the following objects are exceptions:
■ ROWIDs
■ REFs
■ Privileges
■ Partitioned Tables
■ Objects

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 Transporting Tablespaces Between Databases

■ Advanced Queues
■ Indexes
■ Triggers
■ Snapshots/Replication

ROWIDs
When a database contains tablespaces that have been plugged in (from other
databases), the ROWIDs in that database are no longer unique. A ROWID is
guaranteed unique only within a table.

REFs
REFs are not checked when Oracle determines if a set of tablespaces is self-
contained. As a result, a plugged-in tablespace may contain dangling REFs. Any
query following dangling REFs returns a user error.

Privileges
Privileges are transported if you specify GRANTS=y during export. During import,
some grants may fail. For example, the user being granted a certain right may not
exist, or a role being granted a particular right may not exist.

Partitioned Tables
You cannot move a partitioned table via transportable tablespaces when only a
subset of the partitioned table is contained in the set of tablespaces. You must
ensure that all partitions in a table are in the tablespace set, or exchange the
partitions into tables before copying the tablespace set. However, you should note
that exchanging partitions with tables invalidates the global index of the partitioned
table.
At the target database, you can exchange the tables back into partitions if there is
already a partitioned table that exactly matches the column in the target database. If
all partitions of that table come from the same foreign database, the exchange
operation is guaranteed to succeed. If they do not, in rare cases, the exchange
operation may return an error indicating that there is a data object number conflict.
If you receive a data object conflict number error when exchanging tables back into
partitions, you can move the offending partition using the ALTER TABLE MOVE
PARTITION statement. After doing so, retry the exchange operation.

Managing Tablespaces 9-25

Transporting Tablespaces Between Databases

If you specify the WITHOUT VALIDATION option of the exchange statement, the
statement will return immediately because it only manipulates structural
information. Moving partitions, however, may be slow because the data in the
partition can be copied. See "Transporting and Attaching Partitions for Data
Warehousing: Example" on page 9-27 for an example using partitioned tables.

Objects
A transportable tablespace set can contain:
■ tables
■ indexes
■ bitmap indexes
■ index-organized tables
■ LOBs
■ nested tables
■ varrays
■ tables with user-defined type columns
If the tablespace set contains a pointer to a BFILE, you must move the BFILE and set
the directory correctly in the target database.

Advanced Queues
You can use transportable tablespaces to move or copy Oracle advanced queues, as
long as these queues are not 8.0-compatible queues with multiple recipients. After a
queue is transported to a target database, the queue is initially disabled. After
making the transported tablespaces read-write in the target database, you can
enable the queue by starting it up via the built-in PL/SQL routine
dbms_aqadm.start_queue().

Indexes
You can transport regular indexes and bitmap indexes. When the transportable set
fully contains a partitioned table, you can also transport the global index of the
partitioned table.
Function-based indexes and domain indexes are not supported. If they exist in a
tablespace, you must drop them before you can transport the tablespace.

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Triggers
Triggers are exported without a validity check. In other words, Oracle does not
verify that the trigger refers only to objects within the transportable set. Invalid
triggers will cause a compilation error during the subsequent import.

Snapshots/Replication
Transporting snapshot or replication structural information is not supported. If a
table in the tablespace you want to transport is replicated, you must drop the
replication structural information and convert the table into a normal table before
you can transport the tablespace.

Transporting and Attaching Partitions for Data Warehousing: Example

Typical enterprise data warehouses contain one or more large fact tables. These fact
tables may be partitioned by date, making the enterprise data warehouse a
historical database. You can build indexes to speed up star queries. In fact, Oracle
recommends that you build local indexes for such historically partitioned tables to
avoid rebuilding global indexes every time you drop the oldest partition from the
historical database.
Suppose every month you would like to load one month’s worth of data into the
data warehouse. There is a large fact table in the data warehouse called "sales",
which has the following columns:
CREATE TABLE sales (invoice_no NUMBER,
sale_year INT NOT NULL,
sale_month INT NOT NULL,
sale_day INT NOT NULL)
PARTITION BY RANGE (sale_year, sale_month, sale_day)
(partition jan98 VALUES LESS THAN (1998, 2, 1),
partition feb98 VALUES LESS THAN (1998, 3, 1),
partition mar98 VALUES LESS THAN (1998, 4, 1),
partition apr98 VALUES LESS THAN (1998, 5, 1),
partition may98 VALUES LESS THAN (1998, 6, 1),
partition jun98 VALUES LESS THAN (1998, 7, 1));

You create a local nonprefixed index:

CREATE INDEX sales_index ON sales(invoice_no) LOCAL;

Initially, all partitions are empty, and are in the same default tablespace. Each
month, you wish to create one partition and attach it to the partitioned sales
table.

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Transporting Tablespaces Between Databases

Suppose it is July 1998, and you would like to load the July sales data into the
partitioned table. In a staging database, you create a new tablespace, ts_jul. You
also create a table, jul_sales, in that tablespace with exactly the same column
types as the sales table. You can create the table jul_sales using the CREATE
TABLE...AS SELECT statement. After creating and populating jul_sales, you can
also create an index, jul_sale_index, for the table, indexing the same column as
the local indexes in the sales table. After building the index, transport the
tablespace ts_jul to the data warehouse.
In the data warehouse, add a partition to the sales table for the July sales data.
This also creates another partition for the local nonprefixed index:
ALTER TABLE sales ADD PARTITION jul98 VALUES LESS THAN (1998, 8, 1);

Attach the transported table jul_sales to the table sales by exchanging it with
the new partition:
ALTER TABLE sales EXCHANGE PARTITION jul98 WITH TABLE jul_sales INCLUDING INDEXES
WITHOUT VALIDATION;

This statement places the July sales data into the new partition jul98, attaching the
new data to the partitioned table. This statement also converts the index
jul_sale_index into a partition of the local index for the sales table. This
statement should return immediately, because it only operates on the structural
information; it simply switches database pointers. If you know that the data in the
new partition does not overlap with data in previous partitions, you are advised to
specify the WITHOUT VALIDATION option; otherwise the statement will go
through all the new data in the new partition in an attempt to validate the range of
that partition.
If all partitions of the sales table came from the same staging database (the staging
database is never destroyed), the exchange statement will always succeed. In
general, however, if data in a partitioned table comes from different databases, it’s
possible that the exchange operation may fail. For example, if the jan98 partition
of sales did not come from the same staging database, the above exchange
operation can fail, returning the following error:
ORA-19728: data object number conflict between table JUL_SALES and partition JAN98 in
table SALES

To resolve this conflict, move the offending partition by issuing the following
statement:
ALTER TABLE sales MOVE PARTITION jan98;

Then retry the exchange operation.

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After the exchange succeeds, you can safely drop jul_sales and
jul_sale_index (both are now empty). Thus you have successfully loaded the
July sales data into your data warehouse.

Publishing Structured Data on CDs

Transportable tablespaces provide a way to publish structured data on CDs. A data
provider may load a tablespace with data to be published, generate the
transportable set, and copy the transportable set to a CD. This CD can then be
distributed.
When customers receive this CD, they can plug it in to an existing database without
having to copy the datafiles from the CD to disk storage. For example, suppose on
an NT machine D: drive is the CD drive. You can plug in a transportable set with
datafile catalog.f and export file expdat.dmp as follows:
IMP TRANSPORT_TABLESPACE=y DATAFILES=’D:\catalog.f’ FILE=’D:\expdat.dmp’

You can remove the CD while the database is still up. Subsequent queries to the
tablespace will return an error indicating that Oracle cannot open the datafiles on
the CD. However, operations to other parts of the datafile are not affected. Placing
the CD back into the drive makes the tablespace readable again.
Removing the CD is the same as removing the datafiles for a read-only tablespace.
If you shut down and restart the database, Oracle will indicate that it cannot find
the removed datafile and will not open the database (unless you set the
initialization parameter READ_ONLY_OPEN_DELAYED to true). When
READ_ONLY_OPEN_DELAYED is set to TRUE, Oracle reads the file only when
someone queries the plugged-in tablespace. Thus, when plugging in a tablespace on
a CD, you should always set the READ_ONLY_OPEN_DELAYED initialization
parameter to TRUE, unless the CD is permanently attached to the database.

Mounting the Same Tablespace Read-only on Multiple Databases

You can use transportable tablespaces to mount a tablespace read-only on multiple
databases. In this way, separate databases can share the same data on disk instead
of duplicating data on separate disks. The tablespace datafiles must be accessible by
all databases. To avoid database corruption, the tablespace must remain read-only
in all the databases mounting the tablespace.
You can mount the same tablespace read-only on multiple databases in either of the
following ways:

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Transporting Tablespaces Between Databases

■ Plug the tablespaces into each of the databases you wish to mount the
tablespace. Generate a transportable set in a single database. Put the datafiles in
the transportable set on a disk accessible to all databases. Import the structural
information into each database.
■ Generate the transportable set in one of the databases and plug it into other
databases. If you use this approach, it is assumed that the datafiles are already
on the shared disk, and they belong to an existing tablespace in one of the
databases. You can make the tablespace read-only, generate the transportable
set, and then plug the tablespace in to other databases while the datafiles
remain in the same location on the shared disk.
You can make the disk accessible by multiple computers via several ways. You may
use either a clustered file system or raw disk, as that is required by Oracle Parallel
Server. Because Oracle will only read these type of datafiles on shared disk, you can
also use NFS. Be aware, however, that if a user queries the shared tablespace while
NFS is down, the database may hang until the NFS operation times out.
Later, you can drop the read-only tablespace in some of the databases. Doing so will
not modify the datafiles for the tablespace; thus the drop operation will not corrupt
the tablespace. Do not make the tablespace read-write unless only one database is
mounting the tablespace.

Archive Historical Data via Transportable Tablespaces

Since a transportable tablespace set is a self-contained set of files that can be
plugged into any Oracle database, you can archive old/historical data in an
enterprise data warehouse via the transportable tablespace procedures described in
this chapter.
See Also: For more details, see the Oracle8i Backup and Recovery Guide.

Using Transportable Tablespaces to Perform TSPITR

You can use transportable tablespaces to perform tablespace point-in-time recovery
(TSPITR).
See Also: For information about how to perform TSPITR using transportable
tablespaces, see the Oracle8i Backup and Recovery Guide.

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 Viewing Information About Tablespaces

Viewing Information About Tablespaces

The following data dictionary views provide useful information about tablespaces
of a database:
■ USER_EXTENTS, DBA_EXTENTS
■ USER_SEGMENTS, DBA_SEGMENTS
■ USER_FREE_SPACE, DBA_FREE_SPACE
■ DBA_USERS
■ DBA_TS_QUOTAS
■ USER_TABLESPACES, DBA_TABLESPACES
■ DBA_DATA_FILES
■ V$DATAFILE
The following examples illustrate how to use the views not already illustrated in
other chapters of this manual. They assume you are using a database that contains
two tablespaces, SYSTEM and USERS. USERS is made up of two files, FILE1
(100MB) and FILE2 (200MB); the tablespace has been taken offline normally.

Listing Tablespaces and Default Storage Parameters: Example

To list the names and default storage parameters of all tablespaces in a database,
use the following query on the DBA_TABLESPACES view:
SELECT tablespace_name "TABLESPACE",
initial_extent "INITIAL_EXT",
next_extent "NEXT_EXT",
min_extents "MIN_EXT",
max_extents "MAX_EXT",
pct_increase
FROM sys.dba_tablespaces;

TABLESPACE INITIAL_EXT NEXT_EXT MIN_EXT MAX_EXT PCT_INCREASE

---------- ----------- -------- ------- ------- ------------
SYSTEM 10240000 10240000 1 99 50
USERS 10240000 10240000 1 99 50

Listing the Datafiles and Associated Tablespaces of a Database: Example

To list the names, sizes, and associated tablespaces of a database, enter the
following query on the DBA_DATA_FILES view:

Managing Tablespaces 9-31

Viewing Information About Tablespaces

SELECT file_name, bytes, tablespace_name

FROM sys.dba_data_files;

FILE_NAME BYTES TABLESPACE_NAME

------------ ---------- -------------------
filename1 10240000 SYSTEM
filename2 10240000 USERS
filename3 20480000 USERS

Listing the Free Space (Extents) of Each Tablespace: Example

To see the amount of space available in the free extents of each tablespace in the
database, enter the following query:
SELECT tablespace_name "TABLESPACE", file_id,
COUNT(*) "PIECES",
MAX(blocks) "MAXIMUM",
MIN(blocks) "MINIMUM",
AVG(blocks) "AVERAGE",
SUM(blocks) "TOTAL"
FROM sys.dba_free_space
WHERE tablespace_name = ’SYSTEM’
GROUP BY tablespace_name, file_id;

TABLESPACE FILE_ID PIECES MAXIMUM MINIMUM AVERAGE TOTAL

---------- ------- ------ ------- ------- ------- ------
SYSTEM 1 2 2928 115 1521.5 3043

TOTAL shows the amount of free space in each tablespace, PIECES shows the
amount of fragmentation in the datafiles of the tablespace, and MAXIMUM shows
the largest contiguous area of space. This query is useful when you are going to
create a new object or you know that a segment is about to extend, and you want to
make sure that there is enough space in the containing tablespace.

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 10
Managing Datafiles

This chapter describes the various aspects of datafile management, and includes the
following topics:
■ Guidelines for Managing Datafiles
■ Creating and Adding Datafiles to a Tablespace
■ Changing a Datafile’s Size
■ Altering Datafile Availability
■ Renaming and Relocating Datafiles
■ Verifying Data Blocks in Datafiles
■ Viewing Information About Datafiles
See Also: Datafiles can also be created as part of database recovery from a media
failure. For more information, see the Oracle8i Backup and Recovery Guide.

Managing Datafiles 10-1

Guidelines for Managing Datafiles

Guidelines for Managing Datafiles

This section describes aspects of managing datafiles, and includes the following
topics:
■ Determine the Number of Datafiles
■ Set the Size of Datafiles
■ Place Datafiles Appropriately
■ Store Datafiles Separate From Redo Log Files
Every datafile has two associated file numbers: an absolute file number and a relative
file number.
An absolute file number uniquely identifies a datafile in the database. Prior to
Oracle8, the absolute file number was referred to as simply the "file number."
A relative file number uniquely identifies a datafile within a tablespace. For small
and medium size databases, relative file numbers usually have the same value as
the absolute file number. However, when the number of datafiles in a database
exceeds a threshold (typically 1023), the relative file number will differ from the
absolute file number. You can locate relative file numbers in many data dictionary
views.

Determine the Number of Datafiles

At least one datafile is required for the SYSTEM tablespace of a database; a small
system might have a single datafile. In general, keeping a few large datafiles is
preferable to many small datafiles, because you can keep fewer files open at the
same time.
You can add datafiles to tablespaces, subject to the following operating system-
specific datafile limits:
operating system limit Each operating system sets a limit on the
maximum number of open files per process.
Regardless of all other limits, more datafiles
cannot be created when the operating system
limit of open files is reached.
Oracle system limit Oracle imposes a maximum limit on the
number of datafiles for any Oracle database
opened by any instance. This limit is port-
specific.

10-2 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Guidelines for Managing Datafiles

control file upper bound When you issue CREATE DATABASE or

CREATE CONTROLFILE statements, the
MAXDATAFILES parameter specifies an
initial size of the datafile portion of the
control file. Later, if you add a file whose
number exceeds MAXDATAFILES but is less
than or equal to DB_FILES, the control file
automatically expands to allow the datafile
portion to accommodate more files.
instance or SGA upper bound When starting an Oracle8 instance, the
database’s parameter file indicates the
amount of SGA space to reserve for datafile
information; the maximum number of
datafiles is controlled by the DB_FILES
parameter. This limit applies only for the life
of the instance.
Note: The default value of DB_FILES is
operating system specific.
With the Oracle Parallel Server, all instances
must set the instance datafile upper bound to
the same value.

When determining a value for DB_FILES, take the following into consideration:
■ If the value of DB_FILES is too low, you will be unable to add datafiles beyond
the DB_FILES limit without first shutting down the database.
■ IF the value of DB_FILES is too high, memory is unnecessarily consumed.
Theoretically, an Oracle database can have an unlimited number of datafiles.
Nevertheless, you should consider the following when determining the number of
datafiles:
■ Performance is better with a small number of datafiles rather than a large
number of small datafiles. Large files also increase the granularity of a
recoverable unit.
■ Operating systems often impose a limit on the number of files a process can
open simultaneously. Oracle’s DBW0 process can open all online datafiles.
Oracle is also capable of treating open file descriptors as a cache, automatically
closing files when the number of open file descriptors reaches the operating
system-defined limit.

Managing Datafiles 10-3

Guidelines for Managing Datafiles

Oracle allows more datafiles in the database than the operating system-defined
limit; this can have a negative performance impact. When possible, adjust the
operating system limit on open file descriptors so that it is larger than the number
of online datafiles in the database.
The operating system specific limit on the maximum number of datafiles allowed in
a tablespace is typically 1023 files.
See Also: For more information on operating system limits, see your operating
system-specific Oracle documentation.
For information about Parallel Server operating system limits, see Oracle8i Parallel
Server Concepts and Administration.
For more information about MAXDATAFILES, see the Oracle8i SQL Reference.

Set the Size of Datafiles

The first datafile (in the original SYSTEM tablespace) must be at least 7M to contain
the initial data dictionary and rollback segment. If you install other Oracle products,
they may require additional space in the SYSTEM tablespace (for online help, for
example); see the installation instructions for these products.

Place Datafiles Appropriately

Tablespace location is determined by the physical location of the datafiles that
constitute that tablespace. Use the hardware resources of your computer
appropriately.
For example, if several disk drives are available to store the database, it might be
helpful to store table data in a tablespace on one disk drive, and index data in a
tablespace on another disk drive. This way, when users query table information,
both disk drives can work simultaneously, retrieving table and index data at the
same time.

Store Datafiles Separate From Redo Log Files

Datafiles should not be stored on the same disk drive that stores the database’s redo
log files. If the datafiles and redo log files are stored on the same disk drive and that
disk drive fails, the files cannot be used in your database recovery procedures.
If you multiplex your redo log files, then the likelihood of losing all of your redo log
files is low, so you can store datafiles on the same drive as some redo log files.

10-4 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Changing a Datafile’s Size

Creating and Adding Datafiles to a Tablespace

You can create and add datafiles to a tablespace to increase the total amount of disk
space allocated for the tablespace, and consequently the database.
Ideally, when creating a tablespace DBAs should estimate the potential size of the
database objects and add sufficient files or devices. Doing so ensures that data is
spread evenly across all devices.
To add datafiles to a tablespace, use either the Add Datafile dialog box of Enterprise
Manager/GUI, or the SQL command ALTER TABLESPACE. You must have the
ALTER TABLESPACE system privilege to add datafiles to a tablespace.
The following statement creates a new datafile for the RB_SEGS tablespace:
ALTER TABLESPACE rb_segs
ADD DATAFILE ’filename1’ SIZE 1M;

If you add new datafiles to a tablespace and do not fully specify the filenames,
Oracle creates the datafiles in the default directory of the database server. Unless
you want to reuse existing files, make sure the new filenames do not conflict with
other files; the old files that have been previously dropped will be overwritten.

Changing a Datafile’s Size

This section describes the various ways to alter the size of a datafile, and includes
the following topics:
■ Enabling and Disabling Automatic Extension for a Datafile
■ Manually Resizing a Datafile

Enabling and Disabling Automatic Extension for a Datafile

You can create datafiles or alter existing datafiles so that they automatically increase
in size when more space is needed in the database. The files increase in specified
increments up to a specified maximum.
Setting your datafiles to extend automatically results in the following:
■ reduces the need for immediate intervention when a tablespace runs out of
space
■ ensures applications will not halt because of failures to allocate extents

Managing Datafiles 10-5

Changing a Datafile’s Size

To find out if a datafile is auto-extensible, query the DBA_DATA_FILES view and

examine the AUTOEXTENSIBLE column.
You can specify automatic file extension when you create datafiles via the following
SQL commands:
■ CREATE DATABASE
■ CREATE TABLESPACE
■ ALTER TABLESPACE
You can enable or disable automatic file extension for existing datafiles, or manually
resize a datafile using the SQL statement ALTER DATABASE.
The following example enables automatic extension for a datafile, FILENAME2,
added to the USERS tablespace:
ALTER TABLESPACE users
ADD DATAFILE ’filename2’ SIZE 10M
AUTOEXTEND ON
NEXT 512K
MAXSIZE 250M;

The value of NEXT is the minimum size of the increments added to the file when it
extends. The value of MAXSIZE is the maximum size to which the file can
automatically extend.
The next example disables automatic extension for the datafile FILENAME2:
ALTER DATABASE DATAFILE ’filename2’
AUTOEXTEND OFF;

See Also: For more information about the SQL statements for creating or altering
datafiles, see the Oracle8i SQL Reference.

Manually Resizing a Datafile

You can manually increase or decrease the size of a datafile using the ALTER
DATABASE command.
Because you can change the sizes of datafiles, you can add more space to your
database without adding more datafiles. This is beneficial if you are concerned
about reaching the maximum number of datafiles allowed in your database.
Manually reducing the sizes of datafiles allows you to reclaim unused space in the
database. This is useful for correcting errors in estimates of space requirements.

10-6 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Altering Datafile Availability

In this example, assume that the datafile FILENAME2 has extended up to 250M.
However, because its tablespace now stores smaller objects, the datafile can be
reduced in size.
The following command decreases the size of datafile FILENAME2:
ALTER DATABASE DATAFILE ’filename2’
RESIZE 100M;

Note: It is not always possible to decrease the size of a file to a

specific value.

See Also: For more information about the implications resizing files has for
downgrading, see Oracle8i Migration.
For more information about the ALTER DATABASE statement, see the Oracle8i SQL
Reference.

Altering Datafile Availability

This section describes ways to alter datafile availability, and includes the following
topics:
■ Bringing Datafiles Online in ARCHIVELOG Mode
■ Taking Datafiles Offline in NOARCHIVELOG Mode
In very rare situations, you might need to bring specific datafiles online (make them
available) or take specific files offline (make them unavailable). For example, when
Oracle has problems writing to a datafile, it can automatically take the datafile
offline. You might need to take the damaged datafile offline or bring it online
manually.

Note: You can make all datafiles in a tablespace, other than the
files in the SYSTEM tablespace, temporarily unavailable by taking
the tablespace offline. You must leave these files in the tablespace to
bring the tablespace back online.

Offline datafiles cannot be accessed. Bringing online a datafile in a read-only

tablespace makes the file readable. No one can write to the file unless its associated
tablespace is returned to the read-write state. The files of a read-only tablespace can

Managing Datafiles 10-7

Altering Datafile Availability

independently be taken online or offline using the DATAFILE option of the ALTER
DATABASE command.
To bring a datafile online or take it offline, in either archiving mode, you must have
the ALTER DATABASE system privilege. You can perform these operations only
when the database is open in exclusive mode.

Bringing Datafiles Online in ARCHIVELOG Mode

To bring an individual datafile online, issue the SQL statement ALTER DATABASE
and include the DATAFILE parameter.

Note: To use this option of the ALTER DATABASE statement, the

database must be in ARCHIVELOG mode. This requirement
prevents you from accidentally losing the datafile, since taking the
datafile offline while in NOARCHIVELOG mode is likely to result
in losing the file.

The following statement brings the specified datafile online:

ALTER DATABASE DATAFILE ’filename’ ONLINE;

See Also: For more information about bringing datafiles online during media
recovery, see the Oracle8i Backup and Recovery Guide.

Taking Datafiles Offline in NOARCHIVELOG Mode

To take a datafile offline when the database is in NOARCHIVELOG mode, use the
ALTER DATABASE command with the DATAFILE parameter and the OFFLINE
DROP option. This allows you to take the datafile offline and drop it immediately. It
is useful, for example, if the datafile contains only data from temporary segments
and has not been backed up and the database is in NOARCHIVELOG mode.
The following statement brings the specified datafile offline:
ALTER DATABASE DATAFILE ’filename’ OFFLINE DROP;

10-8 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Renaming and Relocating Datafiles

Renaming and Relocating Datafiles

This section describes the various aspects of renaming and relocating datafiles, and
includes the following topics:
■ Renaming and Relocating Datafiles for a Single Tablespace
■ Renaming and Relocating Datafiles for Multiple Tablespaces
You can rename datafiles to change either their names or locations. Oracle provides
options to make the following changes:
■ Rename and relocate datafiles in a single offline tablespace (for example,
FILENAME1 and FILENAME2 in TBSP1) while the rest of the database is open.
■ Rename and relocate datafiles in several tablespaces simultaneously (for
example, FILE1 in TBSP1 and FILE2 in TBSP2) while the database is mounted
but closed.

Note: To rename or relocate datafiles of the SYSTEM tablespace,

you must use the second option, because you cannot take the
SYSTEM tablespace offline.

Renaming and relocating datafiles with these procedures only change the pointers
to the datafiles, as recorded in the database’s control file; it does not physically
rename any operating system files, nor does it copy files at the operating system
level. Therefore, renaming and relocating datafiles involve several steps. Read the
steps and examples carefully before performing these procedures.
You must have the ALTER TABLESPACE system privilege to rename datafiles of a
single tablespace.

Renaming and Relocating Datafiles for a Single Tablespace

To Rename or Relocate Datafiles from a Single Tablespace
1. Take the non-SYSTEM tablespace that contains the datafiles offline.
2. Copy the datafiles to the new location or new names using operating system
commands.
3. Make sure that the new, fully specified filenames are different from the old
filenames.

Managing Datafiles 10-9

Renaming and Relocating Datafiles

4. Use the SQL statement ALTER TABLESPACE with the RENAME DATAFILE
option to change the filenames within the database.
For example, the following statement renames the datafiles FILENAME1 and
FILENAME2 to FILENAME3 and FILENAME4, respectively:
ALTER TABLESPACE users
RENAME DATAFILE ’filename1’, ’filename2’
TO ’filename3’, ’filename4’;

The new file must already exist; this command does not create a file. Also, always
provide complete filenames (including their paths) to properly identify the old and
new datafiles. In particular, specify the old filename exactly as it appears in the
DBA_DATA_FILES view of the data dictionary.

Renaming and Relocating Datafiles for Multiple Tablespaces

You can rename and relocate datafiles of one or more tablespaces using the SQL
command ALTER DATABASE with the RENAME FILE option. This option is the
only choice if you want to rename or relocate datafiles of several tablespaces in one
operation, or rename or relocate datafiles of the SYSTEM tablespace. If the database
must remain open, consider instead the procedure outlined in the previous section.
To rename datafiles of several tablespaces in one operation or to rename datafiles of
the SYSTEM tablespace, you must have the ALTER DATABASE system privilege.
1. Ensure that the database is mounted but closed.
2. Copy the datafiles to be renamed to their new locations and new names, using
operating system commands.
3. Make sure the new copies of the datafiles have different fully specified
filenames from the datafiles currently in use.
4. Use the SQL statement ALTER DATABASE to rename the file pointers in the
database’s control file.
For example, the following statement renames the datafiles FILENAME 1 and
FILENAME2 to FILENAME3 and FILENAME4, respectively:
ALTER DATABASE
RENAME FILE ’filename1’, ’filename2’
TO ’filename3’, ’filename4’;

The new file must already exist; this command does not create a file. Also, always
provide complete filenames (including their paths) to properly identify the old and

10-10 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Renaming and Relocating Datafiles

new datafiles. In particular, specify the old filename exactly as it appears in the
DBA_DATA_FILES view of the data dictionary.

Relocating Datafiles: Example

For this example, assume the following conditions:
■ An open database has a tablespace named USERS that is made up of datafiles
located on the same disk of a computer.
■ The datafiles of the USERS tablespace are to be relocated to a different disk
drive.
■ You are currently connected with administrator privileges to the open database
while using Enterprise Manager.
To Relocate Datafiles
1. Identify the datafile names of interest.
The following query of the data dictionary view DBA_DATA_FILES lists the
datafile names and respective sizes (in bytes) of the USERS tablespace:
SELECT file_name, bytes FROM sys.dba_data_files
WHERE tablespace_name = ’USERS’;
FILE_NAME BYTES
---------------------------
FILENAME1 102400000
FILENAME2 102400000

Here, FILENAME1 and FILENAME2 are two fully specified filenames, each
1MB in size.
2. Back up the database.
Before making any structural changes to a database, such as renaming and
relocating the datafiles of one or more tablespaces, always completely back up
the database.
3. Take the tablespace containing the datafile offline, or shut down the database
and restart and mount it, leaving it closed. Either option closes the datafiles of
the tablespace.

Managing Datafiles 10-11

Verifying Data Blocks in Datafiles

4. Copy the datafiles to their new locations using operating system commands.
For this example, the existing files FILENAME1 and FILENAME2 are copied to
FILENAME3 and FILENAME4.

Note: You can execute an operating system command to copy a

file by using the HOST command.

5. Rename the datafiles within Oracle.

The datafile pointers for the files that make up the USERS tablespace, recorded
in the control file of the associated database, must now be changed from
FILENAME1 and FILENAME2 to FILENAME3 and FILENAME4, respectively.
If the tablespace is offline but the database is open, use the ALTER
TABLESPACE...RENAME DATAFILE statement. If the database is mounted but
closed, use the ALTER DATABASE...RENAME FILE statement.
6. Bring the tablespace online, or shut down and restart the database.
If the USERS tablespace is offline and the database is open, bring the tablespace
back online. If the database is mounted but closed, open the database.
7. Back up the database. After making any structural changes to a database,
always perform an immediate and complete backup.
See Also: For more information about the DBA_DATA_FILES data dictionary view,
see the Oracle8i Reference.
For more information about taking a tablespace offline, see "Taking Tablespaces
Offline" on page 9-10.

Verifying Data Blocks in Datafiles

If you want to configure Oracle to use checksums to verify data blocks, set the
initialization parameter DB_BLOCK_CHECKSUM to TRUE. The value of this
parameter can be changed dynamically, or set in the initialization parameter file.
The default value of DB_BLOCK_CHECKSUM is FALSE.
When you enable block checking, Oracle computes a checksum for each block
written to disk. Checksums are computed for all data blocks, including temporary
blocks.
The DBW0 process calculates the checksum for each block and stores it in the
block’s header. Checksums are also computed by the direct loader.

10-12 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Viewing Information About Datafiles

The next time Oracle reads a data block, it uses the checksum to detect corruption in
the block. If a corruption is detected, Oracle returns message ORA-01578 and writes
information about the corruption to a trace file.

WARNING: Setting DB_BLOCK_CHECKSUM to TRUE can

cause performance overhead. Set this parameter to TRUE only
under the advice of Oracle Support personnel to diagnose data
corruption problems.

Viewing Information About Datafiles

The following data dictionary views provide useful information about the datafiles
of a database:
■ USER_EXTENTS, DBA_EXTENTS
■ USER_SEGMENTS, DBA_SEGMENTS
■ USER_FREE_SPACE, DBA_FREE_SPACE
■ DBA_USERS
■ DBA_TS_QUOTAS
■ USER_TABLESPACES, DBA_TABLESPACES
■ DBA_DATA_FILES
■ V$DATAFILE
The following example illustrates how to use a view not already illustrated in other
chapters of this manual. Assume you are using a database that contains two
tablespaces, SYSTEM and USERS. USERS is made up of two files, FILE1 (100MB)
and FILE2 (200MB); the tablespace has been taken offline normally. Here, you query
V$DATAFILE to view status information about datafiles of a database:
SELECT name,
file#,
status,
checkpoint_change# "CHECKPOINT" FROM v$datafile;

NAME FILE# STATUS CHECKPOINT

-------------------------------- ----- ------- ----------
filename1 1 SYSTEM 3839
filename2 2 OFFLINE 3782
filename3 3 OFFLINE 3782

Managing Datafiles 10-13

Viewing Information About Datafiles

FILE# lists the file number of each datafile; the first datafile in the SYSTEM
tablespace created with the database is always file 1. STATUS lists other information
about a datafile. If a datafile is part of the SYSTEM tablespace, its status is SYSTEM
(unless it requires recovery). If a datafile in a non-SYSTEM tablespace is online, its
status is ONLINE. If a datafile in a non-SYSTEM tablespace is offline, its status can
be either OFFLINE or RECOVER. CHECKPOINT lists the final SCN written for a
datafile’s most recent checkpoint.

10-14 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 11
Using the Database Resource Manager

This chapter describes how to use the Database Resource Manager and includes the
following topics:
■ Using Database Resource Manager Packages
■ Database Resource Manager Views

Using the Database Resource Manager 11-1

Introduction

Introduction
Typically, when database resource allocation decisions are left to the operating
system (OS), you may encounter the following problems:
■ Excessive overhead
Excessive overhead results from OS context switching between Oracle servers
when the number of servers is high.
■ Inefficient scheduling
The OS de-schedules Oracle servers while they hold latches, which is inefficient.
■ Poor resource partitioning
The OS fails to partition CPU resources appropriately among tasks of varying
importance.
■ Inability to manage database-specific resources, such as parallel slaves and
active sessions
Oracle’s Database Resource Manager allocates resources based on a resource plan
that is specified by database administrators. Database Resource Manager ultimately
offers you more control over resource management decisions and addresses the
problems caused by inefficient OS scheduling.
Administrators use the basic elements of Database Resource Manager described in
Table 11–1.
Table 11–1 Database Resource Manager Elements
Element Description
resource consumer group user sessions grouped together based on
resource processing requirements
resource plan contains directives that specify which
resources are allocated to resource
consumer groups
resource allocation method the method/policy used by Database
Resource Manager when allocating for a
particular resource; used by resource
consumer groups and resource plans
resource plan directive used by administrators to associate
resource consumer groups with particular
plans and partition resources among
resource consumer groups

11-2 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Using Database Resource Manager Packages

See Also: For detailed conceptual information about the Database Resource
Manager, see Oracle8i Concepts.

Using Database Resource Manager Packages

To create resource plans and resource consumer groups, use the following packages:
■ DBMS_RESOURCE_MANAGER
■ DBMS_RESOURCE_MANAGER_PRIVS

Using the DBMS_RESOURCE_MANAGER Package

Use the DBMS_RESOURCE_MANAGER package to maintain resource plans,
resource consumer groups, and plan directives. You can also use this package to
group together changes to the plan schema.
You must have the SYSTEM privilege to administer the Database Resource
Manager. Typically, administrators have this SYSTEM privilege with the ADMIN
option. Following are procedures that grant and revoke this SYSTEM privilege.
grant_system_privilege(grantee_name in varchar2,admin_option in boolean)

revoke_system_privilege (revokee_name in varchar2)

Administering Resource Plans

Note: You must create a pending area before creating any

Resource Manager objects. For more details see "Creating and
Administering the Pending Area" on page 11-5.

You can use the following procedures to create, update, or delete resource plans:
create_plan(plan in varchar2, comment in varchar2,
cpu_mth in varchar2 DEFAULT ’EMPHASIS’,
max_active_sess_target_mth in varchar2 DEFAULT
’MAX_ACTIVE_SESS_ABSOLUTE’,
parallel_degree_limit_mth in varchar2 DEFAULT
’PARALLEL_DEGREE_LIMIT_ABSOLUTE’)
update_plan(plan in varchar2, new_comment in varchar2)
DEFAULT NULL, new_cpu_mth in varchar2
DEFAULT NULL, new_max_active_sess_target_mth in
varchar2 DEFAULT NULL,

Using the Database Resource Manager 11-3

Using Database Resource Manager Packages

new_parallel_degree_limit_mth in varchar2
DEFAULT NULL)
delete_plan(plan in varchar2)
delete_plan_cascade(plan in varchar2)

The delete_plan procedure deletes the specified plan as well as all the plan
directives it refers to. The delete_plan_cascade procedure deletes the specified
plan as well as all its descendants (plan directives, subplans, resource consumer
groups). If delete_plan_cascade encounters an error, it will roll back, leaving
the plan schema unchanged.
If you do not specify the arguments to update_plan procedure, they remain
unchanged in the data dictionary.
If you wish to use a default resource allocation method, you need not specify it
when creating or updating a plan. The method defaults are:
■ cpu_method =’EMPHASIS’
■ parallel_degree_limit_mth =’PARALLEL_DEGREE_LIMIT_ABSOLUTE’

Administering Resource Consumer Groups

You can use the following procedures to create, update, or delete resource consumer
groups:
create_consumer_group(consumer_group in varchar2,
comment in varchar2, cpu_mth in varchar2
DEFAULT ’ROUND-ROBIN’)
update_consumer_group(consumer_group in varchar2,
new_comment in varchar2 DEFAULT NULL,
new_cpu_mth in varchar2 DEFAULT NULL)
delete_consumer_group(consumer_group in varchar2)

You need not specify the cpu_mth parameter if you wish to use the default CPU
method, which is ROUND-ROBIN.
If you do not specify the arguments for the update_consumer_group procedure,
they remain unchanged in the data dictionary.

Administering Resource Plan Directives

You can use the following procedures to create, update, or delete resource plan
directives:
create_plan_directive(plan in varchar2, group_or_subplan
in varchar2, comment in varrchar2, cpu_p1 in number
DEFAULT NULL, cpu_p2 in number

11-4 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Using Database Resource Manager Packages

DEFAULT NULL, cpu_p3 in number

DEFAULT NULL, cpu_p4 in number
DEFAULT NULL, cpu_p5 in number
DEFAULT NULL, cpu_p6 in number
DEFAULT NULL, cpu_p7 in number
DEFAULT NULL, cpu_p8 in number
DEFAULT NULL, max_active_sess_target_p1 in number
DEFAULT NULL, parallel_degree_limit_p1 in number DEFAULT NULL)
update_plan_directive(plan in varchar2, group_or_subplan
in varchar2, new_comment in varchar2
DEFAULT NULL, new_cpu_p1 in number
DEFAULT NULL, new_cpu_p2 in number
DEFAULT NULL, new_cpu_p3 in number DEFAULT NULL, new_cpu_p4 in number
DEFAULT NULL, new_cpu_p5 in number DEFAULT NULL, new_cpu_p6 in number
DEFAULT NULL, new_cpu_p7 in number DEFAULT NULL, new_cpu_p8 in number
DEFAULT NULL, max_active_sess_target_p1 in number
DEFAULT NULL, new_parallel_degree_limit_p1 in number
DEFAULT NULL)
delete_plan_directive(plan in varchar2, group_or_subplan
in varchar2)

All parameters default to NULL.

If you do not specify the arguments for the update_plan_directive
procedure, they remain unchanged in the data dictionary.

Creating and Administering the Pending Area

All changes to the plan schema can be done within a pending area, which is a
"scratch" area for plan schema changes. You must create this pending area, make
changes as necessary and submit the changes (validation is optional).
You can use the following procedures to create, validate, and submit pending
changes for the Database Resource Manager:
dbms_resource_manager.create_pending_area

dbms_resource_manager.validate_pending_area

dbms_resource_manager.clear_pending_area

dbms_resource_manager.submit_pending_area

Note: The changes come into effect and become active only if the
submit_pending_area procedure completes successfully.

Using the Database Resource Manager 11-5

Using Database Resource Manager Packages

You can also view the current schema containing your changes by selecting from
the appropriate user views while the pending area is active. You can clear the
pending area to abort the current changes any time as well. Call the validate
procedure to check whether your changes are valid.
The changes made within the pending area must adhere to the following rules:
1. No plan schema may contain any loops.
2. All plan and/or resource consumer groups referred to by plan directives must
exist.
3. All plans must have plan directives that point to either plans or resource
consumer groups.
4. All percentages in any given level must not add up to greater than 100 for the
emphasis resource allocation method.
5. A plan that is currently being used as a top plan by an active instance cannot be
deleted.
6. The plan directive parameter parallel_degree_limit_p1 can appear only
in plan directives that refer to resource consumer groups (not other resource
plans).
7. There can be no more than 32 resource consumer groups in any active plan
schema. Also, at most, a plan can have 32 children. All leaves of a top plan must
be consumer resource groups; at the lowest level in a plan schema the plan
directives must refer to consumer groups.
8. Plans and resource consumer groups may not have the same name.
9. There must be a plan directive for OTHER_GROUPS somewhere in an active
plan schema. This ensures that a session not covered by the currently active
plan is allocated resources as specified by the OTHER_GROUPS directive.
Database Resource Manager allows "orphan" resource consumer groups (resource
consumer groups with no plan directives referring to them) because you may wish
to create a resource consumer group that is not currently being used, but will be
used in the future.
You will receive an error message if any of the above rules are broken when checked
by the validate or submit procedures. You may then make changes to fix the
problem(s) and reissue the validate or submit procedures. The

11-6 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Using Database Resource Manager Packages

submit_pending_area clears the pending area after validating and committing

the changes (if valid).

Note: A call to submit_pending_area may fail even if

validate_pending_area succeeds. This can happen if, for
example, a plan being deleted is loaded by an instance after a call to
validate_pending_area, but before a call to
submit_pending_area.

The following commands create a multi-level schema, and use the default plan and
resource consumer group methods as illustrated in Figure 11–1:
begin
dbms_resource_manager.create_pending_area();
dbms_resource_manager.create_plan(plan => ’BUGDB_PLAN’,
comment => ’Resource plan/method for bug users’sessions’);
dbms_resource_manager.create_plan(plan => ’MAILDB_PLAN’,
comment => ’Resource plan/method for mail users’ sessions’);
dbms_resource_manager.create_plan(plan => ’MYDB_PLAN’,
comment => ’Resource plan/method for bug and mail users’ sessions’);
dbms_resource_manager.create_consumer_group(consumer_group => ’Bug_Online_group’,
comment => ’Resource consumer group/method for online bug users’ sessions’);
dbms_resource_manager.create_consumer_group(consumer_group => ’Bug_Batch_group’,
comment => ’Resource consumer group/method for bug users’ sessions who run batch jobs’);
dbms_resource_manager.create_consumer_group(consumer_group => ’Bug_Maintenance_group’,
comment => ’Resource consumer group/method for users’ sessions who maintain
the bug db’);
dbms_resource_manager.create_consumer_group(consumer_group => ’Mail_users_group’,
comment => ’Resource consumer group/method for mail users’ sessions’);
dbms_resource_manager.create_consumer_group(consumer_group => ’Mail_Postman_group’,
comment => ’Resource consumer group/method for mail postman’);
dbms_resource_manager.create_consumer_group(consumer_group => ’Mail_Maintenance_group’,
comment => ’Resource consumer group/method for users’ sessions who maintain the mail
db’);
dbms_resource_manager.create_plan_directive(plan => ’BUGDB_PLAN’, group_or_subplan =>
’Bug_Online_group’,
comment => ’online bug users’ sessions at level 0’, cpu_p1 => 80, cpu_p2=> 0,
parallel_degree_limit_p1 => 8);
dbms_resource_manager.create_plan_directive(plan => ’BUGDB_PLAN’, group_or_subplan =>
’Bug_Batch_group’,
comment => ’batch bug users’ sessions at level 0’, cpu_p1 => 20, cpu_p2 => 0,
parallel_degree_limit_p1 => 2);
dbms_resource_manager.create_plan_directive(plan => ’BUGDB_PLAN’, group_or_subplan =>
’Bug_Maintenance_group’,
comment => ’bug maintenance users’ sessions at level 1’, cpu_p1 => 0, cpu_p2 => 100,
parallel_degree_limit_p1 => 3);

Using the Database Resource Manager 11-7

Using Database Resource Manager Packages

dbms_resource_manager.create_plan_directive(plan => ’MAILDB_PLAN’, group_or_subplan =>

’Mail_Postman_group’,
comment => ’mail postman at level 0’, cpu_p1 => 40, cpu_p2 => 0,
parallel_degree_limit_p1 => 4);
dbms_resource_manager.create_plan_directive(plan => ’MAILDB_PLAN’, group_or_subplan =>
’Mail_users_group’,
comment => ’mail users’ sessions at level 1’, cpu_p1 => 0, cpu_p2 => 80,
parallel_degree_limit_p1 => 4);
dbms_resource_manager.create_plan_directive(plan => ’MAILDB_PLAN’, group_or_subplan =>
’Mail_Maintenance_group’,
comment => ’mail maintenance users’ sessions at level 1’, cpu_p1 => 0, cpu_p2 => 20,
parallel_degree_limit_p1 => 2);
dbms_resource_manager.create_plan_directive(plan => ’MYDB_PLAN’, group_or_subplan =>
’MAILDB_PLAN’,
comment=> ’all mail users’ sessions at level 0’, cpu_p1 => 30);
dbms_resource_manager.create_plan_directive(plan => ’MYDB_PLAN’, group_or_subplan =>
’BUGDB_PLAN’,
comment => ’all bug users’ sessions at level 0’, cpu_p1 = 70);
dbms_resource_manager.validate_pending_area();
dbms_resource_manager.submit_pending_area();
end;
/

The preceding call to validate_pending_area is optional because the validation

is implicitly performed in submit_pending_area.

11-8 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Using Database Resource Manager Packages

Figure 11–1 Multi-level Schema

MYDB
PLAN

30% @ 70% @
Level 1 Level 1

MAILDB BUGDB
PLAN PLAN

40% @ 80% @ 20% @ 80% @ 20% @ 100% @

Level 1 Level 2 Level 2 Level 1 Level 1 Level 2

POSTMAN MAILUSERS MAIL_MAINT. ONLINE BATCH BUG_MT.

GROUP GROUP GROUP GROUP GROUP GROUP

Assigning Resource Consumer Groups to Users

In addition to providing the above procedures to maintain resource plans and
resource consumer groups, the DATABASE_RESOURCE_MANAGER package also
contains procedures to assign resource consumer groups to users. The following
procedure sets the initial consumer group of a user:
set_initial_consumer_group(user in varchar2, consumer_group in varchar2)

The initial consumer group of a user is the consumer group to which any session
created by that user initially belongs. You must grant the switch privilege directly to
the user or PUBLIC before it can be the user’s initial consumer group. The switch
privilege for the initial consumer group cannot come from a role granted to that
user (these semantics are similar to those for ALTER USER DEFAULT ROLE).
If you have not set the initial consumer group for a user, the user’s initial consumer
group will automatically be the consumer group DEFAULT_CONSUMER_GROUP.
DEFAULT_CONSUMER_GROUP has switch privileges granted to PUBLIC;
therefore, all users are automatically granted switch privilege for this consumer
group.
Upon deletion of a consumer group, all users having the deleted group as their
initial consumer group will have the DEFAULT_CONSUMER_GROUP as their
initial consumer group. All sessions belonging to a deleted consumer group will be
switched to DEFAULT_CONSUMER_GROUP.

Using the Database Resource Manager 11-9

Using Database Resource Manager Packages

Changing Resource Consumer Groups

You can use the following procedure to change the resource consumer group of a
specific session:
switch_consumer_group_for_sess(session_id in number, session_serial
in number, consumer_group in varchar2)

You can use the following procedure to change the resource consumer group for all
sessions with a given user id:
switch_consumer_group_for_user(user in varchar2, class in varchar2)

Both procedures also change the resource consumer group of any (PQ) slave
sessions that are related to the top user session.
See Also: For information about views associated with Database Resource Manager,
see the Oracle8i Reference.

The DBMS_RESOURCE_MANAGER_PRIVS Package

Use the DBMS_RESOURCE_MANAGER_PRIVS package to maintain privileges
associated with resource consumer groups. The procedures in this package are
executed with the privileges of the caller.

Granting Switch Privileges

To grant the privilege to switch to a consumer group, use the following procedure:
grant_switch_consumer_group(grantee_name in varchar2, consumer_group in varchar2,
grant_option in boolean)

If you grant a user permission to switch to a particular consumer group, then that
user can switch their current consumer group to the new consumer group.
If you grant a role permission to switch to a particular resource consumer group,
then any users who have been granted that role and have enabled that role can
immediately switch their current consumer group to the new consumer group.
If you grant PUBLIC the permission to switch to a particular consumer group, then
any user can switch to that group.
If the grant_option argument is TRUE, then users granted switch privilege for the
consumer group may also grant switch privileges for that consumer group to
others.

11-10 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Using Database Resource Manager Packages

Revoking Switch Privileges

To revoke the privilege to switch to resource consumer groups, use the following
procedure:
revoke_switch_consumer_group(revokee_name in varchar2, consumer_group in varchar2)

If you revoke a user’s switch privileges to a particular consumer group, then any
subsequent attempts by that user to switch to that consumer group will fail. If you
revoke the initial consumer group from a user, then that user will automatically be
part of the DEFAULT_CONSUMER_GROUP when logging in.
If you revoke a role’s switch privileges to a consumer group, then any users who
only had switch privilege for the consumer group via that role will not be able to
subsequently switch to that consumer group.
If you revoke from PUBLIC switch privileges to a consumer group, then any users
who could previously only use the consumer group via PUBLIC will not be able to
subsequently switch to that consumer group.

Using the DBMS_SESSION Package to Change a User’s Resource Consumer Groups

You can change your current resource consumer group by calling the following
procedure in the DBMS_SESSION package:
switch_current_consumer_group(new_consumer_group in varchar2,
old_consumer_group out varchar2, initial_group_on_error in boolean)

This procedure enables users to switch to a consumer group for which they have
the switch privilege. If the caller is another procedure, then this procedure enables
users to switch to a consumer group for which the owner of that procedure has
switch privileges. This procedure also returns the old consumer group to users, and
can be used to switch back to the old consumer group later.
The parameter initial_group_on_error controls the behavior of the procedure
in the event of an error; if the parameter is set to TRUE and an error occurs, the
invoker’s consumer group is set to his/her initial consumer group.

Using the Database Resource Manager 11-11

Database Resource Manager Views

Database Resource Manager Views

The following dynamic performance table views are associated with Database
Resource Manager:
■ V$SESSION
■ V$MYSESSION
■ V$RSRC_CONSUMER_GROUP
■ V$RSRC_PLAN
■ V$RSRC_CONSUMER_GROUP_CPU_MTH
■ V$RSRC_PLAN_CPU_MTH
■ V$PARALLEL_DEGREE_LIMIT_MTH
The following static data dictionary views are associated with Database Resource
Manager:
■ DBA_RSRC_CONSUMER_GROUP_PRIVS
■ DBA_RSRC_MANAGER_SYSTEM_PRIVS
■ DBA_RSRC_CONSUMER_GROUPS
■ DBA_RSRC_PLAN_DIRECTIVES
■ DBA_RSRC_PLANS
■ USER_RSRC_CONSUMER_GROUP_PRIVS
■ USER_RSRC_MANAGER_SYSTEM_PRIVS
■ DBA_USERS
■ USERS_USERS
See Also: For detailed information about the contents of each of these views, see the
Oracle8i Reference.

11-12 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 12
Guidelines for Managing Schema Objects

This chapter describes guidelines for managing schema objects, and includes the
following topics:
■ Managing Space in Data Blocks
■ Setting Storage Parameters
■ Deallocating Space
■ Understanding Space Use of Datatypes
You should familiarize yourself with the concepts in this chapter before attempting
to manage specific schema objects as described in Chapters 13–18.

Guidelines for Managing Schema Objects 12-1

Managing Space in Data Blocks

Managing Space in Data Blocks

This section describes the various aspects of managing space in data blocks, and
includes the following topics:
■ The PCTFREE Parameter
■ The PCTUSED Parameter
■ Selecting Associated PCTUSED and PCTFREE Values
You can use the PCTFREE and PCTUSED parameters to make the following
changes:
■ increase the performance of writing and retrieving data
■ decrease the amount of unused space in data blocks
■ decrease the amount of row chaining between data blocks

The PCTFREE Parameter

The PCTFREE parameter is used to set the percentage of a block to be reserved for
possible updates to rows that already are contained in that block. For example,
assume that you specify the following parameter within a CREATE TABLE
statement:
PCTFREE 20

This indicates that 20% of each data block used for this table’s data segment will be
kept free and available for possible updates to the existing rows already within each
block. Figure 12–1 illustrates PCTFREE.

12-2 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Managing Space in Data Blocks

Figure 12–1 PCTFREE

Database Block
PCTFREE = 20

20% Free Space

Block allows row inserts

until 80% is occupied,
leaving 20% free for updates
to existing rows in the block

Notice that before the block reaches PCTFREE, the free space of the data block is
filled by both the insertion of new rows and by the growth of the data block header.

Specifying PCTFREE
The default for PCTFREE is 10 percent. You can use any integer between 0 and 99,
inclusive, as long as the sum of PCTFREE and PCTUSED does not exceed 100.
A smaller PCTFREE has the following effects:
■ reserves less room for updates to expand existing table rows
■ allows inserts to fill the block more completely
■ may save space, because the total data for a table or index is stored in fewer
blocks (more rows or entries per block)
A small PCTFREE might be suitable, for example, for a segment that is rarely
changed.
A larger PCTFREE has the following effects:
■ reserves more room for future updates to existing table rows

Guidelines for Managing Schema Objects 12-3

Managing Space in Data Blocks

■ may require more blocks for the same amount of inserted data (inserting fewer
rows per block)
■ may improve update performance, because Oracle does not need to chain row
pieces as frequently, if ever
A large PCTFREE is suitable, for example, for segments that are frequently updated.
Ensure that you understand the nature of the table or index data before setting
PCTFREE. Updates can cause rows to grow. New values might not be the same size
as values they replace. If there are many updates in which data values get larger,
PCTFREE should be increased. If updates to rows do not affect the total row width,
PCTFREE can be low. Your goal is to find a satisfactory trade-off between densely
packed data and good update performance.
PCTFREE for NonClustered Tables If the data in the rows of a nonclustered table is
likely to increase in size over time, reserve some space for these updates. Otherwise,
updated rows are likely to be chained among blocks.
PCTFREE for Clustered Tables The discussion for nonclustered tables also applies
to clustered tables. However, if PCTFREE is reached, new rows from any table
contained in the same cluster key go into a new data block that is chained to the
existing cluster key.
PCTFREE for Indexes You can specify PCTFREE only when initially creating an
index.

The PCTUSED Parameter

After a data block becomes full as determined by PCTFREE, Oracle does not
consider the block for the insertion of new rows until the percentage of the block
being used falls below the parameter PCTUSED. Before this value is achieved,
Oracle uses the free space of the data block only for updates to rows already
contained in the data block. For example, assume that you specify the following
parameter within a CREATE TABLE statement:
PCTUSED 40

In this case, a data block used for this table’s data segment is not considered for the
insertion of any new rows until the amount of used space in the block falls to 39%
or less (assuming that the block’s used space has previously reached PCTFREE).
Figure 12–2 illustrates this.

12-4 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Managing Space in Data Blocks

Figure 12–2 PCTUSED

Database Block
PCTUSED = 40

60% unused
space

No new rows are

inserted until amount
of used space falls
below 40%

Specifying PCTUSED
The default value for PCTUSED is 40 percent. After the free space in a data block
reaches PCTFREE, no new rows are inserted in that block until the percentage of
space used falls below PCTUSED. The percent value is for the block space available
for data after overhead is subtracted from total space.
You can specify any integer between 0 and 99 (inclusive) for PCTUSED, as long as
the sum of PCTUSED and PCTFREE does not exceed 100.
A smaller PCTUSED has the following effects:
■ reduces processing costs incurred during UPDATE and DELETE statements for
moving a block to the free list when it has fallen below that percentage of usage
■ increases the unused space in a database
A larger PCTUSED has the following effects:
■ improves space efficiency
■ increases processing cost during INSERTs and UPDATEs

Guidelines for Managing Schema Objects 12-5

Managing Space in Data Blocks

Selecting Associated PCTUSED and PCTFREE Values

If you decide not to use the default values for PCTFREE or PCTUSED, keep the
following guidelines in mind:
■ The sum of PCTFREE and PCTUSED must be equal to or less than 100.
■ If the sum equals 100, then Oracle attempts to keep no more than PCTFREE free
space, and processing costs are highest.
■ Block overhead is not included in the computation of PCTUSED or PCTFREE.
■ The smaller the difference between 100 and the sum of PCTFREE and
PCTUSED (as in PCTUSED of 75, PCTFREE of 20), the more efficient space
usage is, at some performance cost.

Examples of Choosing PCTFREE and PCTUSED Values

The following examples show how and why specific values for PCTFREE and
PCTUSED are specified for tables.
Example 1 Scenario: Common activity includes UPDATE statements
that increase the size of the rows.
Settings: PCTFREE = 20
PCTUSED = 40
Example 2 Scenario: Most activity includes INSERT and DELETE
statements, and UPDATE statements that do not
increase the size of affected rows.
Settings: PCTFREE = 5
PCTUSED = 60
Explanation: PCTFREE is set to 5 because most
UPDATE statements do not increase row
sizes. PCTUSED is set to 60 so that space
freed by DELETE statements is used soon,
yet processing is minimized.
Example 3 Scenario: The table is very large; therefore,
storage is a primary concern. Most activity
includes read-only transactions.
Settings: PCTFREE = 5
PCTUSED = 40
Explanation: PCTFREE is set to 5 because this is a large table
and you want to completely fill each block.

12-6 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Setting Storage Parameters

Setting Storage Parameters

This section describes the storage parameters you can set for various data
structures, and includes the following topics:
■ Storage Parameters You Can Specify
■ Setting INITRANS and MAXTRANS
■ Setting Default Storage Parameters for Segments in a Tablespace
■ Setting Storage Parameters for Data Segments
■ Setting Storage Parameters for Index Segments
■ Setting Storage Parameters for LOB Segments
■ Changing Values for Storage Parameters
■ Understanding Precedence in Storage Parameters
You can set storage parameters for the following types of logical storage structures:
■ tablespaces (most defaults for any segment in the tablespace)
■ tables, clusters, snapshots, and snapshot logs (data segments)
■ indexes (index segments)
■ rollback segments

Storage Parameters You Can Specify

Every database has default values for storage parameters. You can specify defaults
for a tablespace, which override the system defaults to become the defaults for
objects created in that tablespace only. Furthermore, you can specify storage settings
for each individual object. The storage parameters you can set are:

INITIAL
The size, in bytes, of the first extent allocated when a segment is created.
Default: 5 data blocks
Minimum: 2 data blocks (rounded up)
Maximum: operating system specific

Guidelines for Managing Schema Objects 12-7

Setting Storage Parameters

NEXT
The size, in bytes, of the next incremental extent to be allocated for a segment. The
second extent is equal to the original setting for NEXT. From there forward, NEXT is
set to the previous size of NEXT multiplied by (1 + PCTINCREASE/100).
Default: 5 data blocks
Minimum: 1 data block
Maximum: operating system specific

MAXEXTENTS
The total number of extents, including the first, that can ever be allocated for the
segment.
Default: dependent on the data block size and operating system
Minimum: 1 (extent)
Maximum: unlimited

MINEXTENTS
The total number of extents to be allocated when the segment is created. This allows
for a large allocation of space at creation time, even if contiguous space is not
available.
Default: 1 (extent)
Minimum: 1 (extent)
Maximum: unlimited

PCTINCREASE
The percentage by which each incremental extent grows over the last incremental
extent allocated for a segment. If PCTINCREASE is 0, then all incremental extents
are the same size. If PCTINCREASE is greater than zero, then each time NEXT is
calculated, it grows by PCTINCREASE. PCTINCREASE cannot be negative.
The new NEXT equals 1 + PCTINCREASE/100, multiplied by the size of the last
incremental extent (the old NEXT) and rounded up to the next multiple of a block
size.
Default: 50 (%)
Minimum: 0 (%)
Maximum: operating system specific

12-8 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Setting Storage Parameters

INITRANS
Specifies the number of DML transaction entries for which space should be initially
reserved in the data block header. Space is reserved in the headers of all data blocks
in the associated data or index segment.
The default value is 1 for tables and 2 for clusters and indexes.

MAXTRANS
As multiple transactions concurrently access the rows of the same data block, space
is allocated for each DML transaction’s entry in the block. Once the space reserved
by INITRANS is depleted, space for additional transaction entries is allocated out of
the free space in a block, if available. Once allocated, this space effectively becomes
a permanent part of the block header. The MAXTRANS parameter limits the
number of transaction entries that can concurrently use data in a data block.
Therefore, you can limit the amount of free space that can be allocated for
transaction entries in a data block using MAXTRANS.
The default value is an operating system-specific function of block size, not
exceeding 255.
See Also: For specific details about storage parameters, see the Oracle8i SQL
Reference.
Some defaults are operating system specific; see your operating system-specific
Oracle documentation.

Setting INITRANS and MAXTRANS

Transaction entry settings for the data blocks allocated for a table, cluster, or index
should be set individually for each object based on the following criteria:
■ the space you would like to reserve for transaction entries compared to the
space you would reserve for database data
■ the number of concurrent transactions that are likely to touch the same data
blocks at any given time
For example, if a table is very large and only a small number of users
simultaneously access the table, the chances of multiple concurrent transactions
requiring access to the same data block is low. Therefore, INITRANS can be set low,
especially if space is at a premium in the database.
Alternatively, assume that a table is usually accessed by many users at the same
time. In this case, you might consider preallocating transaction entry space by using

Guidelines for Managing Schema Objects 12-9

Setting Storage Parameters

a high INITRANS (to eliminate the overhead of having to allocate transaction entry
space, as required when the object is in use) and allowing a higher MAXTRANS so
that no user has to wait to access necessary data blocks.

Setting Default Storage Parameters for Segments in a Tablespace

You can set default storage parameters for each tablespace of a database. Any
storage parameter that you do not explicitly set when creating or subsequently
altering a segment in a tablespace automatically is set to the corresponding default
storage parameter for the tablespace in which the segment resides.
With partitioned tables, you can set default storage parameters at the table level.
When creating a new partition of the table, the default storage parameters are
inherited from the partitioned table (unless you specify them for the individual
partition). If no storage parameters are specified for the partitioned table, then they
are inherited from the tablespace.
When specifying MINEXTENTS at the tablespace level, any extent allocated in the
tablespace is rounded to a multiple of the number of minimum extents. Basically,
the number of extents is a multiple of the number of blocks.

Setting Storage Parameters for Data Segments

You can set the storage parameters for the data segment of a nonclustered table,
snapshot, or snapshot log using the STORAGE clause of the CREATE or ALTER
statement for tables, snapshots, or snapshot logs.
In contrast, you set the storage parameters for the data segments of a cluster using
the STORAGE clause of the CREATE CLUSTER or ALTER CLUSTER command,
rather than the individual CREATE or ALTER commands that put tables and
snapshots into the cluster. Storage parameters specified when creating or altering a
clustered table or snapshot are ignored. The storage parameters set for the cluster
override the table’s storage parameters.

Setting Storage Parameters for Index Segments

Storage parameters for an index segment created for a table index can be set using
the STORAGE clause of the CREATE INDEX or ALTER INDEX command. Storage
parameters of an index segment created for the index used to enforce a primary key
or unique key constraint can be set in the ENABLE clause of the CREATE TABLE or
ALTER TABLE commands or the STORAGE clause of the ALTER INDEX command.

12-10 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Setting Storage Parameters

A PCTFREE setting for an index only has an effect when the index is created. You
cannot specify PCTUSED for an index segment.

Setting Storage Parameters for LOB Segments

You can set storage parameters for LOB segments using the NOCACHE,
NOLOGGING and PCTVERSION LOB storage parameters of the CREATE TABLE
statement.
See Also: For a complete list of storage parameters for LOB segments, see the
Oracle8i SQL Reference.

Changing Values for Storage Parameters

You can alter default storage parameters for tablespaces and specific storage
parameters for individual segments if the current settings are incorrect. All default
storage parameters can be reset for a tablespace. However, changes affect only new
objects created in the tablespace, or new extents allocated for a segment.
The INITIAL and MINEXTENTS storage parameters cannot be altered for an
existing table, cluster, index, or rollback segment. If only NEXT is altered for a
segment, the next incremental extent is the size of the new NEXT, and subsequent
extents can grow by PCTINCREASE as usual.
If both NEXT and PCTINCREASE are altered for a segment, the next extent is the
new value of NEXT, and from that point forward, NEXT is calculated using
PCTINCREASE as usual.

Understanding Precedence in Storage Parameters

The storage parameters in effect at a given time are determined by the following
types of SQL statements, listed in order of precedence:
1. ALTER TABLE/CLUSTER/SNAPSHOT/SNAPSHOT LOG/INDEX/
ROLLBACK SEGMENT statement
2. CREATE TABLE/CLUSTER/SNAPSHOT/SNAPSHOT LOG/CREATE
INDEX/ROLLBACK SEGMENT statement
3. ALTER TABLESPACE statement
4. CREATE TABLESPACE statement
5. Oracle default values

Guidelines for Managing Schema Objects 12-11

Setting Storage Parameters

Any storage parameter specified at the object level overrides the corresponding
option set at the tablespace level. When storage parameters are not explicitly set at
the object level, they default to those at the tablespace level. When storage
parameters are not set at the tablespace level, Oracle system defaults apply. If
storage parameters are altered, the new options apply only to the extents not yet
allocated.

Note: The storage parameters for temporary segments always use

the default storage parameters set for the associated tablespace.

Storage Parameter Example

Assume the following statement has been executed:
CREATE TABLE test_storage
( . . . )
STORAGE (INITIAL 100K NEXT 100K
MINEXTENTS 2 MAXEXTENTS 5
PCTINCREASE 50);

Also assume that the initialization parameter DB_BLOCK_SIZE is set to 2K. The
following table shows how extents are allocated for the TEST_STORAGE table. Also
shown is the value for the incremental extent, as can be seen in the NEXT column of
the USER_SEGMENTS or DBA_SEGMENTS data dictionary views:
Table 12–1 Extent Allocations
Extent# Extent Size Value for NEXT
1 50 blocks or 102400 bytes 50 blocks or 102400 bytes
2 50 blocks or 102400 bytes 75 blocks or153600 bytes
3 75 blocks or 153600 bytes 113 blocks or 231424 bytes
4 115 blocks or 235520 bytes 170 blocks or 348160 bytes
5 170 blocks or 348160 bytes 255 blocks or 522240 bytes

If you change the NEXT or PCTINCREASE storage parameters with an ALTER

statement (such as ALTER TABLE), the specified value replaces the current value
stored in the data dictionary. For example, the following statement modifies the
NEXT storage parameter of the TEST_STORAGE table before the third extent is
allocated for the table:
ALTER TABLE test_storage STORAGE (NEXT 500K);

12-12 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Deallocating Space

As a result, the third extent is 500K when allocated, the fourth is (500K*1.5)=750K,
and so on.

Deallocating Space
This section describes aspects of deallocating unused space, and includes the
following topics:
■ Viewing the High Water Mark
■ Issuing Space Deallocation Statements
It is not uncommon to allocate space to a segment, only to find out later that it is not
being used. For example, you may set PCTINCREASE to a high value, which could
create a large extent that is only partially used. Or you could explicitly overallocate
space by issuing the ALTER TABLE...ALLOCATE EXTENT statement. If you find
that you have unused or overallocated space, you can release it so that the unused
space can be used by other segments.

Viewing the High Water Mark

Prior to deallocation, you can use the DBMS_SPACE package, which contains a
procedure (UNUSED_SPACE) that returns information about the position of the
high water mark and the amount of unused space in a segment.
Within a segment, the high water mark indicates the amount of used space. You
cannot release space below the high water mark (even if there is no data in the
space you wish to deallocate). However, if the segment is completely empty, you
can release space using the TRUNCATE...DROP STORAGE statement.

Issuing Space Deallocation Statements

The following statements deallocate unused space in a segment (table, index or
cluster). The KEEP clause is optional.
ALTER TABLE table DEALLOCATE UNUSED KEEP integer;
ALTER INDEX index DEALLOCATE UNUSED KEEP integer;
ALTER CLUSTER cluster DEALLOCATE UNUSED KEEP integer;

When you explicitly identify an amount of unused space to KEEP, this space is
retained while the remaining unused space is deallocated. If the remaining number
of extents becomes smaller than MINEXTENTS, the MINEXTENTS value changes
to reflect the new number. If the initial extent becomes smaller, the INITIAL value
changes to reflect the new size of the initial extent.

Guidelines for Managing Schema Objects 12-13

Deallocating Space

If you do not specify the KEEP clause, all unused space (everything above the high
water mark) is deallocated, as long as the size of the initial extent and
MINEXTENTS are preserved. Thus, even if the high water mark occurs within the
MINEXTENTS boundary, MINEXTENTS remains and the initial extent size is not
reduced.
See Also: For details on the syntax and options associated with deallocating unused
space, see the Oracle8i SQL Reference.
You can verify that deallocated space is freed by looking at the DBA_FREE_SPACE
view. For more information on this view, see the Oracle8i Reference.

Deallocating Space: Examples

This section includes various space deallocation scenarios. Prior to reading it, you
should familiarize yourself with the ALTER...DEALLOCATE UNUSED statements
in the Oracle8i Reference.
Example 1
Table DQUON consists of three extents (see Figure 12–3). The first extent is 10K, the
second is 20K, and the third is 30K. The high water mark is in the middle of the
second extent, and there is 40K of unused space. The following statement
deallocates all unused space, leaving table DQUON with two remaining extents.
The third extent disappears, and the second extent size is 10K.
ALTER TABLE dquon DEALLOCATE UNUSED;

12-14 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Deallocating Space

Figure 12–3 Deallocating All Unused Space

UNUSED SPACE = 40K

Table dquon

Extent 1 Extent 2 Extent 3

10K 20K 30K

High Water Mark

Before
ALTER TABLE dquon DEALLOCATE UNUSED;
After
Table dquon

Extent 1 Extent 2

10K 10K

If you deallocate all unused space from DQUON and KEEP 10K (see Figure 12–4),
the third extent is deallocated and the second extent remains in tact.

Guidelines for Managing Schema Objects 12-15

Deallocating Space

Figure 12–4 Deallocating Unused Space, KEEP 10K

UNUSED SPACE = 40K

Table dquon

Extent 1 Extent 2 Extent 3

10K 20K 30K

High Water Mark

Before
ALTER TABLE dquon DEALLOCATE UNUSED KEEP 10K;
After
Table dquon

Extent 1 Extent 2

10K 20K

High Water Mark

If you deallocate all unused space from DQUON and KEEP 20K, the third extent is
cut to 10K, and the size of the second extent remains the same.
ALTER TABLE dquon DEALLOCATE UNUSED KEEP 20K;

Example 2
When you issue the ALTER TABLE DQUON DEALLOCATE UNUSED statement,
you completely deallocate the third extent, and the second extent is left with 10K.
Note that the size of the next allocated extent defaults to the size of the last
completely deallocated extent, which in this example, is 30K. However, if you can
explicitly set the size of the next extent using the ALTER...STORAGE [NEXT]
statement.
Example 3
To preserve the MINEXTENTS number of extents, DEALLOCATE can retain extents
that were originally allocated to an instance (added below the high water mark),
while deallocating extents that were originally allocated to the segment.

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 Understanding Space Use of Datatypes

For example, table DQUON has a MINEXTENTS value of 2. Examples 1 and 2 still
yield the same results. However, if the MINEXTENTS value is 3, then the ALTER
TABLE DQUON DEALLOCATE UNUSED statement has no effect, while the
ALTER TABLE DQUON DEALLOCATE UNUSED KEEP 10K statement removes
the third extent and changes the value of MINEXTENTS to 2.

Understanding Space Use of Datatypes

When creating tables and other data structures, you need to know how much space
they will require. Each datatype has different space requirements, as described
below.

Character The CHAR and VARCHAR2 datatypes store alphanumeric data in

Datatypes strings of ASCII (American Standard Code for Information
Interchange) or EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal
Interchange Code) values, depending on the character set used by
the hardware that runs Oracle. Character datatypes can also store
data using character sets supported by the National Language
Support (NLS) feature of Oracle.

The CHAR datatype stores fixed-length character strings. When a

table is created with a CHAR column, a column length (in bytes, not
characters) between 1 and 255 can be specified for the CHAR
column; the default is 1 byte. Extra blanks are used to fill remaining
space in the column for values less than the column length.

The VARCHAR2 datatype stores variable-length character strings.

When a table is created with a VARCHAR2 column, a maximum
column length (in bytes, not characters) between 1 and 4000 is
specified for the VARCHAR2 column. For each row, each value in the
column is stored as a variable- length field. Extra blanks are not used
to fill remaining space in the column.

Number The NUMBER datatype stores fixed and floating point numbers.
Datatype Positive numbers in the range 1 x 10-130 to 9.99...9 x 10125 (with up to
38 significant digits), negative numbers in the range

You can optionally specify a precision (total number of digits) and

scale (number of digits to the right of the decimal point) when
defining a NUMBER column. Oracle guarantees portability of
numbers with a precision equal to or less than 38 digits. You can
specify a scale and no precision:

Guidelines for Managing Schema Objects 12-17

Understanding Space Use of Datatypes

-1 x 10-130 to -9.99..9x 10125 (with up to 38 significant digits), and

zero. If precision is not specified, the column stores values as given.
If no scale and no precision are specified:

column_name NUMBER (*, scale)

In this case, the precision is 38 and the specified scale is maintained.

DATE The DATE datatype stores point-in-time values such as dates and
Datatype times. Date data is stored in fixed length fields of seven bytes each.

LONG Columns defined as LONG store variable length character data

Datatype containing up to two gigabytes of information. LONG data is text
data and is appropriately converted when moved between different
character sets. LONG data cannot be indexed.
Note: You can convert LONG data to LOB data, which has fewer
restrictions. For more information see the Oracle8i Application
Developer’s Guide - Large Objects (LOBs).

RAW and RAW is a variable-length datatype like the VARCHAR2 character

LONG RAW datatype, except that Net8 (which connects user sessions to the
Datatypes instance) and the Import and Export utilities do not perform
character conversion when transmitting RAW or LONG RAW data.
In contrast, Net8 and Export/Import automatically convert CHAR,
VARCHAR2, and LONG data between the database character set
and the user session character set if the two character sets are
different.

RAW data can be indexed; LONG RAW data cannot be indexed.

rowids, Every row in a nonclustered table of an Oracle database is assigned

ROWID a unique rowid that corresponds to the physical address of a row’s
pseudocolumn
and ROWID row piece (or the initial row piece if the row is chained among
datatype multiple row pieces).

Each table in an Oracle database has an internal pseudo-column

named ROWID. This pseudocolumn is not evident when listing the
structure of a table by executing a SELECT statement, or a
DESCRIBE statement using SQL*Plus, but can be retrieved with a
SQL query using the reserved word ROWID as a column name.

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 Understanding Space Use of Datatypes

rowids use a binary representation of the physical address for each

row selected. A rowid’s VARCHAR2 hexadecimal representation is
divided into three pieces: block.slot.file. Here, block is the data
block within a file that contains the row, relative to its datafile; row
is the row in the block; and file is the datafile that contains the row.
A row’s assigned ROWID remains unchanged usually. Exceptions
occur when the row is exported and imported (using the Import
and Export utilities). When a row is deleted from a table (and the
encompassing transaction is committed), the deleted row’s
associated ROWID can be assigned to a row inserted in a
subsequent transaction.

See Also: For more information about NLS and support for different character sets,
see the Oracle8i National Language Support Guide.
For more information about datatypes, see the Oracle8i SQL Reference.

Summary of Oracle Datatypes

Table 12–2 summarizes important information about each Oracle datatype.

Table 12–2 Summary of Oracle Datatype Information

Datatype Description Column Length (bytes)
CHAR (size) Fixed-length character Fixed for every row in the table (with
data of length size. trailing spaces); maximum size is
2000 bytes per row, default size is one
byte per row. Consider the character
set that is used before setting size.
(Are you using a one or two byte
character set?)
Fixed-length character
NCHAR (size) Maximum size is determined by the
data of length size
number of bytes required to store
characters or bytes,
each character, with an upper limit of
depending on the
2000 bytes. Default and minimum
choice of national
size is one character or one byte,
character set.
depending on the character set.

Guidelines for Managing Schema Objects 12-19

Understanding Space Use of Datatypes

Table 12–2 Summary of Oracle Datatype Information (Cont.)

Datatype Description Column Length (bytes)
VARCHAR2 (size) Variable-length Maximum size is 4000, and minimum
character string is 1. You must specify size for
having maximum VARCHAR2.
length size bytes. A
maximum size must
be specified.
NVARCHAR2
Variable-length Maximum size is determined by the
(size)
character string number of bytes required to store
having maximum each character, with an upper limit of
length size characters 4000 bytes. You must specify size for
or bytes, depending NVARCHAR2.
on the choice of
national character set.
NUMBER (p, s) Number having Variable for each row. The maximum
precision p and scale s. space required for a given column is
The precision p can 21 bytes per row.
range from 1 to 38.
The scale s can range
from -84 to 127.
DATE Fixed-length date and Fixed at seven bytes for each row in
time data, ranging the table.
from January 1, 4712
B.C. to December 31,
4712 A.D. Default
format: DD-MON-YY.
LONG Variable-length Variable for each row in the table up
character data. to 231 -1 bytes, or two gigabytes per
row.
RAW (size) Raw binary data of Variable for each row in the table, up
length size bytes. to 2000 bytes per row. You must
specify size for a RAW value.
LONG RAW Variable-length raw Variable for each row in the table, up
binary data. to two gigabytes per row.
ROWID Hex data representing Fixed at six bytes for each row in the
unique row addresses. table.
This datatype is
primarily for values
returned by the
ROWID
pseudocolumn.

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 Understanding Space Use of Datatypes

Table 12–2 Summary of Oracle Datatype Information (Cont.)

Datatype Description Column Length (bytes)
UROWID [(size)] Hexadecimal string The optional size is the size of a
representing the column of type UROWID. The
logical address of a maximum size and default is 4000
row of an index- bytes.
organized table.

CHAR (size) Fixed-length character Maximum size is 2000 bytes. Default

data of length size and minimum size is 1 byte.
bytes.

Guidelines for Managing Schema Objects 12-21

Understanding Space Use of Datatypes

12-22 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 13
Managing Partitioned Tables and Indexes

This chapter describes various aspects of managing partitioned tables and indexes,
and includes the following sections:
■ What Are Partitioned Tables and Indexes?
■ Partitioning Methods
■ Creating Partitions
■ Maintaining Partitions

Managing Partitioned Tables and Indexes 13-1

What Are Partitioned Tables and Indexes?

What Are Partitioned Tables and Indexes?

Note: Before attempting to create a partitioned table or index or
perform maintenance operations on any partition, review the
information about partitioning in Oracle8i Concepts.

Today’s enterprises frequently run mission-critical databases containing upwards of

several hundred gigabytes and, in many cases, several terabytes of data. These
enterprises are challenged by the support and maintenance requirements of very
large databases (VLDB), and must devise methods to meet those challenges.
One way to meet VLDB demands is to create and use partitioned tables and indexes.
Partitioned tables or indexes can be divided into a number of pieces, called
subpartitions, which have the same logical attributes. For example, all partitions (or
subpartitions) in a table share the same column and constraint definitions, and all
partitions (or subpartitions) in an index share the same index options. Each
partition (or subpartition) is stored in a separate segment and can have different
physical attributes (such as PCTFREE, PCTUSED, INITRANS, MAXTRANS,
TABLESPACE, and STORAGE).
Although you are not required to keep each table or index partition in a separate
tablespace, it is to your advantage to do so. Storing partitions in separate
tablespaces enables you to:
■ reduce the possibility of data corruption in multiple partitions
■ back up and recover each partition independently
■ control the mapping of partitions to disk drives (important for balancing I/O
load)
■ improve manageability, availability and performance
See Also: For more detailed information on partitioning concepts and benefits, see
Oracle8i Concepts.

Partitioning Methods
There are three partitioning methods:
■ Range Partitioning
■ Hash Partitioning
■ Composite Partitioning

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 Partitioning Methods

This section describes how to use each of these methods.

Using the Range Partitioning Method

You can use range partitioning to map rows to partitions based on ranges of column
values. Range partitioning is defined by the partitioning specification for a table or
index, and by the partitioning specifications for each individual partition.
The following example shows a table of four partitions (one for each quarter’s
sales); a row with SALE_YEAR=1998, SALE_MONTH=8 and SALE_DAY=18 has
partitioning key (1998, 8, 18), belongs in the third partition, and is stored in
tablespace TSC. A row with SALE_YEAR=1998, SALE_MONTH=8 and
SALE_DAY=1 has partitioning key (1998, 8, 1), and also belongs in the third
partition, stored in tablespace TSC.
CREATE TABLE sales
( invoice_no NUMBER,
sale_year INT NOT NULL,
sale_month INT NOT NULL,
sale_day INT NOT NULL )
PARTITION BY RANGE (sale_year, sale_month, sale_day)
( PARTITION sales_q1 VALUES LESS THAN (1998, 04, 01)
TABLESPACE tsa,
PARTITION sales_q2 VALUES LESS THAN (1998, 07, 01)
TABLESPACE tsb,
PARTITION sales_q3 VALUES LESS THAN (1998, 10, 01)
TABLESPACE tsc,
PARTITION sales_q4 VALUES LESS THAN (1999, 01, 01)
TABLESPACE tsd );

Maintaining Range Partitions

The only maintenance operation to perform on partitions created using the range
partitioning method is the merging of partitions. You can use the ALTER
TABLE...MERGE PARTITIONS command to merge the contents of two adjacent
range partitions into one partition. You might want to do this to keep historical data
online in larger partitions. For example, you might want to have daily partitions,
with the oldest partition rolled up into weekly partitions, which can then be rolled
up into monthly partitions, and so on.
See Also: For more details about range partitioning, see Oracle8i Concepts.
For more details about CREATE TABLE...PARTITION syntax, see the Oracle8i SQL
Reference.

Managing Partitioned Tables and Indexes 13-3

Partitioning Methods

Using the Hash Partitioning Method

Hash partitioning controls the physical placement of data across a fixed number of
partitions. Rows are mapped into partitions based on a hash value of the
partitioning key. Creating and using hash partitions gives you a highly tunable
method of data placement.
The following example shows how to specify all storage attributes for partitions at
the table level:
CREATE TABLE scubagear(
id NUMBER,
name VARCHAR2 (60))
TABLESPACE ocean
STORAGE (INITIAL 19k)
PARTITION BY HASH (id)
PARTITIONS 4;

You can store hash partitions in specific tablespaces, as shown in the following
statement:
CREATE TABLE scubagear (...)
STORAGE (INITIAL 10k)
PARTITION BY HASH (id) PARTITIONS 16
STORE IN (h1to4, h4to8, h8to12, h12to16);

Or, you can name and store each hash partition in a specific tablespace:
CREATE TABLE product(...)
STORAGE (INITIAL 10k)
PARTITION BY HASH (id)
(PARTITION p1 TABLESPACE h1,
PARTITION p2 TABLESPACE h2);

You can also specify partition-level tablespaces for hash-partitioned indexes:

CREATE INDEX bcd_type ON scubagear(id) LOCAL
PARTITIONS 4 STORE IN (ix1, ix2);

CREATE INDEX bcd_type ON scubagear(id) LOCAL

(PARTITION p1 TABLESPACE ix1, PARTITION p2 TABLESPACE ix2,
PARTITION p3 TABLESPACEix3, PARTITION p4 TABLESPACE ix4);

Maintaining Hash Partitions

All current range partition maintenance operations are supported for hash
partitions, except for the following:

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 Partitioning Methods

■ ALTER TABLE...SPLIT PARTITION

■ ALTER TABLE...DROP PARTITION
■ ALTER TABLE...MERGE PARTITIONS
Additionally, there are two maintenance operations specifically for partitions
created using the has partitioning method:
■ Coalescing Hash Partitions
■ Adding Hash Partitions

Coalescing Hash Partitions To remove a single hash partition and redistribute the
data, use the following statement:
ALTER TABLE scubagear COALESCE PARTITION;

Note that the partition being coalesced is determined by the hash function. Also,
when you coalesce a hash partition and redistribute the data, local indexes are not
maintained. You can coalesce the hash partition in parallel.Local index partitions
corresponding to partitions that absorbed rows must be rebuilt from existing
partitions.

Adding Hash Partitions To add a single hash partition and redistribute the data, use
one of the following statements:
ALTER TABLE scubagear ADD PARTITION;
ALTER TABLE scubagear
ADD PARTITION p3 TABLESPACE t3;

Local indexes are not maintained when you add a hash partition. You can also add
the hash partition in parallel.
See Also: For detailed syntax information about the CREATE TABLE
PARTITION...BY HASH and ALTER TABLE statements, see the Oracle8i SQL
Reference.
For more details about hash partitioning, see Oracle8i Concepts.

Using the Composite Partitioning Method

Composite partitioning partitions data using the range method, and within each
partition, subpartitions it using the hash method. Composite partitions are ideal for
both historical data and striping, and provide improved manageability of range
partitioning and data placement, as well as the parallelism advantages of hash
partitioning.

Managing Partitioned Tables and Indexes 13-5

Partitioning Methods

When creating a composite partition, you specify the following:

■ partitioning method (range)
■ partitioning key
■ partition descriptions (including partition bounds)
■ subpartitioning method (hash)
■ subpartitioning columns
■ number of subpartitions per partition or descriptions of subpartitions
You may also wish to use the STORE IN clause to specify tablespaces across which
each table partition’s subpartitions will be spread.
The following statement creates a composite-partitioned table:
CREATE TABLE scubagear (equipno NUMBER, equipname VARCHAR(32), price NUMBER)
PARTITION BY RANGE (equipno) SUBPARTITION BY HASH(equipname)
SUBPARTITIONS 8 STORE IN (ts1, ts3, ts5, ts7)
(PARTITION p1 VALUES LESS THAN (1000),
PARTITION p2 VALUES LESS THAN (2000),
PARTITION p3 VALUES LESS THAN (MAXVALUE));

The following statement shows you can specify subpartition names and names of
tablespaces in which subpartitions should be placed.
CREATE TABLE scubagear (equipno NUMBER, equipname VARCHAR(32), price NUMBER)
PARTITION BY RANGE (equipno) SUBPARTITION BY HASH (equipname)
SUBPARTITIONS 8 STORE IN (ts1, ts3, ts5, ts7)
(PARTITION p1 VALUES LESS THAN (1000) PCTFREE 40,
PARTITION p2 VALUES LESS THAN (2000) STORE IN (ts2, ts4, ts6, ts8),
PARTITION p3 VALUES LESS THAN (MAXVALUE)
(SUBPARTITION p3_s1 TABLESPACE ts4,
SUBPARTITION p3_s2 TABLESPACE ts5));

Maintaining Composite Partitions

You can perform all range partition maintenance operations on a composite
partitioned table or index, and modify default attributes for table partitions.

Maintaining Composite Subpartitions

This section describes how to accomplish specific subpartition maintenance
operations, including:
■ Modifying Subpartitions (tables and indexes)
■ Rebuilding Subpartitions (indexes only)

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 Partitioning Methods

■ Renaming Subpartitions (tables and indexes)

■ Exchanging Subpartitions (tables only)
■ Adding Subpartitions (tables only)
■ Coalescing Subpartitions (tables only)
■ Moving Subpartitions (tables only)
■ Truncating Subpartitions (tables only)

Modifying Subpartitions You can mark a subpartition of a local index on a partitioned

table marked unusable as follows.
ALTER INDEX scuba
MODIFY SUBPARTITION bcd_types UNUSABLE;

You can also allocate or deallocate storage for a subpartition of a table or index
using the MODIFY SUBPARTITION clause.

Rebuilding Subpartitions You can rebuild a subpartition to regenerate the data in an

index subpartition. The following statement rebuilds a subpartition of a local index
on a table:
ALTER INDEX scuba
REBUILD SUBPARTITION bcd_types
TABLESPACE tbs23 PARALLEL (DEGREE 2);

Note that in this example, the index is rebuilt in a different tablespace.

Renaming Subpartitions You can assign new names to subpartitions of a table or

index. The following statement shows how to assign a new name to a subpartition
of a local index on a table:
ALTER INDEX scuba RENAME SUBPARTITION bcd_types TO bcd_brands;

This next statement simply shows how to rename a subpartition that has a system-
generated name that was a consequence of adding a partition to an underlying
table:
ALTER INDEX scuba RENAME SUBPARTITION sys_subp3254 TO bcd_types;

You can also assign a new name to a subpartition of a table:

ALTER TABLE diving RENAME SUBPARTITION locations_us
TO us_monterey;

Managing Partitioned Tables and Indexes 13-7

Partitioning Methods

Exchanging Subpartitions The following statement shows how to convert a

subpartition of a table into a nonpartitioned table:
ALTER TABLE diving
EXCHANGE SUBPARTITION locations_us
WITH TABLE us_ca INCLUDING INDEXES;

Adding Subpartitions The following statement shows how to add a subpartition to a

partition of a table. The newly added subpartition is populated with rows rehashed
from other subpartitions of the same partition as determined by the hash function:
ALTER TABLE diving MODIFY PARTITION locations_us
ADD SUBPARTITION us_monterey TABLESPACE us1;

Coalescing Subpartitions The following statement shows how to distribute contents of

a subpartition (selected by the RDBMS) of the specified partition of a table into one
or more remaining subpartitions (determined by the hash function) of the same
partition, and then destroy the selected subpartition. Basically, this operation is the
inverse of the ALTER TABLE MODIFY PARTITION ADD SUBPARTITION
statement:
ALTER TABLE diving MODIFY PARTITION us_locations
COALESCE PARTITION;

Moving Subpartitions The following statement shows how to move data in a

subpartition of a table:
ALTER TABLE scuba_gear MOVE SUBPARTITION bcd_types
TABLESPACE tbs23 PARALLEL (DEGREE 2);

Truncating Subpartitions The following statement shows how to truncate data in a

subpartition of a table:
ALTER TABLE diving
TRUNCATE SUBPARTITION us_locations
DROP STORAGE;

See Also: For more details about the syntax of statements in this section, see the
Oracle8i SQL Reference.

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 Maintaining Partitions

Creating Partitions
Creating a partitioned table is very similar to creating a table or index: you must use
the CREATE TABLE statement with the PARTITION by clause. Also, you must
specify the tablespace name for each partition.
The following example shows a CREATE TABLE statement that contains four
partitions, one for each quarter’s worth of sales. A row with SALE_YEAR=1998,
SALE_MONTH=7, and SALE_DAY=18 has the partitioning key (1998, 7, 18), and is
in the third partition, in the tablespace TSC. A row with SALE_YEAR=1998,
SALE_MONTH=7, and SALE_DAY=1 has the partitioning key (1998, 7, 1), and also
is in the third partition.
CREATE TABLE sales
( invoice_no NUMBER,
sale_year INT NOT NULL,
sale_month INT NOT NULL,
sale_day INT NOT NULL )
PARTITION BY RANGE ( sale_year, sale_month, sale_day)
( PARTITION sales_q1 VALUES LESS THAN ( 1998, 04, 01 )
TABLESPACE tsa,
PARTITION sales_q2 VALUES LESS THAN ( 1998, 07, 01 )
TABLESPACE tsb,
PARTITION sales_q3 VALUES LESS THAN ( 1998, 10, 01 )
TABLESPACE tsc,
PARTITION sales q4 VALUES LESS THAN ( 1999, 01, 01 )
TABLESPACE tsd);

See Also: For more information about the CREATE TABLE statement and
PARTITION clause, see Oracle8i SQL Reference.
For information about partition keys, partition names, bounds, and equipartitioned
tables and indexes, see Oracle8i Concepts.

Maintaining Partitions
This section describes how to perform the following specific partition maintenance
operations:
■ Moving Partitions
■ Adding Partitions
■ Dropping Partitions
■ Coalescing Partitions

Managing Partitioned Tables and Indexes 13-9

Maintaining Partitions

■ Modifying Partition Default Attributes

■ Truncating Partitions
■ Splitting Partitions
■ Merging Partitions
■ Exchanging Table Partitions
■ Rebuilding Index Partitions
■ Moving the Time Window in a Historical Table
■ Quiescing Applications During a Multi-Step Maintenance Operation
See Also: For information about the SQL syntax for DDL statements, see Oracle8i
SQL Reference.
For information about the catalog views that describe partitioned tables and
indexes, and the partitions of a partitioned table or index, see Oracle8i Reference.
For information about Import, Export and partitions, see Oracle8i Utilities.
For general information about partitioning, see Oracle8i Concepts.

Moving Partitions
You can use the MOVE PARTITION clause of the ALTER TABLE statement to:
■ re-cluster data and reduce fragmentation
■ move a partition to another tablespace
■ modify create-time attributes
Typically, you can change the physical storage attributes of a partition in a single
step via a ALTER TABLE/INDEX...MODIFY PARTITION statement. However,
there are some physical attributes, such as TABLESPACE, that you cannot modify
via MODIFY PARTITION. In these cases you can use the MOVE PARTITION
clause.

Moving Table Partitions

You can use the MOVE PARTITION clause to move a partition. For example, a DBA
wishes to move the most active partition to a tablespace that resides on its own disk
(in order to balance I/O). The DBA can issue the following statement:
ALTER TABLE parts MOVE PARTITION depot2
TABLESPACE ts094 NOLOGGING;

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 Maintaining Partitions

This statement always drops the partition’s old segment and creates a new segment,
even if you don’t specify a new tablespace.
When the partition you are moving contains data, MOVE PARTITION marks the
matching partition in each local index, and all global index partitions as unusable.
You must rebuild these index partitions after issuing MOVE PARTITION.

Moving Index Partitions

Some operations, such as MOVE PARTITION and DROP TABLE PARTITION, mark
all partitions of a global index unusable. You can rebuild the entire index by
rebuilding each partition individually using the ALTER INDEX REBUILD
PARTITION statement. You can perform these rebuilds concurrently.
You can also simply drop the index and re-create it.

Adding Partitions
This section describes how to add new partitions to a partitioned table and how
partitions are added to local indexes.

Adding Table Partitions

You can use the ALTER TABLE...ADD PARTITION statement to add a new partition
to the "high" end (the point after the last existing partition). If you wish to add a
partition at the beginning or in the middle of a table, or if the partition bound on the
highest partition is MAXVALUE, you should instead use the SPLIT PARTITION
statement.
When the partition bound of the highest partition is anything other than
MAXVALUE, you can add a partition using the ALTER TABLE...ADD PARTITION
statement.
For example, a DBA has a table, SALES, which contains data for the current month
in addition to the previous 12 months. On January 1, 1999, the DBA adds a partition
for January:
ALTER TABLE sales
ADD PARTITION jan96 VALUES LESS THAN ( ’01-FEB-1999’ )
TABLESPACE tsx;

When there are local indexes defined on the table and you issue the ALTER
TABLE...ADD PARTITION statement, a matching partition is also added to each
local index. Since Oracle assigns names and default physical storage attributes to

Managing Partitioned Tables and Indexes 13-11

Maintaining Partitions

the new index partitions, you may wish to rename or alter them after the ADD
operation is complete.

Adding Index Partitions

You cannot explicitly add a partition to a local index. Instead, new partitions are
added to local indexes only when you add a partition to the underlying table.
You cannot add a partition to a global index because the highest partition always
has a partition bound of MAXVALUE. If you wish to add a new highest partition,
use the ALTER INDEX...SPLIT PARTITION statement.

Dropping Partitions
This section describes how to use the ALTER TABLE DROP PARTITION statement
to drop table and index partitions and their data.

Dropping Table Partitions

You can use the ALTER TABLE DROP PARTITION statement to drop table
partitions.
If there are local indexes defined for the table, ALTER TABLE DROP PARTITION
also drops the matching partition from each local index.

Note: You cannot drop the only partition in a table.

Dropping Table Partitions Containing Data and Global Indexes If, however, the partition
contains data and one or more global indexes are defined on the table, use either of
the following methods to drop the table partition:
1. Leave the global indexes in place during the ALTER TABLE...DROP
PARTITION statement. In this situation DROP PARTITION marks all global
index partitions unusable, so you must rebuild them afterwards.

Note: The ALTER TABLE...DROP PARTITION statement not only

marks all global index partitions as unusable, it also renders all
nonpartitioned indexes unusable. You cannot rebuild the entire
partitioned index in a single statement. If you wish to rebuild a
partitioned index, you must write a separate REBUILD statement
for each partition in the partitioned index. Here, sal1 is a
nonpartitioned index.

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 Maintaining Partitions

ALTER TABLE sales DROP PARTITION dec94;

ALTER INDEX sales_area_ix REBUILD sal1;

This method is most appropriate for large tables where the partition being
dropped contains a significant percentage of the total data in the table.
2. Issue the DELETE command to delete all rows from the partition before you
issue the ALTER TABLE...DROP PARTITION statement. The DELETE
command updates the global indexes, and also fires triggers and generates redo
and undo logs.

Note: You can substantially reduce the amount of logging by

setting the NOLOGGING attribute (using ALTER
TABLE...MODIFY PARTITION...NOLOGGING) for the partition
before deleting all of its rows.

For example, a DBA wishes to drop the first partition, which has a partition
bound of 10000. The DBA issues the following statements:
DELETE FROM sales WHERE TRANSID < 10000;
ALTER TABLE sales DROP PARTITION dec94;

This method is most appropriate for small tables, or for large tables when the
partition being dropped contains a small percentage of the total data in the
table.

Dropping Table Partitions Containing Data and Referential Integrity Constraints If a

partition contains data and the table has referential integrity constraints, choose
either of the following methods to drop the table partition:
1. Disable the integrity constraints, issue the ALTER TABLE...DROP PARTITION
statement, then enable the integrity constraints:
ALTER TABLE sales
DISABLE CONSTRAINT dname_sales1;
ALTER TABLE sales DROP PARTITTION dec94;
ALTER TABLE sales
ENABLE CONSTRAINT dname_sales1;

This method is most appropriate for large tables where the partition being
dropped contains a significant percentage of the total data in the table.
2. Issue the DELETE command to delete all rows from the partition before you
issue the ALTER TABLE...DROP PARTITION statement. The DELETE

Managing Partitioned Tables and Indexes 13-13

Maintaining Partitions

command enforces referential integrity constraints, and also fires triggers and
generates redo and undo log.
DELETE FROM sales WHERE TRANSID < 10000;
ALTER TABLE sales DROP PARTITION dec94;

This method is most appropriate for small tables or for large tables when the
partition being dropped contains a small percentage of the total data in the
table.

Dropping Index Partitions

You cannot explicitly drop a partition of a local index. Instead, local index partitions
are dropped only when you drop a partition from the underlying table.
If a global index partition is empty, you can explicitly drop it by issuing the ALTER
INDEX...DROP PARTITION statement.
If a global index partition contains data, dropping the partition causes the next
highest partition to be marked unusable. For example, a DBA wishes to drop the
index partition P1 and P2 is the next highest partition. The DBA must issue the
following statements:
ALTER INDEX npr DROP PARTITION P1;
ALTER INDEX npr REBUILD PARTITION P2;

Note: You cannot drop the highest partition in a global index.

Coalescing Partitions
You can distribute contents of a partition (selected by the RDBMS) of a table
partitioned using the hash method into one or more partitions determined by the
hash function, and then destroy the selected partition.
The following statement reduces by one the number of partitions in a table by
coalescing its last partition:
ALTER TABLE ouu1
COALESCE PARTITION;

Modifying Partition Default Attributes

You can modify default attributes of a partition of a local index on tables created
using the composite method (or a partition of a composite table).

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 Maintaining Partitions

The following statement changes the (partition-level default) PCTFREE attribute of

a partition of a local index on a partitioned table:
ALTER INDEX scuba_1
MODIFY DEFAULT ATTRIBUTES FOR PARTITION bcd_1998
PCTFREE 25;

Truncating Partitions
Use the ALTER TABLE...TRUNCATE PARTITION statement when you wish to
remove all rows from a table partition. You cannot truncate an index partition;
however, the ALTER TABLE TRUNCATE PARTITION statement truncates the
matching partition in each local index.

Truncating Partitioned Tables

You can use the ALTER TABLE...TRUNCATE PARTITION statement to remove all
rows from a table partition with or without reclaiming space. If there are local
indexes defined for this table, ALTER TABLE...TRUNCATE PARTITION also
truncates the matching partition from each local index.

Truncating Table Partitions Containing Data and Global Indexes If, however, the partition
contains data and global indexes, use either of the following methods to truncate
the table partition:
1. Leave the global indexes in place during the ALTER TABLE TRUNCATE
PARTITION statement.

Note: The ALTER TABLE...TRUNCATE PARTITION statement

not only marks all global index partitions as unusable, it also
renders all nonpartitioned indexes unusable. You cannot rebuild
the entire partitioned index in a single statement. If you wish to
rebuild a partitioned index, you must write a separate REBUILD
statement for each partition in the partitioned index. Here, sal1 is
a nonpartitioned index.

ALTER TABLE sales TRUNCATE PARTITION dec94;

ALTER INDEX sales_area_ix REBUILD sal1;

This method is most appropriate for large tables where the partition being
truncated contains a significant percentage of the total data in the table.

Managing Partitioned Tables and Indexes 13-15

Maintaining Partitions

2. Issue the DELETE command to delete all rows from the partition before you
issue the ALTER TABLE...TRUNCATE PARTITION statement. The DELETE
command updates the global indexes, and also fires triggers and generates redo
and undo log.
This method is most appropriate for small tables, or for large tables when the
partition being truncated contains a small percentage of the total data in the
table.

Truncating Table Partitions Containing Data and Referential Integrity Constraints If a

partition contains data and has referential integrity constraints, choose either of the
following methods to truncate the table partition:
1. Disable the integrity constraints, issue the ALTER TABLE...TRUNCATE
PARTITION statement, then re-enable the integrity constraints:
ALTER TABLE sales
DISABLE CONSTRAINT dname_sales1;
ALTER TABLE sales TRUNCATE PARTITTION dec94;
ALTER TABLE sales
ENABLE CONSTRAINT dname_sales1;

This method is most appropriate for large tables where the partition being
truncated contains a significant percentage of the total data in the table.
2. Issue the DELETE command to delete all rows from the partition before you
issue the ALTER TABLE...TRUNCATE PARTITION statement. The DELETE
command enforces referential integrity constraints, and also fires triggers and
generates redo and undo log.

Note: You can substantially reduce the amount of logging by

setting the NOLOGGING attribute (using ALTER
TABLE...MODIFY PARTITION...NOLOGGING) for the partition
before deleting all of its rows.

DELETE FROM sales WHERE TRANSID < 10000;

ALTER TABLE sales TRUNCATE PARTITION dec94;

This method is most appropriate for small tables, or for large tables when the
partition being truncated contains a small percentage of the total data in the
table.

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Splitting Partitions
This form of ALTER TABLE/INDEX divides a partition into two partitions. You can
use the SPLIT PARTITION clause when a partition becomes too large and causes
backup, recovery or maintenance operations to take a long time. You can also use
the SPLIT PARTITION clause to redistribute the I/O load; note that you cannot use
this clause for hash partitions.

Splitting Table Partitions

You can split a table partition by issuing the ALTER TABLE...SPLIT PARTITION
statement. If there are local indexes defined on the table, this statement also splits
the matching partition in each local index. Because Oracle assigns system-generated
names and default storage attributes to the new index partitions, you may wish to
rename or alter these index partitions after splitting them.
If the partition you are splitting contains data, the ALTER TABLE...SPLIT
PARTITION statement marks the matching partitions (there are two) in each local
index, as well as all global index partitions, as unusable. You must rebuild these
index partitions after issuing the ALTER TABLE...SPLIT PARTITION statement.

Splitting a Table Partition: Scenario In this scenario "fee_katy" is a partition in the table
"VET_cats," which has a local index, JAF1. There is also a global index, VET on the
table. VET contains two partitions, VET_parta, and VET_partb.
To split the partition "fee_katy", and rebuild the index partitions, the DBA issues the
following statements:
ALTER TABLE vet_cats SPLIT PARTITION
fee_katy at (100) INTO ( PARTITION
fee_katy1 ..., PARTITION fee_katy2 ...);
ALTER INDEX JAF1 REBUILD PARTITION SYS_P00067;
ALTER INDEX JAF1 REBUILD PARTITION SYS_P00068;
ALTER INDEX VET REBUILD PARTITION VET_parta;
ALTER INDEX VET REBUILD PARTITION VET_partb;

Note: You must examine the data dictionary to locate the names
assigned to the new local index partitions. In this particular
scenario, they are SYS_P00067 and SYS_P00068. If you wish, you
can rename them. Also, unless JAF1 already contained partitions
fee_katy1 and fee_katy2, names assigned to local index partitions
produced by this split will match those of corresponding base table
partitions.

Managing Partitioned Tables and Indexes 13-17

Maintaining Partitions

Splitting Index Partitions

You cannot explicitly split a partition in a local index. A local index partition is split
only when you split a partition in the underlying table.
The following statement splits the global index partition containing data, QUON1:
ALTER INDEX quon1 SPLIT
PARTITION canada AT VALUES LESS THAN ( 100 ) INTO
PARTITION canada1 ..., PARTITION canada2 ...);
ALTER INDEX quon1 REBUILD PARTITION canada1;
ALTER INDEX quon1 REBUILD PARTITION canada2;

You only need to rebuild if the index partition that you split was unusable.

Merging Partitions
You can merge the contents of two adjacent partitions of a range or composite
partitioned table into one. The resulting partition inherits the higher upper bound
of the two merged partitions.
The following statement merges two adjacent partitions of a range partitioned table:
ALTER TABLE diving
MERGE PARTITIONS bcd1, bcd2 INTO PARTITION bcd1bcd2;

Exchanging Table Partitions

You can convert a partition into a nonpartitioned table, and a table into a partition
of a partitioned table by exchanging their data (and index) segments. Exchanging
table partitions is most useful when you have an application using nonpartitioned
tables which you want to convert to partitions of a partitioned table. For example,
you may already have partition views that you wish to migrate into partitioned
tables.

Converting a Partition View into a Partitioned Table: Scenario

This scenario describes how to convert a partition view (also called "manual
partition") into a partitioned table. The partition view is defined as follows:
CREATE VIEW accounts
SELECT * FROM accounts_jan98
UNION ALL
SELECT * FROM accounts_feb98
UNION ALL
...
SELECT * FROM accounts_dec98;

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To Incrementally Migrate the Partition View to a Partitioned Table

1. Initially, only the two most recent partitions, ACCOUNTS_NOV98 and
ACCOUNTS_DEC98, will be migrated from the view to the table by creating
the partitioned table. Each partition gets a segment of 2 blocks (as a
placeholder).

CREATE TABLE accounts_new (...)

TABLESPACE ts_temp STORAGE (INITIAL 2)
PARTITION BY RANGE (opening_date)
(PARTITION jan98 VALUES LESS THAN (’01-FEB-1998’),
...
PARTITION dec98 VALUES LESS THAN (’01-FEB-1998’));

2. Use the EXCHANGE command to migrate the tables to the corresponding

partitions.
ALTER TABLE accounts_new
EXCHANGE PARTITION nov98 WITH TABLE
accounts_nov98 WITH VALIDATION;

ALTER TABLE accounts_new

EXCHANGE PARTITION dec98 WITH TABLE
accounts_dec98 WITH VALIDATION;

So now the placeholder data segments associated with the NOV98 and DEC98
partitions have been exchanged with the data segments associated with the
ACCOUNTS_NOV98and ACCOUNTS_DEC98 tables.
3. Redefine the ACCOUNTS view.
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW accounts
SELECT * FROM accounts_jan98
UNION ALL
SELECT * FROM accounts_feb_98
UNION ALL
...
UNION ALL
SELECT * FROM accounts_new PARTITION (nov98)
UNION ALL
SELECT * FROM accounts_new PARTITION (dec98);

4. Drop the ACCOUNTS_NOV98 and ACCOUNTS_DEC98 tables, which own the

placeholder segments that were originally attached to the NOV98 and DEC98
partitions.
5. After all the tables in the UNIONALL view are converted into partitions, drop
the view and rename the partitioned to the name of the view being dropped.

Managing Partitioned Tables and Indexes 13-19

Maintaining Partitions

DROP VIEW accounts;

RENAME accounts_new TO accounts;

See Also: For more information about the syntax and usage of the statements in this
section, see Oracle8i SQL Reference.

Rebuilding Index Partitions

Some operations, such as ALTER TABLE...DROP PARTITION, mark all partitions of
a global index unusable. You can rebuild global index partitions in two ways:
1. Rebuild each partition by issuing the ALTER INDEX...REBUILD PARTITION
statement (you can run the rebuilds concurrently).
2. Drop the index and re-create it.

Note: This method is more efficient because the table is scanned

only once.

Moving the Time Window in a Historical Table

A historical table describes the business transactions of an enterprise over intervals
of time. Historical tables can be base tables, which contain base information; for
example, sales, checks, orders. Historical tables can also be rollup tables, which
contain summary information derived from the base information via operations
such as GROUP BY, AVERAGE, or COUNT.
The time interval in a historical table is a rolling window; DBAs periodically delete
sets of rows that describe the oldest transaction, and in turn allocate space for sets
of rows that describe the most recent transaction. For example, at the close of
business on April 30, 1995 the DBA deletes the rows (and supporting index entries)
that describe transactions from April 1994, and allocates space for the April 1995
transactions.

To Move the Time Window in a Historical Table Now consider a specific example. You
have a table, ORDER, which contains 13 months of transactions: a year of historical
data in addition to orders for the current month. There is one partition for each
month; the partitions are named ORDER_yymm, as are the tablespaces in which
they reside.
The ORDER table contains two local indexes, ORDER_IX_ONUM, which is a local,
prefixed, unique index on the order number, and ORDER_IX_SUPP, which is a
local, non-prefixed index on the supplier number. The local index partitions are

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 Maintaining Partitions

named with suffixes that match the underlying table. There is also a global unique
index, ORDER_IX_CUST, for the customer name. ORDER_IX_CUST contains three
partitions, one for each third of the alphabet. So on October 31, 1994, change the
time window on ORDER as follows:
1. Back up the data for the oldest time interval.
ALTER TABLESPACE ORDER_9310 BEGIN BACKUP;
ALTER TABLESPACE ORDER_9310 END BACKUP;

2. Drop the partition for the oldest time interval.

ALTER TABLE ORDER DROP PARTITION ORDER_9310;

3. Add the partition to the most recent time interval.

ALTER TABLE ORDER ADD PARTITION ORDER_9411;

4. Drop and re-create the global indexes.

ALTER INDEX ORDER DROP PARTITION ORDER_IX_CUST;
ALTER INDEX REBUILD PARTITION ORDER_IX_CUST;

Quiescing Applications During a Multi-Step Maintenance Operation

Ordinarily, Oracle acquires sufficient locks to ensure that no operation (DML, DDL,
utility) interferes with an individual DDL statement, such as ALTER TABLE...DROP
PARTITION. However, if the partition maintenance operation requires several
steps, it is the DBA’s responsibility to ensure that applications (or other
maintenance operations) do not interfere with the multi-step operation in progress.
For example, there are referential integrity constraints on the table ORDER, and you
do not wish to disable them to drop the partition. Instead, you can replace Step 2
from the previous section with the following:
DELETE FROM ORDER WHERE ODATE < TO_DATE( 01-NOV-93 );
ALTER TABLE ORDER DROP PARTITION ORDER_9310;

You can ensure that no one inserts new rows into ORDER between the DELETE
step and the DROP PARTITION steps by revoking access privileges from an
APPLICATION role, which is used in all applications. You can also bring down all
user-level applications during a well-defined batch window each night or weekend.

Managing Partitioned Tables and Indexes 13-21

Maintaining Partitions

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 14
Managing Tables

This chapter describes the various aspects of managing tables, and includes the
following topics:
■ Guidelines for Managing Tables
■ Creating Tables
■ Altering Tables
■ Manually Allocating Storage for a Table
■ Dropping Tables
■ Index-Organized Tables
Before attempting tasks described in this chapter, familiarize yourself with the
concepts in Chapter 12, "Guidelines for Managing Schema Objects".

Managing Tables 14-1

Guidelines for Managing Tables

Guidelines for Managing Tables

This section describes guidelines to follow when managing tables, and includes the
following topics:
■ Design Tables Before Creating Them
■ Specify How Data Block Space Is to Be Used
■ Specify Transaction Entry Parameters
■ Specify the Location of Each Table
■ Parallelize Table Creation
■ Consider Creating UNRECOVERABLE Tables
■ Estimate Table Size and Set Storage Parameters
■ Plan for Large Tables
■ Table Restrictions
Use these guidelines to make managing tables as easy as possible.

Design Tables Before Creating Them

Usually, the application developer is responsible for designing the elements of an
application, including the tables. Database administrators are responsible for setting
storage parameters and defining clusters for tables, based on information from the
application developer about how the application works and the types of data
expected.
Working with your application developer, carefully plan each table so that the
following occurs:
■ Tables are normalized.
■ Each column is of the proper datatype.
■ Columns that allow nulls are defined last, to conserve storage space.
■ Tables are clustered whenever appropriate, to conserve storage space and
optimize performance of SQL statements.

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 Guidelines for Managing Tables

Specify How Data Block Space Is to Be Used

By specifying the PCTFREE and PCTUSED parameters during the creation of each
table, you can affect the efficiency of space utilization and amount of space reserved
for updates to the current data in the data blocks of a table’s data segment.
See Also: For information about specifying PCTFREE and PCTUSED, see
"Managing Space in Data Blocks" on page 12-2.

Specify Transaction Entry Parameters

By specifying the INITRANS and MAXTRANS parameters during the creation of
each table, you can affect how much space is initially and can ever be allocated for
transaction entries in the data blocks of a table’s data segment.
See Also: For information about specifying INITRANS and MAXTRANS, see
"Setting Storage Parameters" on page 12-7.

Specify the Location of Each Table

If you have the proper privileges and tablespace quota, you can create a new table
in any tablespace that is currently online. Therefore, you should specify the
TABLESPACE option in a CREATE TABLE statement to identify the tablespace that
will store the new table.
If you do not specify a tablespace in a CREATE TABLE statement, the table is
created in your default tablespace.
When specifying the tablespace to contain a new table, make sure that you
understand implications of your selection. By properly specifying a tablespace
during the creation of each table, you can:
■ increase the performance of the database system
■ decrease the time needed for database administration
The following examples show how incorrect storage locations of schema objects can
affect a database:
■ If users’ objects are created in the SYSTEM tablespace, the performance of
Oracle can be reduced, since both data dictionary objects and user objects must
contend for the same datafiles.
■ If an application’s associated tables are arbitrarily stored in various tablespaces,
the time necessary to complete administrative operations (such as backup and
recovery) for that application’s data can be increased.

Managing Tables 14-3

Guidelines for Managing Tables

See Also: For information about specifying tablespaces, see "Assigning Tablespace
Quotas to Users" on page 9-3.

Parallelize Table Creation

You can parallelize the creation of tables created with a subquery in the CREATE
TABLE command. Because multiple processes work together to create the table,
performance of the table creation can improve.
See Also: For more information about parallel table creation, see the Oracle8i Parallel
Server Concepts and Administration guide.
For information about the CREATE TABLE command, see the Oracle8i SQL
Reference.

Consider Creating UNRECOVERABLE Tables

When you create an unrecoverable table, the table cannot be recovered from
archived logs (because the needed redo log records are not generated for the
unrecoverable table creation). Thus, if you cannot afford to lose the table, you
should take a backup after the table is created. In some situations, such as for tables
that are created for temporary use, this precaution may not be necessary.
You can create an unrecoverable table by specifying UNRECOVERABLE when you
create a table with a subquery in the CREATE TABLE...AS SELECT statement.
However, rows inserted afterwards are recoverable. In fact, after the statement is
completed, all future statements are fully recoverable.
Creating an unrecoverable table has the following benefits:
■ Space is saved in the redo log files.
■ The time it takes to create the table is decreased.
■ Performance improves for parallel creation of large tables.
In general, the relative performance improvement is greater for larger
unrecoverable tables than for smaller tables. Creating small unrecoverable tables
has little effect on the time it takes to create a table. However, for larger tables the
performance improvement can be significant, especially when you are also
parallelizing the table creation.

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 Guidelines for Managing Tables

Estimate Table Size and Set Storage Parameters

Estimating the sizes of tables before creating them is useful for the following
reasons:
■ You can use the combined estimated size of tables, along with estimates for
indexes, rollback segments, and redo log files, to determine the amount of disk
space that is required to hold an intended database. From these estimates, you
can make correct hardware purchases and other decisions.
■ You can use the estimated size of an individual table to better manage the disk
space that the table will use. When a table is created, you can set appropriate
storage parameters and improve I/O performance of applications that use the
table.
For example, assume that you estimate the maximum size of a table before
creating it. If you then set the storage parameters when you create the table,
fewer extents will be allocated for the table’s data segment, and all of the table’s
data will be stored in a relatively contiguous section of disk space. This
decreases the time necessary for disk I/O operations involving this table.
Whether or not you estimate table size before creation, you can explicitly set storage
parameters when creating each nonclustered table. (Clustered tables automatically
use the storage parameters of the cluster.) Any storage parameter that you do not
explicitly set when creating or subsequently altering a table automatically uses the
corresponding default storage parameter set for the tablespace in which the table
resides.
If you explicitly set the storage parameters for the extents of a table’s data segment,
try to store the table’s data in a small number of large extents rather than a large
number of small extents.

Plan for Large Tables

There are no limits on the physical size of tables and extents. You can specify the
keyword UNLIMITED for MAXEXTENTS, thereby simplifying your planning for
large objects, reducing wasted space and fragmentation, and improving space
reuse. However, keep in mind that while Oracle allows an unlimited number of
extents, when the number of extents in a table grows very large, you may see an
impact on performance when performing any operation requiring that table.

Note: You cannot alter data dictionary tables to have

MAXEXTENTS greater than the allowed block maximum.

Managing Tables 14-5

Guidelines for Managing Tables

If you have such tables in your database, consider the following recommendations:
Separate the Table from Its Indexes Place indexes in separate tablespaces from
other objects, and on separate disks if possible. If you ever need to drop and re-
create an index on a very large table (such as when disabling and enabling a
constraint, or re-creating the table), indexes isolated into separate tablespaces can
often find contiguous space more easily than those in tablespaces that contain other
objects.
Allocate Sufficient Temporary Space If applications that access the data in a very
large table perform large sorts, ensure that enough space is available for large
temporary segments and that users have access to this space (temporary segments
always use the default STORAGE settings for their tablespaces).

Table Restrictions
Before creating tables, make sure you are aware of the following restrictions:
■ Tables containing new object types cannot be imported into a pre-Oracle8
database
■ You cannot move types and extent tables to a different schema when the
original data still exists in the database.
■ You cannot merge an exported table into a pre-existing table having the same
name in a different schema.
Oracle has a limit on the total number of columns that a table (or attributes that an
object type) can have (see Oracle8i SQL Reference for this limit.) When you create a
table that contains user-defined type data, Oracle maps columns of user-defined
type to relational columns for storing the user-defined type data. These "hidden"
relational columns are not visible in a DESCRIBE table statement and are not
returned by a SELECT * statement. Therefore, when you create an object table, or a
relational table with columns of REF, varray, nested table, or object type, the total
number of columns that Oracle actually creates for the table may be more than
those you specify, because Oracle creates hidden columns to store the user-defined
type data. The following formulas determine the total number of columns created
for a table with user-defined type data:

Number of columns in an object table:

num_columns(object_table) =
num_columns(object_identifier)
+ num_columns(row_type)
+ number of top-level object columns in the object type of table
+ num_columns(object_type)

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 Guidelines for Managing Tables

Number of columns in a relational table:

num_columns(relational_table) =
number of scalar columns in the table
+ number of object columns in the table
+ SUM [num_columns(object_type(i))] i= 1 -> n
+ SUM [num_columns(nested_table(j))] j= 1 -> m
+ SUM [num_columns(varray(k))] k= 1 -> p
+ SUM [num_columns(REF(l))] l= 1 -> q

where in the given relational table

object_type(i) is the ith object type column and
n is the total number of such object type columns
nested_table(j) is the jth nested_table column and
m is the total number of such nested table columns
varray(k) is the kth varray column and
p is the total number of such varray columns,
REF(l) is the lth REF column and
q is the total number of such REF columns.

num_columns(object identifier) = 1
num_columns(row_type) = 1
num_columns(REF) = 1, if REF is unscoped
= 1, if the REF is scoped and the object identifier
is system generated and the REF has no
referential constraint
= 2, if the REF is scoped and the object identifier
is system generated and the REF has a
referential constraint
= 1 + number of columns in the primary key,
if the object identifier is primary key based
num_columns(nested_table) = 2
num_columns(varray) = 1
num_columns(object_type) = number of scalar attributes in the object type
+ SUM[num_columns(object_type(i))] i= 1 -> n
+ SUM[num_columns(nested_table(j))] j= 1 -> m
+ SUM[num_columns(varray(k))] k= 1 -> p
+ SUM[num_columns(REF(l))] l= 1 -> q

where in the given object type:

object_type(i) is an embedded object type attribute and
n is the total number of such object type attributes,
nested_table(j) is an embedded nested_table attribute and
m is the total number of such nested table attributes,
varray(k) is an embedded varray attribute and
p is the total number of such varray attributes,
REF(l) is an embedded REF attribute and

Managing Tables 14-7

Guidelines for Managing Tables

q is the total number of such REF attributes.

Example 1
CREATE TYPE physical_address_type AS OBJECT
(no CHAR(4), street CHAR(31), city CHAR(5), state CHAR(3));
CREATE TYPE phone_type AS VARRAY(5) OF CHAR(15);
CREATE TYPE electronic_address_type AS OBJECT
(phones phone_type, fax CHAR(12), email CHAR(31));
CREATE TYPE contact_info_type AS OBJECT
(physical_address physical_address_type,
electronic_address electronic_address_type);
CREATE TYPE employee_type AS OBJECT
(eno NUMBER, ename CHAR(60),
contact_info contact_info_type);

CREATE TABLE employee_object_table OF employee_type;

To calculate number of columns in employee object table, we first need to calculate

number of columns required for employee_type:
num_columns(physical_address_type) =
number of scalar attributes = 4
num_columns(phone_type) =
num_columns(varray) = 1
num_columns(electronic_address_type) =
number of scalar attributes
+ num_columns(phone_type)
= 2 + 1 = 3
num_columns(contact_info_type) =
num_columns(physical_address_type)
+ num_columns(electronic_address_type)
= 3 + 4 = 7
num_columns(employee_type) =
number of scalar attributes
+ num_columns(contact_info_type)
= 2 + 7 = 9

num_columns (employee_object_table) =
num_columns(object_identifier)
+ num_columns(row_type)
+ number of top level object columns in employee_type
+ num_columns(employee_type)
= 1 + 1 + 1 + 9 = 12

Example 2:
CREATE TABLE employee_relational_table (einfo employee_type);

num_columns (employee_relational_table) =

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 Creating Tables

number of object columns in table

+ num_columns(employee_type)
= 1 + 9 = 10

Example 3:
CREATE TYPE project_type AS OBJECT (pno NUMBER, pname CHAR(30), budget NUMBER);

CREATE TYPE project_set_type AS TABLE OF project_type;

CREATE TABLE department

(dno NUMBER, dname CHAR(30),
mgr REF employee_type REFERENCES employee_object_table,
project_set project_set_type)
NESTED TABLE project_set STORE AS project_set_nt;

num_columns(department) =
number of scalar columns
+ num_columns(mgr)
+ num_columns(project_set)
= 2 + 2 + 2 = 6

Creating Tables
To create a new table in your schema, you must have the CREATE TABLE system
privilege. To create a table in another user’s schema, you must have the CREATE
ANY TABLE system privilege. Additionally, the owner of the table must have a
quota for the tablespace that contains the table, or the UNLIMITED TABLESPACE
system privilege.
Create tables using the SQL statement CREATE TABLE. When user SCOTT issues
the following statement, he creates a nonclustered table named EMP in his schema
and stores it in the USERS tablespace:
CREATE TABLE emp (
empno NUMBER(5) PRIMARY KEY,
ename VARCHAR2(15) NOT NULL,
job VARCHAR2(10),
mgr NUMBER(5),
hiredate DATE DEFAULT (sysdate),
sal NUMBER(7,2),
comm NUMBER(7,2),
deptno NUMBER(3) NOT NULL
CONSTRAINT dept_fkey REFERENCES dept)
PCTFREE 10
PCTUSED 40
TABLESPACE users

Managing Tables 14-9

Altering Tables

STORAGE ( INITIAL 50K

NEXT 50K
MAXEXTENTS 10
PCTINCREASE 25 );

Notice that integrity constraints are defined on several columns of the table and that
several storage settings are explicitly specified for the table.
See Also: For more information about system privileges, see Chapter 24, "Managing
User Privileges and Roles". For more information about tablespace quotas, see
Chapter 23, "Managing Users and Resources".

Altering Tables
To alter a table, the table must be contained in your schema, or you must have
either the ALTER object privilege for the table or the ALTER ANY TABLE system
privilege.
A table in an Oracle database can be altered for the following reasons:
■ to add or drop one or more columns to or from the table
■ to add or modify an integrity constraint on a table
■ to modify an existing column’s definition (datatype, length, default value, and
NOT NULL integrity constraint)
■ to modify data block space usage parameters (PCTFREE, PCTUSED)
■ to modify transaction entry settings (INITRANS, MAXTRANS)
■ to modify storage parameters (NEXT, PCTINCREASE)
■ to enable or disable integrity constraints or triggers associated with the table
■ to drop integrity constraints associated with the table
You can increase the length of an existing column. However, you cannot decrease it
unless there are no rows in the table. Furthermore, if you are modifying a table to
increase the length of a column of datatype CHAR, realize that this may be a time
consuming operation and may require substantial additional storage, especially if
the table contains many rows. This is because the CHAR value in each row must be
blank-padded to satisfy the new column length.
When altering the data block space usage parameters (PCTFREE and PCTUSED) of
a table, note that new settings apply to all data blocks used by the table, including
blocks already allocated and subsequently allocated for the table. However, the

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 Manually Allocating Storage for a Table

blocks already allocated for the table are not immediately reorganized when space
usage parameters are altered, but as necessary after the change.
When altering the transaction entry settings (INITRANS, MAXTRANS) of a table,
note that a new setting for INITRANS applies only to data blocks subsequently
allocated for the table, while a new setting for MAXTRANS applies to all blocks
(already and subsequently allocated blocks) of a table.
The storage parameters INITIAL and MINEXTENTS cannot be altered. All new
settings for the other storage parameters (for example, NEXT, PCTINCREASE)
affect only extents subsequently allocated for the table. The size of the next extent
allocated is determined by the current values of NEXT and PCTINCREASE, and is
not based on previous values of these parameters.
You can alter a table using the SQL command ALTER TABLE. The following
statement alters the EMP table:
ALTER TABLE emp
PCTFREE 30
PCTUSED 60;

WARNING: Before altering a table, familiarize yourself with the

consequences of doing so.
If a new column is added to a table, the column is initially null.
You can add a column with a NOT NULL constraint to a table
only if the table does not contain any rows.
If a view or PL/SQL program unit depends on a base table, the
alteration of the base table may affect the dependent object.

See Also: See "Managing Object Dependencies" on page 20-23 for information about
how Oracle manages dependencies.

Manually Allocating Storage for a Table

Oracle dynamically allocates additional extents for the data segment of a table, as
required. However, you might want to allocate an additional extent for a table
explicitly. For example, when using the Oracle Parallel Server, an extent of a table
can be allocated explicitly for a specific instance.
A new extent can be allocated for a table using the SQL command ALTER TABLE
with the ALLOCATE EXTENT option.

Managing Tables 14-11

Dropping Tables

See Also: For information about the ALLOCATE EXTENT option, see Oracle8i
Parallel Server Concepts and Administration.

Dropping Tables
To drop a table, the table must be contained in your schema or you must have the
DROP ANY TABLE system privilege.
To drop a table that is no longer needed, use the SQL command DROP TABLE. The
following statement drops the EMP table:
DROP TABLE emp;

If the table to be dropped contains any primary or unique keys referenced by

foreign keys of other tables and you intend to drop the FOREIGN KEY constraints
of the child tables, include the CASCADE option in the DROP TABLE command, as
shown below:
DROP TABLE emp CASCADE CONSTRAINTS;

WARNING: Before dropping a table, familiarize yourself with

the consequences of doing so:
■ Dropping a table removes the table definition from the data
dictionary. All rows of the table are no longer accessible.
■ All indexes and triggers associated with a table are dropped.
■ All views and PL/SQL program units dependent on a dropped table
remain, yet become invalid (not usable). See "Managing Object
Dependencies" on page 20-23 for information about how Oracle
manages such dependencies.
■ All synonyms for a dropped table remain, but return an error when
used.
■ All extents allocated for a nonclustered table that is dropped are
returned to the free space of the tablespace and can be used by any
other object requiring new extents or new objects. All rows
corresponding to a clustered table are deleted from the blocks of the
cluster.

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 Index-Organized Tables

Dropping Columns
Oracle enables you to drop columns from rows in a table, thereby cleaning up
unused, and potentially space-demanding columns without having to export/
import data, and recreate indexes and constraints.
You can drop columns you no longer need or mark columns to be dropped at a
future time when there is less demand on your system’s resources.
The following statement drops unused columns from table t1:
ALTER TABLE t1 DROP UNUSED COLUMNS;

Restrictions
The following restrictions apply to drop column operations:
■ You cannot drop a column from an object type table.
■ You cannot drop columns from nested tables.
■ You cannot drop all columns in a table.
■ You cannot drop a partitioning key column.
■ You cannot drop a column from tables owned by SYS.
■ You cannot drop a parent key column.
See Also: For more information about the syntax used for dropping columns from
tables, see the Oracle8i SQL Reference.

Index-Organized Tables
This section describes aspects of managing index-organized tables, and includes the
following topics:
■ What Are Index-Organized Tables?
■ Creating Index-Organized Tables
■ Maintaining Index-Organized Tables
■ Analyzing Index-Organized Tables
■ Using the ORDER BY Clause with Index-Organized Tables
■ Converting Index-Organized Tables to Regular Tables

Managing Tables 14-13

Index-Organized Tables

What Are Index-Organized Tables?

Index-organized tables are tables with data rows grouped according to the primary
key. This clustering is achieved using a B*-tree index. B*-tree indexes are special
types of index trees that differ from regular table B-tree indexes in that they store
both the primary key and non-key columns. The attributes of index-organized
tables are stored entirely within the physical data structures for the index.

Why Use Index-Organized Tables?

Index-organized tables provide fast key-based access to table data for queries
involving exact match and range searches. Changes to the table data (such as
adding new rows, updating rows, or deleting rows) result only in updating the
index structure (because there is no separate table storage area).
Also, storage requirements are reduced because key columns are not duplicated in
the table and index. The remaining non-key columns are stored in the index
structure.
Index-organized tables are particularly useful when you are using applications that
must retrieve data based on a primary key. Also, index-organized tables are suitable
for modeling application-specific index structures. For example, content-based
information retrieval applications containing text, image and audio data require
inverted indexes that can be effectively modeled using index-organized tables.
See Also: For more details about index-organized tables, see Oracle8i Concepts.

Differences Between Index-Organized and Regular Tables

Index-organized tables are like regular tables with a primary key index on one or
more of its columns. However, instead of maintaining two separate storage spaces
for the table and B*tree index, an index-organized table only maintains a single
B*tree index containing the primary key of the table and other column values.

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 Index-Organized Tables

Figure 14–1 Structure of Regular Table versus Index-Organized Table

Regular Table and Index Index-Organized Table

Index
FINANCE ROWID
INVEST ROWID

Table Table

FINANCE
Finance 5543 Finance
STOCK
Invest 6879 Stock
Stock 4254
Trade 3345
Index Index Index
STOCK ROWID STOCK 6874 FINANCE 3345
TRADE ROWID TRADE 5543 INVEST 4254

Indexed data is
stored in index.

Index-organized tables are suitable for accessing data by way of primary key or any
key that is a valid prefix of the primary key. Also, there is no duplication of key
values because a separate index structure containing the key values and ROWID is
not created. Table 14–1 summarizes the difference between an index-organized table
and a regular table.

Table 14–1 Comparison of Index-Organized Table with a Regular Table

Regular Table Index-Organized Table
ROWID uniquely identifies a row; Primary key uniquely identifies a row;
primary key can be optionally specified primary key must be specified
ROWID pseudo-column refers to ROWID pseudocolumn refers to primary key-
physical block address based logical ROWID
Secondary indexes store physical data Secondary indexes store primary key-based
logical ROWID
Can be stored in a hash or index cluster Cannot be stored in a hash or index cluster

Managing Tables 14-15

Index-Organized Tables

Creating Index-Organized Tables

You can use the CREATE TABLE statement to create index-organized tables; when
doing so, you need to provide the following additional information:
■ An ORGANIZATION INDEX qualifier, which indicates that this is an index-
organized table.
■ A primary key, specified through a column constraint clause (for a single
column primary key) or a table constraint clause (for a multiple-column
primary key). A primary key must be specified for index-organized tables.
■ An optional row overflow specification clause, which preserves dense
clustering of the B*tree index by storing the row column values exceeding the
specified threshold in a separate overflow data segment.
The row overflow tablespace is defined as a percentage of the block size. If a row
size is greater than the specified threshold value (PCTTHRESHOLD), the non-
key column values are stored in the overflow tablespace. In other words, the
row is broken at a column boundary into two pieces, a head piece and tail piece.
The head piece fits in the specified threshold and is stored along with the key in
the index leaf block. The tail piece is stored in the overflow area as one or more
row pieces. Thus, the index entry contains the key value, the non-key column
values that fit the specified threshold, and a pointer to the rest of the row.
■ The following example shows the information to provide when creating index-
organized tables:
CREATE TABLE docindex(
token char(20),
doc_id NUMBER,
token_frequency NUMBER,
token_offsets VARCHAR2(512),
CONSTRAINT pk_docindex PRIMARY KEY (token, doc_id))
ORGANIZATION INDEX TABLESPACE ind_tbs
PCTTHRESHOLD 20
OVERFLOW TABLESPACE ovf_tbs;

This example shows that the ORGANIZATION INDEX qualifier specifies an index-
organized table, where the key columns and non-key columns reside in an index
defined on columns that designate the primary key (token,doc_id) for the table.
Index-organized tables can store object types. For example, you can create an index-
organized table containing a column of object type mytype (for the purpose of this
example) as follows:
CREATE TABLE iot (c1 NUMBER primary key, c2 mytype)
ORGANIZATION INDEX;

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 Index-Organized Tables

However, you cannot create an index-organized table of object types. For example,
the following statement would not be valid:
CREATE TABLE iot of mytype ORGANIZATION INDEX;

See Also: For more details about the CREATE INDEX statement, see the Oracle8i
SQL Reference.

Using the AS Subquery

You can create an index-organized table using the AS subquery. Creating an index-
organized table in this manner enables you to load the table in parallel by using the
PARALLEL option.
The following statement creates an index-organized table (in parallel) by selecting
rows from a conventional table, rt:
CREATE TABLE iot(i primary key, j) ORGANIZATION INDEX PARALLEL (DEGREE 2)
AS SELECT * FROM rt;

See Also: For details about the syntax for creating index-organized tables, see the
Oracle8i SQL Reference.

Using the Overflow Clause

The overflow clause specified in the earlier example indicates that any non-key
columns of rows exceeding 20% of the block size are placed in a data segment
stored in the TEXT_COLLECTION_OVERFLOWtablespace.The key columns
should fit the specified threshold.
If an update of a non-key column causes the row to decrease in size, Oracle
identifies the row piece (head or tail) to which the update is applicable and rewrites
that piece.
If an update of a non-key column causes the row to increase in size, Oracle
identifies the piece (head or tail) to which the update is applicable and rewrites that
row piece. If the update’s target turns out to be the head piece, note that this piece
may again be broken into 2 to keep the row size below the specified threshold.
The non-key columns that fit in the index leaf block are stored as a row head-piece
that contains a ROWID field linking it to the next row piece stored in the overflow
data segment. The only columns that are stored in the overflow area are those that
do not fit.

Managing Tables 14-17

Index-Organized Tables

Choosing and Monitoring a Threshold Value You should choose a threshold value that
can accommodate your key columns, as well as the first few non-key columns (if
they are frequently accessed).
After choosing a threshold value, you can monitor tables to verify that the value
you specified is appropriate. You can use the ANALYZE TABLE...LIST CHAINED
ROWS statement to determine the number and identity of rows exceeding the
threshold value.
See Also: For more information about the ANALYZE statement see the Oracle8i
SQL Reference.

Using the INCLUDING clause In addition to specifying PCTTHRESHOLD, you can use
the INCLUDING <column_name> clause to control which non-key columns are
stored with the key columns. Oracle accommodates all non-key columns up to the
column specified in the INCLUDING clause in the index leaf block, provided it
does not exceed the specified threshold. All non-key columns beyond the column
specified in the INCLUDING clause are stored in the overflow area.
For example, you can modify the previous example where an index-organized table
was created so that it always has the token_offsets column value stored in the
overflow area:
CREATE TABLE docindex(
token CHAR(20),
doc_id NUMBER,
token_frequency NUMBER,
token_offsets VARCHAR2(512),
CONSTRAINT pk_docindex PRIMARY KEY (token, doc_id))
ORGANIZATION INDEX TABLESPACE ind_tbs
PCTTHRESHOLD 20
INCLUDING token_frequency
OVERFLOW TABLESPACE ovf_tbs;

Here, only non-key columns up to token_frequency (in this case a single column
only) are stored with the key column values in the index leaf block.

Using Key Compression

Creating an index-organized table using key compression enables you to eliminate
repeated occurrences of key column prefix values.
Key compression breaks an index key into a prefix and a suffix entry. Compression
is achieved by sharing the prefix entries among all the suffix entries in an index
block. This sharing can lead to huge savings in space, allowing you to store more
keys per index block while improving performance.

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 Index-Organized Tables

You can enable key compression using the COMPRESS clause while:
■ creating an index-organized table
■ moving an index-organized table
You can also specify the prefix length (as the number of key columns), which
identifies how the key columns are broken into a prefix and suffix entry.
CREATE TABLE iot(i INT, j INT, k INT, l INT, PRIMARY KEY (i, j, k)) ORGANIZATION INDEX
COMPRESS;

The preceding statement is equivalent to the following statement:

CREATE TABLE iot(i INT, j INT, k INT, l INT, PRIMARY KEY(i, j, k)) ORGANIZATION INDEX
COMPRESS 2;

For the list of values (1,2,3), (1,2,4), (1,2,7), (1,3,5) (1,3,4), (1,4,4) the repeated
occurrences of (1,2), (1,3) are compressed away.
You can also override the default prefix length used for compression as follows:
CREATE TABLE iot(i INT, j INT, k INT, l INT, PRIMARY KEY (i, j, k)) ORGANIZATION INDEX
COMPRESS 1;

For the list of values (1,2,3), (1,2,4), (1,2,7), (1,3,5), (1,3,4), (1,4,4), the repeated
occurrences of 1 are compressed away.
You can disable compression as follows:
ALTER TABLE A MOVE NOCOMPRESS;

See Also: For more details about key compression, see Oracle8i Concepts and the
Oracle8i SQL Reference.

Maintaining Index-Organized Tables

Index-organized tables differ from regular tables only in physical organization;
logically, they are manipulated in the same manner. You can use an index-organized
table in place of a regular table in INSERT, SELECT, DELETE, and UPDATE
statements.

Altering Index-Organized Tables

You can use the ALTER TABLE statement to modify physical and storage attributes
for both primary key index and overflow data segments. All the attributes specified
prior to the OVERFLOW keyword are applicable to the primary key index segment.
All attributes specified after the OVERFLOW key word are applicable to the

Managing Tables 14-19

Index-Organized Tables

overflow data segment. For example, you can set the INITRANS of the primary key
index segment to 4 and the overflow of the data segment INITRANS to 6 as follows:
ALTER TABLE docindex INITRANS 4 OVERFLOW INITRANS 6;

You can also alter PCTTHRESHOLD and INCLUDING column values. A new
setting is used to break the row into head and overflow tail pieces during
subsequent operations. For example, the PCTHRESHOLD and INCLUDING
column values can be altered for the docindex table as follows:
ALTER TABLE docindex PCTTHRESHOLD 15 INCLUDING doc_id;

By setting the INCLUDING column to doc_id, all the columns that follow
doc_id, namely, token_frequency and token_offsets, are stored in the
overflow data segment.
For index-organized tables created without an overflow data segment, you can add
an overflow data segment by using the ADD OVERFLOW clause. For example, if
the docindex table did not have an overflow segment, then you can add an
overflow segment as follows:
ALTER TABLE docindex ADD OVERFLOW TABLESPACE ovf_tbs;

See Also: For details about the ALTER TABLE statement, see the Oracle8i SQL
Reference.

Moving (Rebuilding) Index-Organized Tables

Because index-organized tables are primarily stored in a B*-tree index, you may
encounter fragmentation as a consequence of incremental updates. However, you
can use the ALTER TABLE...MOVE statement to rebuild the index and reduce this
fragmentation.
The following statement rebuilds the index-organized table docindex after setting
its INITRANS to 10:
ALTER TABLE docindex MOVE INITRANS10;

You can move index-organized tables with no overflow data segment online using
the ONLINE option. For example, if the docindex table does not have an overflow
data segment, then you can perform the move online as follows:
ALTER TABLE docindex MOVE ONLINE INITRANS 10;

The following statement rebuilds the index-organized table docindex along with
its overflow data segment:

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 Index-Organized Tables

ALTER TABLE docindex MOVE TABLESPACE ix_tbs OVERFLOW TABLESPACE ov_tbs;

And in this last statement, index-organized table iot is moved while the LOB index
and data segment for C2 are rebuilt:
ALTER TABLE iot MOVE LOB (C2) STORE AS (TABLESPACE lob_ts);

See Also: For more information about the MOVE option, see the Oracle8i SQL
Reference.

Scenario: Updating the Key Column

A key column update is logically equivalent to deleting the row with the old key
value and inserting the row with the new key value at the appropriate place to
maintain the primary key order.
Logically, in the following example, the employee row for dept_id=20 and
e_id=10 are deleted and the employee row for dept_id=23 and e_id=10 are
inserted:
UPDATE employees
SET dept_id=23
WHERE dept_id=20 and e_id=10;

Analyzing Index-Organized Tables

Just like conventional tables, index-organized tables are analyzed using the
ANALYZE statement:
ANALYZE TABLE docindex COMPUTE STATISTICS;

The ANALYZE statement analyzes both the primary key index segment and the
overflow data segment, and computes logical as well as physical statistics for the
table.
■ The logical statistics can be queries using USER_TABLES, ALL_TABLES or
DBA_TABLES.
■ You can query the physical statistics of the primary key index segment using
USER_INDEXES, ALL_INDEXES or DBA_INDEXES (and using the primary
key index name). For example, you can obtain the primary key index segment’s
physical statistics for the table docindex as follows:
SELECT * FROM DBA_INDEXES WHERE INDEX_NAME= ’PK_DOCINDEX’;

Managing Tables 14-21

Index-Organized Tables

■ You can query the physical statistics for the overflow data segment using the
USER_TABLES, ALL_TABLES or DBA_TABLES. You can identify the overflow
entry by searching for IOT_TYPE = ’IOT_OVERFLOW’. For example, you can
obtain overflow data segment physical attributes associated with the docindex
table as follows:
SELECT * FROM DBA_TABLES WHERE IOT_TYPE=’IOT_OVERFLOW’ and IOT_NAME= ’DOCINDEX’

Using the ORDER BY Clause with Index-Organized Tables

If an ORDER BY clause only references the primary key column or a prefix of it,
then the optimizer avoids the sorting overhead as the rows are returned sorted on
the primary key columns.
For example, you create the following table:
CREATE TABLE employees (dept_id INTEGER, e_id INTEGER, e_name
VARCHAR2, PRIMARY KEY (dept_id, e_id)) ORGANIZATION INDEX;

The following queries avoid sorting overhead because the data is already sorted on
the primary key:
SELECT * FROM employees ORDER BY (dept_id, e_id);
SELECT * FROM employees ORDER BY (dept_id);

If, however, you have an ORDER BY clause on a suffix of the primary key column
or non-primary key columns, additional sorting is required (assuming no other
secondary indexes are defined).
SELECT * FROM employees ORDER BY (e_id);
SELECT * FROM employees ORDER BY (e_name);

Converting Index-Organized Tables to Regular Tables

You can convert index-organized tables to regular tables using the Oracle IMPORT/
EXPORT utilities, or the CREATE TABLE...AS SELECT statement.
To convert an index-organized table to a regular table:
■ Export the index-organized table data using conventional path
■ Create a regular table definition with the same definition

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 Index-Organized Tables

■ Import the index-organized table data, making sure IGNORE=y (ensures that
object exists error is ignored)

Note: Before converting an index-organized table to a regular

table, be aware that index-organized tables cannot be exported
using pre-Oracle8 versions of the Export utility.

See Also: For more details about using IMPORT/EXPORT, see Oracle8i Utilities.

Managing Tables 14-23

Index-Organized Tables

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 15
Managing Views, Sequences and
Synonyms

This chapter describes aspects of view management, and includes the following
topics:
■ Managing Views
■ Managing Sequences
■ Managing Synonyms
Before attempting tasks described in this chapter, familiarize yourself with the
concepts in Chapter 12, "Guidelines for Managing Schema Objects".

Managing Views, Sequences and Synonyms 15-1

Managing Views

Managing Views
A view is a tailored presentation of the data contained in one or more tables (or
other views), and takes the output of a query and treats it as a table. You can think
of a view as a "stored query" or a "virtual table." You can use views in most places
where a table can be used.
This section describes aspects of managing views, and includes the following topics:
■ Creating Views
■ Modifying a Join View
■ Replacing Views
■ Dropping Views

Creating Views
To create a view, you must fulfill the requirements listed below:
■ To create a view in your schema, you must have the CREATE VIEW privilege;
to create a view in another user’s schema, you must have the CREATE ANY
VIEW system privilege. You may acquire these privileges explicitly or via a role.
■ The owner of the view (whether it is you or another user) must have been
explicitly granted privileges to access all objects referenced in the view
definition; the owner cannot have obtained these privileges through roles. Also,
the functionality of the view is dependent on the privileges of the view’s owner.
For example, if the owner of the view has only the INSERT privilege for Scott’s
EMP table, the view can only be used to insert new rows into the EMP table, not
to SELECT, UPDATE, or DELETE rows from it.
■ If the owner of the view intends to grant access to the view to other users, the
owner must have received the object privileges to the base objects with the
GRANT OPTION or the system privileges with the ADMIN OPTION.
You can create views using the SQL command CREATE VIEW. Each view is defined
by a query that references tables, snapshots, or other views. The query that defines a
view cannot contain the FOR UPDATE clause. For example, the following statement
creates a view on a subset of data in the EMP table:
CREATE VIEW sales_staff AS
SELECT empno, ename, deptno
FROM emp
WHERE deptno = 10
WITH CHECK OPTION

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 Managing Views

CONSTRAINT sales_staff_cnst;

The query that defines the SALES_STAFF view references only rows in department
10. Furthermore, the CHECK OPTION creates the view with the constraint that
INSERT and UPDATE statements issued against the view cannot result in rows that
the view cannot select. For example, the following INSERT statement successfully
inserts a row into the EMP table by means of the SALES_STAFF view, which
contains all rows with department number 10:
INSERT INTO sales_staff VALUES (7584, ’OSTER’, 10);

However, the following INSERT statement is rolled back and returns an error
because it attempts to insert a row for department number 30, which could not be
selected using the SALES_STAFF view:
INSERT INTO sales_staff VALUES (7591, ’WILLIAMS’, 30);

The following statement creates a view that joins data from the EMP and DEPT
tables:
CREATE VIEW division1_staff AS
SELECT ename, empno, job, dname
FROM emp, dept
WHERE emp.deptno IN (10, 30)
AND emp.deptno = dept.deptno;

The DIVISION1_STAFF view joins information from the EMP and DEPT tables. The
CHECK OPTION is not specified in the CREATE VIEW statement for this view.

Expansion of Defining Queries at View Creation Time

In accordance with the ANSI/ISO standard, Oracle expands any wildcard in a top-
level view query into a column list when a view is created and stores the resulting
query in the data dictionary; any subqueries are left intact. The column names in an
expanded column list are enclosed in quote marks to account for the possibility that
the columns of the base object were originally entered with quotes and require them
for the query to be syntactically correct.
As an example, assume that the DEPT view is created as follows:
CREATE VIEW dept AS SELECT * FROM scott.dept;

Oracle stores the defining query of the DEPT view as:

SELECT "DEPTNO", "DNAME", "LOC" FROM scott.dept

Managing Views, Sequences and Synonyms 15-3

Managing Views

Views created with errors do not have wildcards expanded. However, if the view is
eventually compiled without errors, wildcards in the defining query are expanded.

Creating Views with Errors

If there are no syntax errors in a CREATE VIEW statement, Oracle can create the
view even if the defining query of the view cannot be executed; the view is
considered "created with errors." For example, when a view is created that refers to
a non-existent table or an invalid column of an existing table, or when the view
owner does not have the required privileges, the view can be created anyway and
entered into the data dictionary. However, the view is not yet usable.
To create a view with errors, you must include the FORCE option of the CREATE
VIEW command:
CREATE FORCE VIEW AS ....;

By default, views are not created with errors. When a view is created with errors,
Oracle returns a message indicating the view was created with errors. The status of
a view created with errors is INVALID. If conditions later change so that the query
of an invalid view can be executed, the view can be recompiled and become valid
(usable).
See Also: For information changing conditions and their impact on views, see
"Managing Object Dependencies" on page 20-23.

Modifying a Join View

A modifiable join view is a view that contains more than one table in the top-level
FROM clause of the SELECT statement, and that does not contain any of the
following:
■ DISTINCT operator
■ aggregate functions: AVG, COUNT, GLB, MAX, MIN, STDDEV, SUM, or
VARIANCE
■ set operations: UNION, UNION ALL, INTERSECT, MINUS
■ GROUP BY or HAVING clauses
■ START WITH or CONNECT BY clauses
■ ROWNUM pseudocolumn

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 Managing Views

With some restrictions, you can modify views that involve joins. If a view is a join
on other nested views, then the other nested views must be mergeable into the top
level view.
The examples in following sections use the EMP and DEPT tables. These examples
work only if you explicitly define the primary and foreign keys in these tables, or
define unique indexes. Following are the appropriately constrained table definitions
for EMP and DEPT:
CREATE TABLE dept (
deptno NUMBER(4) PRIMARY KEY,
dname VARCHAR2(14),
loc VARCHAR2(13));

CREATE TABLE emp (

empno NUMBER(4) PRIMARY KEY,
ename VARCHAR2(10),
job varchar2(9),
mgr NUMBER(4),
sal NUMBER(7,2),
comm NUMBER(7,2),
deptno NUMBER(2),
FOREIGN KEY(DEPTNO) REFERENCES DEPT(DEPTNO));

You could also omit the primary and foreign key constraints listed above, and create
a UNIQUE INDEX on DEPT (DEPTNO) to make the following examples work.
See Also: For more information about mergeable views see Oracle8i Tuning.

Key-Preserved Tables
The concept of a key-preserved table is fundamental to understanding the restrictions
on modifying join views. A table is key preserved if every key of the table can also
be a key of the result of the join. So, a key-preserved table has its keys preserved
through a join.

Note: It is not necessary that the key or keys of a table be selected

for it to be key preserved. It is sufficient that if the key or keys were
selected, then they would also be key(s) of the result of the join.

The key-preserving property of a table does not depend on the actual data in the
table. It is, rather, a property of its schema and not of the data in the table. For
example, if in the EMP table there was at most one employee in each department,
then DEPT.DEPTNO would be unique in the result of a join of EMP and DEPT, but
DEPT would still not be a key-preserved table.

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Managing Views

If you SELECT all rows from EMP_DEPT_VIEW, the results are:

EMPNO ENAME DEPTNO DNAME LOC
---------- ---------- ---------- -------------- -----
7782 CLARK 10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
7839 KING 10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
7934 MILLER 10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
7369 SMITH 20 RESEARCH DALLAS
7876 ADAMS 20 RESEARCH DALLAS
7902 FORD 20 RESEARCH DALLAS
7788 SCOTT 20 RESEARCH DALLAS
7566 JONES 20 RESEARCH DALLAS
8 rows selected.

In this view, EMP is a key-preserved table, because EMPNO is a key of the EMP
table, and also a key of the result of the join. DEPT is not a key-preserved table,
because although DEPTNO is a key of the DEPT table, it is not a key of the join.

DML Statements and Join Views

Any UPDATE, INSERT, or DELETE statement on a join view can modify only one
underlying base table.

UPDATE Statements The following example shows an UPDATE statement that

successfully modifies the EMP_DEPT view:
UPDATE emp_dept
SET sal = sal * 1.10
WHERE deptno = 10;

The following UPDATE statement would be disallowed on the EMP_DEPT view:

UPDATE emp_dept
SET loc = ’BOSTON’
WHERE ename = ’SMITH’;

This statement fails with an ORA-01779 error (’’cannot modify a column which
maps to a non key-preserved table’’), because it attempts to modify the underlying
DEPT table, and the DEPT table is not key preserved in the EMP_DEPT view.
In general, all modifiable columns of a join view must map to columns of a key-
preserved table. If the view is defined using the WITH CHECK OPTION clause,
then all join columns and all columns of repeated tables are not modifiable.
So, for example, if the EMP_DEPT view were defined using WITH CHECK
OPTION, the following UPDATE statement would fail:
UPDATE emp_dept

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 Managing Views

SET deptno = 10
WHERE ename = ’SMITH’;

The statement fails because it is trying to update a join column.

DELETE Statements You can delete from a join view provided there is one and only
one key-preserved table in the join.
The following DELETE statement works on the EMP_DEPT view:
DELETE FROM emp_dept
WHERE ename = ’SMITH’;

This DELETE statement on the EMP_DEPT view is legal because it can be translated
to a DELETE operation on the base EMP table, and because the EMP table is the
only key-preserved table in the join.
In the following view, a DELETE operation cannot be performed on the view
because both E1 and E2 are key-preserved tables:
CREATE VIEW emp_emp AS
SELECT e1.ename, e2.empno, deptno
FROM emp e1, emp e2
WHERE e1.empno = e2.empno;

If a view is defined using the WITH CHECK OPTION clause and the key-preserved
table is repeated, then rows cannot be deleted from such a view:
CREATE VIEW emp_mgr AS
SELECT e1.ename, e2.ename mname
FROM emp e1, emp e2
WHERE e1.mgr = e2.empno
WITH CHECK OPTION;

No deletion can be performed on this view because the view involves a self-join of
the table that is key preserved.

INSERT Statements The following INSERT statement on the EMP_DEPT view

succeeds:
INSERT INTO emp_dept (ename, empno, deptno)
VALUES (’KURODA’, 9010, 40);

This statement works because only one key-preserved base table is being modified
(EMP), and 40 is a valid DEPTNO in the DEPT table (thus satisfying the FOREIGN
KEY integrity constraint on the EMP table).

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Managing Views

An INSERT statement like the following would fail for the same reason that such an
UPDATE on the base EMP table would fail: the FOREIGN KEY integrity constraint
on the EMP table is violated.
INSERT INTO emp_dept (ename, empno, deptno)
VALUES (’KURODA’, 9010, 77);

The following INSERT statement would fail with an ORA-01776 error (’’cannot
modify more than one base table through a view’’).
INSERT INTO emp_dept (empno, ename, loc)
VALUES (9010, ’KURODA’, ’BOSTON’);

An INSERT cannot implicitly or explicitly refer to columns of a non-key-preserved

table. If the join view is defined using the WITH CHECK OPTION clause, then you
cannot perform an INSERT to it.

Using the UPDATABLE_ COLUMNS Views

The views described in Table 15–1 can assist you when modifying join views.
Table 15–1 UPDATABLE_COLUMNS Views
View Name Description
USER_UPDATABLE_COLUMNS Shows all columns in all tables and views
in the user’s schema that are modifiable.
DBA_UPDATABLE_COLUMNS Shows all columns in all tables and views
in the DBA schema that are modifiable.
ALL_UPDATABLE_VIEWS Shows all columns in all tables and views
that are modifiable.

Replacing Views
To replace a view, you must have all the privileges required to drop and create a
view. If the definition of a view must change, the view must be replaced; you cannot
alter the definition of a view. You can replace views in the following ways:
■ You can drop and re-create the view.

WARNING: When a view is dropped, all grants of corresponding

object privileges are revoked from roles and users. After the view
is re-created, privileges must be re-granted.

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■ You can redefine the view with a CREATE VIEW statement that contains the OR
REPLACE option. The OR REPLACE option replaces the current definition of a
view and preserves the current security authorizations. For example, assume
that you create the SALES_STAFF view as given in the previous example, and
grant several object privileges to roles and other users. However, now you need
to redefine the SALES_STAFF view to change the department number specified
in the WHERE clause. You can replace the current version of the SALES_STAFF
view with the following statement:
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW sales_staff AS
SELECT empno, ename, deptno
FROM emp
WHERE deptno = 30
WITH CHECK OPTION CONSTRAINT sales_staff_cnst;

Before replacing a view, consider the following effects:

■ Replacing a view replaces the view’s definition in the data dictionary. All
underlying objects referenced by the view are not affected.
■ If a constraint in the CHECK OPTION was previously defined but not included
in the new view definition, the constraint is dropped.
■ All views and PL/SQL program units dependent on a replaced view become
invalid (not usable). See "Managing Object Dependencies" on page 20-23 for
more information on how Oracle manages such dependencies.

Dropping Views
You can drop any view contained in your schema. To drop a view in another user’s
schema, you must have the DROP ANY VIEW system privilege. Drop a view using
the SQL command DROP VIEW. For example, the following statement drops a view
named SALES_STAFF:
DROP VIEW sales_staff;

Managing Sequences
This section describes various aspects of managing sequences, and includes the
following topics:
■ Creating Sequences
■ Altering Sequences
■ Initialization Parameters Affecting Sequences

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Managing Sequences

■ Dropping Sequences

Creating Sequences
To create a sequence in your schema, you must have the CREATE SEQUENCE
system privilege; to create a sequence in another user’s schema, you must have the
CREATE ANY SEQUENCE privilege. Create a sequence using the SQL command
CREATE SEQUENCE. For example, the following statement creates a sequence
used to generate employee numbers for the EMPNO column of the EMP table:
CREATE SEQUENCE emp_sequence
INCREMENT BY 1
START WITH 1
NOMAXVALUE
NOCYCLE
CACHE 10;

The CACHE option pre-allocates a set of sequence numbers and keeps them in
memory so that sequence numbers can be accessed faster. When the last of the
sequence numbers in the cache has been used, Oracle reads another set of numbers
into the cache.
Oracle might skip sequence numbers if you choose to cache a set of sequence
numbers. For example, when an instance abnormally shuts down (for example,
when an instance failure occurs or a SHUTDOWN ABORT statement is issued),
sequence numbers that have been cached but not used are lost. Also, sequence
numbers that have been used but not saved are lost as well. Oracle might also skip
cached sequence numbers after an export and import; see Oracle8i Utilities for
details.
See Also: For information about how the Oracle Parallel Server affects cached
sequence numbers, see Oracle8i Parallel Server Concepts and Administration.
For performance information on caching sequence numbers, see Oracle8i Tuning.

Altering Sequences
To alter a sequence, your schema must contain the sequence, or you must have the
ALTER ANY SEQUENCE system privilege. You can alter a sequence to change any
of the parameters that define how it generates sequence numbers except the
sequence’s starting number. To change the starting point of a sequence, drop the
sequence and then re-create it. When you perform DDL on sequence numbers you
will lose the cache values.

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Alter a sequence using the SQL command ALTER SEQUENCE. For example, the
following statement alters the EMP_SEQUENCE:
ALTER SEQUENCE emp_sequence
INCREMENT BY 10
MAXVALUE 10000
CYCLE
CACHE 20;

Initialization Parameters Affecting Sequences

The initialization parameter SEQUENCE_CACHE_ENTRIES sets the number of
sequences that may be cached at any time. If auditing is enabled for your system,
allow one additional sequence for the sequence to identify audit session numbers.
If the value for SEQUENCE_CACHE_ENTRIES is too low, Oracle might skip
sequence values, as in the following scenario: assume you are using five cached
sequences, the cache is full, and SEQUENCE_CACHE_ENTRIES = 4. If four
sequences are currently cached, then a fifth sequence replaces the least recently
used sequence in the cache and all remaining values (up to the last sequence
number cached) in the displaced sequence are lost.

Dropping Sequences
You can drop any sequence in your schema. To drop a sequence in another schema,
you must have the DROP ANY SEQUENCE system privilege. If a sequence is no
longer required, you can drop the sequence using the SQL command DROP
SEQUENCE. For example, the following statement drops the ORDER_SEQ
sequence:
DROP SEQUENCE order_seq;

When a sequence is dropped, its definition is removed from the data dictionary.
Any synonyms for the sequence remain, but return an error when referenced.

Managing Synonyms
You can create both public and private synonyms. A public synonym is owned by
the special user group named PUBLIC and is accessible to every user in a database.
A private synonym is contained in the schema of a specific user and available only
to the user and the user’s grantees.
This section includes the following synonym management information:

Managing Views, Sequences and Synonyms 15-11

Managing Synonyms

■ Creating Synonyms
■ Dropping Synonyms

Creating Synonyms
To create a private synonym in your own schema, you must have the CREATE
SYNONYM privilege; to create a private synonym in another user’s schema, you
must have the CREATE ANY SYNONYM privilege. To create a public synonym,
you must have the CREATE PUBLIC SYNONYM system privilege.
Create a synonym using the SQL command CREATE SYNONYM. For example, the
following statement creates a public synonym named PUBLIC_EMP on the EMP
table contained in the schema of JWARD:
CREATE PUBLIC SYNONYM public_emp FOR jward.emp;

Dropping Synonyms
You can drop any private synonym in your own schema. To drop a private
synonym in another user’s schema, you must have the DROP ANY SYNONYM
system privilege. To drop a public synonym, you must have the DROP PUBLIC
SYNONYM system privilege.
Drop a synonym that is no longer required using the SQL command DROP
SYNONYM. To drop a private synonym, omit the PUBLIC keyword; to drop a
public synonym, include the PUBLIC keyword.
For example, the following statement drops the private synonym named EMP:
DROP SYNONYM emp;

The following statement drops the public synonym named PUBLIC_EMP:

DROP PUBLIC SYNONYM public_emp;

When you drop a synonym, its definition is removed from the data dictionary. All
objects that reference a dropped synonym remain; however, they become invalid
(not usable).
See Also: For more information about how dropping synonyms can affect other
schema objects, see "Managing Object Dependencies" on page 20-23.

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 16
Managing Indexes

This chapter describes various aspects of index management, and includes the
following topics:
■ Guidelines for Managing Indexes
■ Creating Indexes
■ Altering Indexes
■ Monitoring Space Use of Indexes
■ Dropping Indexes
Before attempting tasks described in this chapter, familiarize yourself with the
concepts in Chapter 12, "Guidelines for Managing Schema Objects".

Managing Indexes 16-1

Guidelines for Managing Indexes

Guidelines for Managing Indexes

This section describes guidelines to follow when managing indexes, and includes
the following topics:
■ Create Indexes After Inserting Table Data
■ Limit the Number of Indexes per Table
■ Specify the Tablespace for Each Index
■ Specify Transaction Entry Parameters
■ Specify Index Block Space Use
■ Parallelize Index Creation
■ Consider Creating Indexes with NOLOGGING
■ Estimate Index Size and Set Storage Parameters
An index is an optional structure associated with tables and clusters, which you can
create explicitly to speed SQL statement execution on a table. Just as the index in
this manual helps you locate information faster than if there were no index, an
Oracle index provides a faster access path to table data.
The absence or presence of an index does not require a change in the wording of
any SQL statement. An index merely offers a fast access path to the data; it affects
only the speed of execution. Given a data value that has been indexed, the index
points directly to the location of the rows containing that value.
Indexes are logically and physically independent of the data in the associated table.
You can create or drop an index any time without affecting the base tables or other
indexes. If you drop an index, all applications continue to work; however, access to
previously indexed data might be slower. Indexes, being independent structures,
require storage space.
Oracle automatically maintains and uses indexes after they are created. Oracle
automatically reflects changes to data, such as adding new rows, updating rows, or
deleting rows, in all relevant indexes with no additional action by users.
See Also: For information about performance implications of index creation, see
Oracle8i Tuning.
For more information about indexes, see Oracle8i Concepts.
If you have the Oracle Objects option, you can define domain-specific operators and
indexing schemes and integrate them into the server. For more information see the
Oracle8i Data Cartridge Developer’s Guide.

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 Guidelines for Managing Indexes

Create Indexes After Inserting Table Data

You should create an index for a table after inserting or loading data (via
SQL*Loader or Import) into the table. It is more efficient to insert rows of data into a
table that has no indexes and then create the indexes for subsequent access. If you
create indexes before table data is loaded, every index must be updated every time
a row is inserted into the table. You must also create the index for a cluster before
inserting any data into the cluster.
When an index is created on a table that already has data, Oracle must use sort
space. Oracle uses the sort space in memory allocated for the creator of the index
(the amount per user is determined by the initialization parameter
SORT_AREA_SIZE), but must also swap sort information to and from temporary
segments allocated on behalf of the index creation.
If the index is extremely large, you may want to perform the following tasks.

To Manage a Large Index

1. Create a new temporary segment tablespace.
2. Alter the index creator’s temporary segment tablespace.
3. Create the index.
4. Remove the temporary segment tablespace and re-specify the creator’s
temporary segment tablespace, if desired.
See Also: Under certain conditions, data can be loaded into a table with
SQL*Loader’s "direct path load" and an index can be created as data is loaded; see
Oracle8i Utilities for more information.

Limit the Number of Indexes per Table

A table can have any number of indexes. However, the more indexes there are, the
more overhead is incurred as the table is modified. Specifically, when rows are
inserted or deleted, all indexes on the table must be updated as well. Also, when a
column is updated, all indexes that contain the column must be updated.
Thus, there is a trade-off between the speed of retrieving data from a table and the
speed of updating the table. For example, if a table is primarily read-only, having
more indexes can be useful; but if a table is heavily updated, having fewer indexes
may be preferable.

Managing Indexes 16-3

Guidelines for Managing Indexes

Specify Transaction Entry Parameters

By specifying the INITRANS and MAXTRANS parameters during the creation of
each index, you can affect how much space is initially and can ever be allocated for
transaction entries in the data blocks of an index’s segment. You should also leave
room for updates and later identify long-term (for example, the life of the index)
values for these settings.
See Also: For more information about setting these parameters, see "Setting Storage
Parameters" on page 12-7.

Specify Index Block Space Use

When an index is created for a table, data blocks of the index are filled with the
existing values in the table up to PCTFREE. The space reserved by PCTFREE for an
index block is only used when a new row is inserted into the table and the
corresponding index entry must be placed in the correct index block (that is,
between preceding and following index entries). If no more space is available in the
appropriate index block, the indexed value is placed where it belongs (based on the
lexical set ordering). Therefore, if you plan on inserting many rows into an indexed
table, PCTFREE should be high to accommodate the new index values. If the table is
relatively static without many inserts, PCTFREE for an associated index can be low
so that fewer blocks are required to hold the index data.
See Also: PCTUSED cannot be specified for indexes. See "Managing Space in Data
Blocks" on page 12-2 for information about the PCTFREE parameter.

Specify the Tablespace for Each Index

Indexes can be created in any tablespace. An index can be created in the same or
different tablespace as the table it indexes.
If you use the same tablespace for a table and its index, then database maintenance
may be more convenient (such as tablespace or file backup and application
availability or update) and all the related data will always be online together.
Using different tablespaces (on different disks) for a table and its index produces
better performance than storing the table and index in the same tablespace, due to
reduced disk contention.
If you use different tablespaces for a table and its index and one tablespace is offline
(containing either data or index), then the statements referencing that table are not
guaranteed to work.

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Parallelize Index Creation

You can parallelize index creation. Because multiple processes work together to
create the index, Oracle can create the index more quickly than if a single server
process created the index sequentially.
When creating an index in parallel, storage parameters are used separately by each
query server process. Therefore, an index created with an INITIAL value of 5M and
a parallel degree of 12 consumes at least 60M of storage during index creation.
See Also: For more information on parallel index creation, see Oracle8i Tuning.

Consider Creating Indexes with NOLOGGING

You can create an index and generate minimal redo log records by specifying
NOLOGGING in the CREATE INDEX statement.

Note: Because indexes created using LOGGING are not archived,

you should perform a backup after you create the index.

Creating an index with NOLOGGING has the following benefits:

■ Space is saved in the redo log files.
■ The time it takes to create the index is decreased.
■ Performance improves for parallel creation of large indexes.
In general, the relative performance improvement is greater for larger indexes
created without LOGGING than for smaller ones. Creating small indexes without
LOGGING has little affect on the time it takes to create an index. However, for
larger indexes the performance improvement can be significant, especially when
you are also parallelizing the index creation.

Estimate Index Size and Set Storage Parameters

Estimating the size of an index before creating one is useful for the following
reasons:
■ You can use the combined estimated size of indexes, along with estimates for
tables, rollback segments, and redo log files, to determine the amount of disk
space that is required to hold an intended database. From these estimates, you
can make correct hardware purchases and other decisions.

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Guidelines for Managing Indexes

■ You can use the estimated size of an individual index to better manage the disk
space that the index will use. When an index is created, you can set appropriate
storage parameters and improve I/O performance of applications that use the
index.
For example, assume that you estimate the maximum size of a index before
creating it. If you then set the storage parameters when you create the index,
fewer extents will be allocated for the table’s data segment, and all of the
index’s data will be stored in a relatively contiguous section of disk space. This
decreases the time necessary for disk I/O operations involving this index.
The maximum size of a single index entry is approximately one-half the data block
size. As with tables, you can explicitly set storage parameters when creating an
index.
See Also: For specific information about storage parameters, see "Setting Storage
Parameters" on page 12-7.

Coalescing Indexes
When you encounter index fragmentation (due to improper sizing or increased
growth), you can rebuild or coalesce the index. Before you perform either task,
though, weigh the costs and benefits of each option and choose the one that works
best for your situation. Table 16–1 describes costs and benefits associated with
rebuilding and coalescing indexes.

Table 16–1 To Rebuild or Coalesce...That Is the Question.

REBUILD COALESCE
Quickly moves index to another Cannot move index to another
tablespace. tablespace.
Higher costs. Requires more disk Lower costs. Does not require more
space. disk space.
Creates new tree, shrinks height if Coalesces leaf blocks within same
applicable. branch of tree.
Enables you to quickly change storage Quickly frees up index leaf blocks for
and tablespace parameters without use.
having to drop the original index.

In situations where you have B-tree index leaf blocks that can be freed up for reuse,
you can merge those leaf blocks using the following statement:
ALTER INDEX vmoore COALESCE;

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 Creating Indexes

Figure 16–1 illustrates the effect of an ALTER INDEX COALESCE on the index
VMOORE. Before performing the operation, the first two leaf blocks are 50% full,
which means you have an opportunity to reduce fragmentation and completely fill
the first block while freeing up the second (in this example, assume that
PCTFREE=0).

Figure 16–1 Coalescing Indexes

B-tree Index B-tree Index

Before ALTER INDEX vmoore COALESCE; After ALTER INDEX vmoore COALESCE;

Considerations Before Disabling or Dropping Constraints

Because unique and primary keys have associated indexes, you should factor in the
cost of dropping and creating indexes when considering whether to disable or drop
a UNIQUE or PRIMARY KEY constraint. If the associated index for a UNIQUE key
or PRIMARY KEY constraint is extremely large, you may save time by leaving the
constraint enabled rather than dropping and re-creating the large index.

Creating Indexes
This section describes how to create an index, and includes the following topics:
■ Creating an Index Associated with a Constraint
■ Creating an Index Explicitly
■ Creating a Function-Based Index
■ Re-creating an Existing Index
■ Creating a Key-Compressed Index

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Creating Indexes

To enable a UNIQUE key or PRIMARY KEY (which creates an associated index), the
owner of the table needs a quota for the tablespace intended to contain the index, or
the UNLIMITED TABLESPACE system privilege.
LOBS, LONG and LONG RAW columns cannot be indexed.
Oracle enforces a UNIQUE key or PRIMARY KEY integrity constraint by creating a
unique index on the unique key or primary key. This index is automatically created
by Oracle when the constraint is enabled; no action is required by the issuer of the
CREATE TABLE or ALTER TABLE statement to create the index. This includes both
when a constraint is defined and enabled, and when a defined but disabled
constraint is enabled.
In general, it is better to create constraints to enforce uniqueness than it is to use the
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX syntax. A constraint’s associated index always assumes
the name of the constraint; you cannot specify a specific name for a constraint
index.
If you do not specify storage options (such as INITIAL and NEXT) for an index, the
default storage options of the host tablespace are automatically used.

Creating an Index Associated with a Constraint

You can set the storage options for the indexes associated with UNIQUE key and
PRIMARY KEY constraints using the ENABLE clause with the USING INDEX
option. The following statement defines a PRIMARY KEY constraint and specifies
the associated index’s storage option:
CREATE TABLE emp (
empno NUMBER(5) PRIMARY KEY, . . . )
ENABLE PRIMARY KEY USING INDEX
TABLESPACE users
PCTFREE 0;

Creating an Index Explicitly

You can create indexes explicitly (outside of integrity constraints) using the SQL
command CREATE INDEX. The following statement creates an index named
EMP_ENAME for the ENAME column of the EMP table:
CREATE INDEX emp_ename ON emp(ename)
TABLESPACE users
STORAGE (INITIAL 20K
NEXT 20k
PCTINCREASE 75)

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 Creating Indexes

PCTFREE 0;

Notice that several storage settings are explicitly specified for the index.

Creating an Index Online

Previously, when creating an index on a table there has always been a DML S-lock
on that table during the index build operation, which meant you could not perform
DML operations on the base table during the build.
Now, with the ever-increasing size of tables and necessity for continuous
operations, you can create and rebuild indexes online—meaning you can update
base tables at the same time you are building or rebuilding indexes on that table.
Note, though, that there are still DML SS-locks, which means you cannot perform
other DDL operations during an online index build.
The following statements perform online index build operations:
ALTER INDEX emp_name REBUILD ONLINE;

CREATE INDEX emp_name ON emp (mgr, emp1, emp2, emp3) ONLINE;

Note: While you can perform DML operations during an online

index build, Oracle recommends that you do not perform major/
large DML operations during this procedure. For example, if you
wish to load rows that total up to 30% of the size of an existing
table, you should perform this load before the online index build.

See Also: For more information about the syntax for creating online indexes, see the
Oracle8i SQL Reference.

Creating a Function-Based Index

Function-based indexes facilitate queries that qualify a value returned by a function or
expression. The value of the function or expression is pre-computed and stored in
the index.
Advantages of function-based indexing include support for linguistic sorts based on
linguistic sort keys (collation), efficient linguistic collation of SQL statements, and
an efficient mechanism for evaluating predicates involving functions.
The following statement defines an index on Area(geo):
CREATE INDEX area_index ON rivers (Area(geo)) DESC;

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Creating Indexes

The area_index is defined on the function area(geo):

SELECT id, geo Area(geo), desc
FROM rivers r
WHERE Area(geo) >5000;

In this SQL statement, when Area(geo) is referenced in the WHERE clause, the
optimizer considers using the index area_index.

Note: Table owners should have EXECUTE privileges on the

functions used in function-based indexes. Also, because a function-
based index depends upon any function it is using, it can be
invalidated when a function changes.

See Also: For more conceptual information about function-based indexes, see
Oracle8i Concepts.
For information about function-based indexing and application development, see
the Oracle8i Application Developer’s Guide - Fundamentals.

Example 1
The following statement creates a function-based index, idx on table emp:
CREATE INDEX idx ON emp (UPPER(emp_name));

Now the SELECT statement uses the function-based index on UPPER(emp_name)

to retrieve all employees with names like :KEYCOL:
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE UPPER(emp_name) like :KEYCOL;

SELECT statements can use either an index range scan (the expression is a prefix of
the index) or index full scan (preferable when the index specifies a high degree of
parallelism).
CREATE INDEX idx ON t (a + b * (c - 1), a, b);
SELECT a FROM t WHERE a + b * (c - 1) < 100;

Example 2
You can also use function-based indexes to support NLS sort index as well.
NLSSORT is a function that returns a sort key that has been given a string. Thus, if
you want to build an index on name using NLSSORT, issue the following statement:

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 Creating Indexes

CREATE INDEX nls_index ON t_table (NLSSORT(name, ’NLS_SORT = German’));

This statement creates the nls_index on table t_table with the collation
sequence German.
Now, to select from NLS_SORT:
SELECT * FROM t_table ORDER BY name;

Rows will be ordered using the collation sequence in German.

Example 3
Another use for function-based indexing is to perform non-case-sensitive searches:
CREATE INDEX case_insensitive_idx ON emp_table (UPPER(empname));

A query on this new index would look like the following:

SELECT * FROM emp_table WHERE UPPER(empname) = ’JOE’;

Example 4
This example also illustrates the most common uses of function-based indexing: a
case-insensitive sort and language sort.
CREATE INDEX empi ON emp
UPPER ((ename), NLSSORT(ename));

Here, an NLS_SORT specification does not appear in the NLSSORT argument

because NLSSORT looks at the session setting for the language of the linguistic sort
key. If you wish to use a language other than the language specified for the session
setting, replace NLSSORT(ename) in the example above with the following:
NLSSORT(ename, NLS_SORT=’German’)

This line directs the sort to use a German linguistic sort key.

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Creating Indexes

Note: CREATE INDEX stores the timestamp of the most recent

function used in the function-based index. This timestamp is
updated when the index is validated. When performing tablespace
point-in-time recovery of a function-based index, if the timestamp
on the most recent function used in the index is newer than the
timestamp stored in the index, then the index will be marked
invalid. You must use the ANALYZE VALIDATE INDEX statement
to validate this index.

See Also: For more information about function-based indexing, see Oracle8i
Concepts and Oracle8i SQL Reference.

Re-creating an Existing Index

Before re-creating or rebuilding an existing index, compare the costs and benefits
associated with rebuilding to those associated with coalescing indexes as described
in Table 16–1 on page 16-6.
You can create an index using an existing index as the data source. Creating an
index in this manner allows you to change storage characteristics or move to a new
tablespace. Re-creating an index based on an existing data source also removes
intra-block fragmentation. In fact, compared to dropping the index and using the
CREATE INDEX command, re-creating an existing index offers better performance.
Issue the following statement to re-create an existing index:
ALTER INDEX index_name REBUILD;

The REBUILD clause must immediately follow the index name, and precede any
other options. Also, the REBUILD clause cannot be used in conjunction with the
DEALLOCATE UNUSED clause.
See Also: For more information on the ALTER INDEX command and optional
clauses, see the Oracle8i SQL Reference.

Creating a Key-Compressed Index

Creating an index using key compression enables you to eliminate repeated
occurrences of key column prefix values.

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 Altering Indexes

Key compression breaks an index key into a prefix and a suffix entry. Compression
is achieved by sharing the prefix entries among all the suffix entries in an index
block. This sharing can lead to huge savings in space, allowing you to store more
keys per index block while improving performance.
Key compression can be useful in the following situations:
■ You have a non-unique index where ROWID is appended to make the key
unique. If you use key compression here, the duplicate key will be stored as a
prefix entry on the index block without the ROWID. The remaining rows will be
suffix entries consisting of only the ROWID
■ You have a unique multi-column index.
You can enable key compression using the COMPRESS clause.You can also specify
the prefix length (as the number of key columns), which identifies how the key
columns are broken into a prefix and suffix entry. For example, the following
statement will compress away duplicate occurrences of a key in the index leaf block.
CREATE INDEX emp_ename (ename)
TABLESPACE users
COMPRESS 1

The COMPRESS clause can also be specified during rebuild. For example, during
rebuild you can disable compression as follows:
ALTER INDEX emp_ename REBUILD NOCOMPRESS;

See Also: For more details about the CREATE INDEX statement, see the Oracle8i
SQL Reference.

Altering Indexes
To alter an index, your schema must contain the index or you must have the ALTER
ANY INDEX system privilege. You can alter an index only to change the transaction
entry parameters or to change the storage parameters; you cannot change its
column structure.
Alter the storage parameters of any index, including those created by Oracle to
enforce primary and unique key integrity constraints, using the SQL command
ALTER INDEX. For example, the following statement alters the EMP_ENAME
index:
ALTER INDEX emp_ename
INITRANS 5
MAXTRANS 10

Managing Indexes 16-13

Monitoring Space Use of Indexes

STORAGE (PCTINCREASE 50);

When you alter the transaction entry settings (INITRANS, MAXTRANS) of an

index, a new setting for INITRANS applies only to data blocks subsequently
allocated, while a new setting for MAXTRANS applies to all blocks (currently and
subsequently allocated blocks) of an index.
The storage parameters INITIAL and MINEXTENTS cannot be altered. All new
settings for the other storage parameters affect only extents subsequently allocated
for the index.
For indexes that implement integrity constraints, you can also adjust storage
parameters by issuing an ALTER TABLE statement that includes the ENABLE
clause with the USING INDEX option. For example, the following statement
changes the storage options of the index defined in the previous section:
ALTER TABLE emp
ENABLE PRIMARY KEY USING INDEX
PCTFREE 5;

Monitoring Space Use of Indexes

If key values in an index are inserted, updated, and deleted frequently, the index
may or may not use its acquired space efficiently over time. Monitor an index’s
efficiency of space usage at regular intervals by first analyzing the index’s structure
and then querying the INDEX_STATS view:
SELECT pct_used FROM sys.index_stats WHERE name = ’indexname’;

The percentage of an index’s space usage will vary according to how often index
keys are inserted, updated, or deleted. Develop a history of an index’s average
efficiency of space usage by performing the following sequence of operations
several times:
■ analyzing statistics
■ validating the index
■ checking PCT_USED
■ dropping and re-creating (or coalescing) the index
When you find that an index’s space usage drops below its average, you can
condense the index’s space by dropping the index and rebuilding it, or coalescing it.

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 Dropping Indexes

See Also: For information about analyzing an index’s structure, see "Analyzing
Tables, Indexes, and Clusters" on page 20-3.

Dropping Indexes
To drop an index, the index must be contained in your schema, or you must have
the DROP ANY INDEX system privilege.
You might want to drop an index for any of the following reasons:
■ The index is no longer required.
■ The index is not providing anticipated performance improvements for queries
issued against the associated table. (For example, the table might be very small,
or there might be many rows in the table but very few index entries.)
■ Applications do not use the index to query the data.
■ The index has become invalid and must be dropped before being rebuilt.
■ The index has become too fragmented and must be dropped before being
rebuilt.
When you drop an index, all extents of the index’s segment are returned to the
containing tablespace and become available for other objects in the tablespace.
How you drop an index depends on whether you created the index explicitly with a
CREATE INDEX statement, or implicitly by defining a key constraint on a table.

Note: If a table is dropped, all associated indexes are dropped

automatically.

You cannot drop only the index associated with an enabled UNIQUE key or
PRIMARY KEY constraint. To drop a constraint’s associated index, you must
disable or drop the constraint itself.
DROP INDEX emp_ename;

See Also: For information about analyzing indexes, see "Analyzing Tables, Indexes,
and Clusters" on page 20-3.
For more information about dropping a constraint’s associated index, see
"Managing Integrity Constraints" on page 20-13.

Managing Indexes 16-15

Dropping Indexes

16-16 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 17
Managing Clusters

This chapter describes aspects of managing clusters (including clustered tables and
indexes), and includes the following topics:
■ Guidelines for Managing Clusters
■ Creating Clusters
■ Altering Clusters
■ Dropping Clusters
Before attempting tasks described in this chapter, familiarize yourself with the
concepts in Chapter 12, "Guidelines for Managing Schema Objects".

Managing Clusters 17-1

Guidelines for Managing Clusters

Guidelines for Managing Clusters

A cluster provides an optional method of storing table data. A cluster is made up of
a group of tables that share the same data blocks, which are grouped together
because they share common columns and are often used together. For example, the
EMP and DEPT table share the DEPTNO column. When you cluster the EMP and
DEPT tables (see Figure 17–1), Oracle physically stores all rows for each department
from both the EMP and DEPT tables in the same data blocks. You should not use
clusters for tables that are frequently accessed individually.
Because clusters store related rows of different tables together in the same data
blocks, properly used clusters offer two primary benefits:
■ Disk I/O is reduced and access time improves for joins of clustered tables.
■ The cluster key is the column, or group of columns, that the clustered tables have
in common. You specify the columns of the cluster key when creating the
cluster. You subsequently specify the same columns when creating every table
added to the cluster. Each cluster key value is stored only once each in the
cluster and the cluster index, no matter how many rows of different tables
contain the value.
Therefore, less storage might be required to store related table and index data in
a cluster than is necessary in non-clustered table format. For example, notice
how each cluster key (each DEPTNO) is stored just once for many rows that
contain the same value in both the EMP and DEPT tables.
After creating a cluster, you can create tables in the cluster. However, before any
rows can be inserted into the clustered tables, a cluster index must be created. Using
clusters does not affect the creation of additional indexes on the clustered tables;
they can be created and dropped as usual.

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 Guidelines for Managing Clusters

Figure 17–1 Clustered Table Data

Clustered Key EMP TABLE

(DEPTO)
EMPNO ENAME DEPTNO . . .
10 DNAME LOC 932 KEHR 20 . . .
1000 SMITH 10 . . .
SALES BOSTON
1139 WILSON 20 . . .
1277 NORMAN 20 . . .
1321 JONES 10 . . .
EMPNO ENAME . . . 1841 WARD 10 . . .
1000 SMITH . . .
1321 JONES . . .
1841 WARD . . .

DEPT Table
20 DNAME LOC
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
ADMIN NEW YORK
10 SALES BOSTON
20 ADMIN NEW YORK
EMPNO ENAME . . .

932 KEHR . . .
1139 WILSON . . .
1277 NORMAN . . .

Clustered Tables Unclustered Tables

Related data stored related data stored
together, more apart, taking up
efficiently more space

Managing Clusters 17-3

Guidelines for Managing Clusters

The following sections describe guidelines to consider when managing clusters, and
includes the following topics:
■ Choose Appropriate Tables for the Cluster
■ Choose Appropriate Columns for the Cluster Key
■ Specify Data Block Space Use
■ Specify the Space Required by an Average Cluster Key and Its Associated Rows
■ Specify the Location of Each Cluster and Cluster Index Rows
■ Estimate Cluster Size and Set Storage Parameters
See Also: For more information about clusters, see Oracle8i Concepts.

Choose Appropriate Tables for the Cluster

Use clusters to store one or more tables that are primarily queried (not
predominantly inserted into or updated) and for which the queries often join data
of multiple tables in the cluster or retrieve related data from a single table.

Choose Appropriate Columns for the Cluster Key

Choose cluster key columns carefully. If multiple columns are used in queries that
join the tables, make the cluster key a composite key. In general, the characteristics
that indicate a good cluster index are the same as those for any index.
A good cluster key has enough unique values so that the group of rows
corresponding to each key value fills approximately one data block. Having too few
rows per cluster key value can waste space and result in negligible performance
gains. Cluster keys that are so specific that only a few rows share a common value
can cause wasted space in blocks, unless a small SIZE was specified at cluster
creation time (see below).
Too many rows per cluster key value can cause extra searching to find rows for that
key. Cluster keys on values that are too general (for example, MALE and FEMALE)
result in excessive searching and can result in worse performance than with no
clustering.
A cluster index cannot be unique or include a column defined as LONG.
See Also: For information about characteristics of a good index, see "Guidelines for
Managing Indexes" on page 16-2.

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 Guidelines for Managing Clusters

Specify Data Block Space Use

By specifying the PCTFREE and PCTUSED parameters during the creation of a
cluster, you can affect the space utilization and amount of space reserved for
updates to the current rows in the data blocks of a cluster’s data segment. Note that
PCTFREE and PCTUSED parameters set for tables created in a cluster are ignored;
clustered tables automatically use the settings set for the cluster.
See Also: For more information about setting PCTFREE and PCTUSED, see
"Managing Space in Data Blocks" on page 12-2.

Specify the Space Required by an Average Cluster Key and Its Associated Rows
The CREATE CLUSTER command has an optional argument, SIZE, which is the
estimated number of bytes required by an average cluster key and its associated
rows. Oracle uses the SIZE parameter when performing the following tasks:
■ estimating the number of cluster keys (and associated rows) that can fit in a
clustered data block
■ limiting the number of cluster keys placed in a clustered data block; this
maximizes the storage efficiency of keys within a cluster
SIZE does not limit the space that can be used by a given cluster key. For example, if
SIZE is set such that two cluster keys can fit in one data block, any amount of the
available data block space can still be used by either of the cluster keys.
By default, Oracle stores only one cluster key and its associated rows in each data
block of the cluster’s data segment. Although block size can vary from one
operating system to the next, the rule of one key per block is maintained as
clustered tables are imported to other databases on other machines.
If all the rows for a given cluster key value cannot fit in one block, the blocks are
chained together to speed access to all the values with the given key. The cluster
index points to the beginning of the chain of blocks, each of which contains the
cluster key value and associated rows. If the cluster SIZE is such that more than one
key fits in a block, blocks can belong to more than one chain.

Specify the Location of Each Cluster and Cluster Index Rows

If you have the proper privileges and tablespace quota, you can create a new cluster
and the associated cluster index in any tablespace that is currently online. Always
specify the TABLESPACE option in a CREATE CLUSTER/INDEX statement to
identify the tablespace to store the new cluster or index.

Managing Clusters 17-5

Creating Clusters

The cluster and its cluster index can be created in different tablespaces. In fact,
creating a cluster and its index in different tablespaces that are stored on different
storage devices allows table data and index data to be retrieved simultaneously
with minimal disk contention.

Estimate Cluster Size and Set Storage Parameters

Following are benefits of estimating a cluster’s size before creating it:
■ You can use the combined estimated size of clusters, along with estimates for
indexes, rollback segments, and redo log files, to determine the amount of disk
space that is required to hold an intended database. From these estimates, you
can make correct hardware purchases and other decisions.
■ You can use the estimated size of an individual cluster to better manage the
disk space that the cluster will use. When a cluster is created, you can set
appropriate storage parameters and improve I/O performance of applications
that use the cluster.
Whether or not you estimate table size before creation, you can explicitly set storage
parameters when creating each non-clustered table. Any storage parameter that you
do not explicitly set when creating or subsequently altering a table automatically
uses the corresponding default storage parameter set for the tablespace in which the
table resides. Clustered tables also automatically use the storage parameters of the
cluster.

Creating Clusters
This section describes how to create clusters, and includes the following topics:
■ Creating Clustered Tables
■ Creating Cluster Indexes
To create a cluster in your schema, you must have the CREATE CLUSTER system
privilege and a quota for the tablespace intended to contain the cluster or the
UNLIMITED TABLESPACE system privilege.
To create a cluster in another user’s schema, you must have the CREATE ANY
CLUSTER system privilege and the owner must have a quota for the tablespace
intended to contain the cluster or the UNLIMITED TABLESPACE system privilege.
You can create a cluster using the SQL CREATE CLUSTER statement. The following
statement creates a cluster named EMP_DEPT, which stores the EMP and DEPT
tables, clustered by the DEPTNO column:

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 Creating Clusters

CREATE CLUSTER emp_dept (deptno NUMBER(3))

PCTUSED 80
PCTFREE 5
SIZE 600
TABLESPACE users
STORAGE (INITIAL 200k
NEXT 300K
MINEXTENTS 2
MAXEXTENTS 20
PCTINCREASE 33);

Creating Clustered Tables

To create a table in a cluster, you must have either the CREATE TABLE or CREATE
ANY TABLE system privilege. You do not need a tablespace quota or the
UNLIMITED TABLESPACE system privilege to create a table in a cluster.
You can create a table in a cluster using the SQL CREATE TABLE statement with the
CLUSTER option. The EMP and DEPT tables can be created in the EMP_DEPT
cluster using the following statements:
CREATE TABLE dept (
deptno NUMBER(3) PRIMARY KEY, . . . )
CLUSTER emp_dept (deptno);

CREATE TABLE emp (

empno NUMBER(5) PRIMARY KEY,
ename VARCHAR2(15) NOT NULL,
. . .
deptno NUMBER(3) REFERENCES dept)
CLUSTER emp_dept (deptno);

Note: You can specify the schema for a clustered table in the
CREATE TABLE statement. A clustered table can be in a different
schema than the schema containing the cluster.Also, the names of
the columns don’t have to match, but their structure does.

Creating Cluster Indexes

To create a cluster index, one of the following conditions must be true:
■ Your schema contains the cluster and you have the CREATE INDEX system
privilege.
■ You have the CREATE ANY INDEX system privilege.

Managing Clusters 17-7

Altering Clusters

In either case, you must also have either a quota for the tablespace intended to
contain the cluster index, or the UNLIMITED TABLESPACE system privilege.
A cluster index must be created before any rows can be inserted into any clustered
table. The following statement creates a cluster index for the EMP_DEPT cluster:
CREATE INDEX emp_dept_index
ON CLUSTER emp_dept
INITRANS 2
MAXTRANS 5
TABLESPACE users
STORAGE (INITIAL 50K
NEXT 50K
MINEXTENTS 2
MAXEXTENTS 10
PCTINCREASE 33)
PCTFREE 5;

Several storage settings are explicitly specified for the cluster and cluster index.
See Also: See Chapter 24, "Managing User Privileges and Roles" for more
information about system privileges, and Chapter 23, "Managing Users and
Resources" for information about tablespace quotas.

Altering Clusters
You can alter an existing cluster to change the following settings:
■ data block space usage parameters (PCTFREE, PCTUSED)
■ the average cluster key size (SIZE)
■ transaction entry settings (INITRANS, MAXTRANS)
■ storage parameters (NEXT, PCTINCREASE)
To alter a cluster, your schema must contain the cluster or you must have the
ALTER ANY CLUSTER system privilege.
When you alter data block space usage parameters (PCTFREE and PCTUSED) or
the cluster size parameter (SIZE) of a cluster, the new settings apply to all data
blocks used by the cluster, including blocks already allocated and blocks
subsequently allocated for the cluster. Blocks already allocated for the table are
reorganized when necessary (not immediately).
When you alter the transaction entry settings (INITRANS, MAXTRANS) of a
cluster, a new setting for INITRANS applies only to data blocks subsequently

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 Altering Clusters

allocated for the cluster, while a new setting for MAXTRANS applies to all blocks
(already and subsequently allocated blocks) of a cluster.
The storage parameters INITIAL and MINEXTENTS cannot be altered. All new
settings for the other storage parameters affect only extents subsequently allocated
for the cluster.
To alter a cluster, use the ALTER CLUSTER statement. The following statement
alters the EMP_DEPT cluster:
ALTER CLUSTER emp_dept
PCTFREE 30
PCTUSED 60;

Altering Cluster Tables and Cluster Indexes

You can alter clustered tables using the SQL ALTER TABLE statement. However,
any data block space parameters, transaction entry parameters, or storage
parameters you set in an ALTER TABLE statement for a clustered table generate an
error message (ORA-01771, "illegal option for a clustered table"). Oracle uses the
parameters of the cluster for all clustered tables. Therefore, you can use the ALTER
TABLE command only to add or modify columns, drop non-cluster key columns, or
add, drop, enable, or disable integrity constraints or triggers for a clustered table.

Note: When estimating the size of cluster indexes, remember that

the index is on each cluster key, not the actual rows; therefore, each
key will only appear once in the index.

Manually Allocating Storage for a Cluster

Oracle dynamically allocates additional extents for the data segment of a cluster as
required. In some circumstances, however, you might want to allocate an additional
extent for a cluster explicitly. For example, when using the Oracle Parallel Server,
you can allocate an extent of a cluster explicitly for a specific instance.
You allocate a new extent for a cluster using the ALTER CLUSTER statement with
the ALLOCATE EXTENT option.
See Also: For information about altering tables, see "Altering Tables" on page 14-10.
You alter cluster indexes exactly as you do other indexes. For more information, see
"Altering Indexes" on page 16-13.

Managing Clusters 17-9

Dropping Clusters

For more information about the CLUSTER parameter in the ALTER CLUSTER
statement, see Oracle8i Parallel Server Concepts and Administration.

Dropping Clusters
This section describes aspects of dropping clusters, and includes the following
topics:
■ Dropping Clustered Tables
■ Dropping Cluster Indexes
A cluster can be dropped if the tables within the cluster are no longer necessary.
When a cluster is dropped, so are the tables within the cluster and the
corresponding cluster index; all extents belonging to both the cluster’s data segment
and the index segment of the cluster index are returned to the containing tablespace
and become available for other segments within the tablespace.

Dropping Clustered Tables

To drop a cluster, your schema must contain the cluster or you must have the DROP
ANY CLUSTER system privilege. You do not have to have additional privileges to
drop a cluster that contains tables, even if the clustered tables are not owned by the
owner of the cluster.
Clustered tables can be dropped individually without affecting the table’s cluster,
other clustered tables, or the cluster index. A clustered table is dropped just as a
non-clustered table is dropped—with the DROP TABLE statement.

Note: When you drop a single table from a cluster, Oracle deletes
each row of the table individually. To maximize efficiency when
you intend to drop an entire cluster, drop the cluster including all
tables by using the DROP CLUSTER statement with the
INCLUDING TABLES option. Drop an individual table from a
cluster (using the DROP TABLE statement) only if you want the
rest of the cluster to remain.

See Also: For information about dropping a table, see "Dropping Tables" on
page 14-12.

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 Dropping Clusters

Dropping Cluster Indexes

A cluster index can be dropped without affecting the cluster or its clustered tables.
However, clustered tables cannot be used if there is no cluster index; you must re-
create the cluster index to allow access to the cluster. Cluster indexes are sometimes
dropped as part of the procedure to rebuild a fragmented cluster index.
To drop a cluster that contains no tables, and its cluster index, use the SQL DROP
CLUSTER statement. For example, the following statement drops the empty cluster
named EMP_DEPT:
DROP CLUSTER emp_dept;

If the cluster contains one or more clustered tables and you intend to drop the tables
as well, add the INCLUDING TABLES option of the DROP CLUSTER statement, as
follows:
DROP CLUSTER emp_dept INCLUDING TABLES;

If the INCLUDING TABLES option is not included and the cluster contains tables,
an error is returned.
If one or more tables in a cluster contain primary or unique keys that are referenced
by FOREIGN KEY constraints of tables outside the cluster, the cluster cannot be
dropped unless the dependent FOREIGN KEY constraints are also dropped. This
can be easily done using the CASCADE CONSTRAINTS option of the DROP
CLUSTER statement, as shown in the following example:
DROP CLUSTER emp_dept INCLUDING TABLES CASCADE CONSTRAINTS;

Oracle returns an error if you do not use the CASCADE CONSTRAINTS option and
constraints exist.
See Also: For information about dropping an index, see "Dropping Indexes" on
page 16-15.

Managing Clusters 17-11

Dropping Clusters

17-12 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 18
Managing Hash Clusters

This chapter describes how to manage hash clusters, and includes the following
topics:
■ Guidelines for Managing Hash Clusters
■ Altering Hash Clusters
■ Dropping Hash Clusters
See Also: Before attempting tasks described in this chapter, familiarize yourself
with the concepts in Chapter 12, "Guidelines for Managing Schema Objects".

Managing Hash Clusters 18-1

Guidelines for Managing Hash Clusters

Guidelines for Managing Hash Clusters

This section describes guidelines to consider before attempting to manage hash
clusters, and includes the following topics:
■ Advantages of Hashing
■ Disadvantages of Hashing
■ Estimate Size Required by Hash Clusters and Set Storage Parameters
Storing a table in a hash cluster is an optional way to improve the performance of
data retrieval. A hash cluster provides an alternative to a non-clustered table with
an index or an index cluster. With an indexed table or index cluster, Oracle locates
the rows in a table using key values that Oracle stores in a separate index. To use
hashing, you create a hash cluster and load tables into it. Oracle physically stores
the rows of a table in a hash cluster and retrieves them according to the results of a
hash function.
Oracle uses a hash function to generate a distribution of numeric values, called hash
values, which are based on specific cluster key values. The key of a hash cluster, like
the key of an index cluster, can be a single column or composite key (multiple
column key). To find or store a row in a hash cluster, Oracle applies the hash
function to the row’s cluster key value; the resulting hash value corresponds to a
data block in the cluster, which Oracle then reads or writes on behalf of the issued
statement.
To find or store a row in an indexed table or cluster, a minimum of two (there are
usually more) I/Os must be performed:
■ one or more I/Os to find or store the key value in the index
■ another I/O to read or write the row in the table or cluster
In contrast, Oracle uses a hash function to locate a row in a hash cluster; no I/O is
required. As a result, a minimum of one I/O operation is necessary to read or write
a row in a hash cluster.
See Also: For more information about hash clusters, see Oracle8i Concepts.

Advantages of Hashing
If you opt to use indexing rather than hashing, consider whether to store a table
individually or as part of a cluster.
Hashing is most advantageous when you have the following conditions:

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 Guidelines for Managing Hash Clusters

■ Most queries are equality queries on the cluster key:

SELECT . . . WHERE cluster_key = . . . ;

In such cases, the cluster key in the equality condition is hashed, and the
corresponding hash key is usually found with a single read. In comparison, for
an indexed table the key value must first be found in the index (usually several
reads), and then the row is read from the table (another read).
■ The tables in the hash cluster are primarily static in size so that you can
determine the number of rows and amount of space required for the tables in
the cluster. If tables in a hash cluster require more space than the initial
allocation for the cluster, performance degradation can be substantial because
overflow blocks are required.

Disadvantages of Hashing
Hashing is not advantageous in the following situations:
■ Most queries on the table retrieve rows over a range of cluster key values. For
example, in full table scans or queries like the following, a hash function cannot
be used to determine the location of specific hash keys; instead, the equivalent
of a full table scan must be done to fetch the rows for the query:
SELECT . . . WHERE cluster_key < . . . ;

With an index, key values are ordered in the index, so cluster key values that
satisfy the WHERE clause of a query can be found with relatively few I/Os.
■ The table is not static and continually growing. If a table grows without limit,
the space required over the life of the table (its cluster) cannot be pre-
determined.
■ Applications frequently perform full-table scans on the table and the table is
sparsely populated. A full-table scan in this situation takes longer under
hashing.
■ You cannot afford to pre-allocate the space that the hash cluster will eventually
need.
See Also: For more information about creating hash clusters and specifying hash
functions see the Oracle8i SQL Reference.
For information about hash functions and specifying user-defined hash functions,
see Oracle8i Concepts.

Managing Hash Clusters 18-3

Guidelines for Managing Hash Clusters

Even if you decide to use hashing, a table can still have separate indexes on any
columns, including the cluster key. See the Oracle8i Application Developer’s Guide -
Fundamentals for additional recommendations.

Estimate Size Required by Hash Clusters and Set Storage Parameters

As with index clusters, it is important to estimate the storage required for the data
in a hash cluster.
Oracle guarantees that the initial allocation of space is sufficient to store the hash
table according to the settings SIZE and HASHKEYS. If settings for the storage
parameters INITIAL, NEXT, and MINEXTENTS do not account for the hash table
size, incremental (additional) extents are allocated until at least SIZE*HASHKEYS is
reached. For example, assume that the data block size is 2K, the available data space
per block is approximately 1900 bytes (data block size minus overhead), and that
the STORAGE and HASH parameters are specified in the CREATE CLUSTER
command as follows:
STORAGE (INITIAL 100K
NEXT 150K
MINEXTENTS 1
PCTINCREASE 0)
SIZE 1500
HASHKEYS 100

In this example, only one hash key can be assigned per data block. Therefore, the
initial space required for the hash cluster is at least 100*2K or 200K. The settings for
the storage parameters do not account for this requirement. Therefore, an initial
extent of 100K and a second extent of 150K are allocated to the hash cluster.
Alternatively, assume the HASH parameters are specified as follows:
SIZE 500 HASHKEYS 100

In this case, three hash keys are assigned to each data block. Therefore, the initial
space required for the hash cluster is at least 34*2K or 68K. The initial settings for
the storage parameters are sufficient for this requirement (an initial extent of 100K is
allocated to the hash cluster).

Creating Hash Clusters

After creating a hash cluster, you can create tables in the cluster. A hash cluster is
created using the SQL command CREATE CLUSTER. The following statement
creates a cluster named TRIAL_CLUSTER that stores the TRIAL table, clustered by
the TRIALNO column:

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 Guidelines for Managing Hash Clusters

CREATE CLUSTER trial_cluster (trialno NUMBER(5,0))

PCTUSED 80
PCTFREE 5
TABLESPACE users
STORAGE (INITIAL 250K NEXT 50K
MINEXTENTS 1 MAXEXTENTS 3
PCTINCREASE 0)
HASH IS trialno HASHKEYS 150;

CREATE TABLE trial (

trialno NUMBER(5,0) PRIMARY KEY,
...)
CLUSTER trial_cluster (trialno);

The following sections explain setting the parameters of the CREATE CLUSTER
command specific to hash clusters.
See Also: For additional information about creating tables in a cluster, guidelines
for setting other parameters of the CREATE CLUSTER command, and the privileges
required to create a hash cluster, see "Creating Clusters" on page 17-6.

Creating Single Table Hash Clusters

You can also create a single table hash cluster, which provides fast access to rows in a
table; however, this table must be the only table in the hash cluster. Essentially, there
must be a one-to-one mapping between hash keys and data rows. The following
statement creates a single-table hash cluster named PEANUT with the cluster key
VARIETY:
CREATE CLUSTER peanut (variety NUMBER)
SIZE 512 SINGLE TABLE HASHKEYS 500;

Oracle rounds the HASHKEY value up to the nearest prime number, so this cluster
has a maximum of 503 hash key values, each of size 512 bytes:

Note: The single table option is valid only for hash clusters.
HASHKEYS must also be specified.

See Also: For more information about the CREATE CLUSTER statement, see the
Oracle8i SQL Reference.

Managing Hash Clusters 18-5

Guidelines for Managing Hash Clusters

Controlling Space Use Within a Hash Cluster

When creating a hash cluster, it is important to choose the cluster key correctly and
set the HASH IS, SIZE, and HASHKEYS parameters so that performance and space
use are optimal. The following guidelines describe how to set these parameters.

Choosing the Key

Choosing the correct cluster key is dependent on the most common types of queries
issued against the clustered tables. For example, consider the EMP table in a hash
cluster. If queries often select rows by employee number, the EMPNO column
should be the cluster key.Iif queries often select rows by department number, the
DEPTNO column should be the cluster key. For hash clusters that contain a single
table, the cluster key is typically the entire primary key of the contained table.
The key of a hash cluster, like that of an index cluster, can be a single column or a
composite key (multiple column key). A hash cluster with a composite key must
use Oracle’s internal hash function.

Setting HASH IS
Specify the HASH IS parameter only if the cluster key is a single column of the
NUMBER datatype, and contains uniformly distributed integers. If the above
conditions apply, you can distribute rows in the cluster so that each unique cluster
key value hashes, with no collisions, to a unique hash value. If these conditions do
not apply, omit this option so that you use the internal hash function.

Setting SIZE
SIZE should be set to the average amount of space required to hold all rows for any
given hash key. Therefore, to properly determine SIZE, you must be aware of the
characteristics of your data:
■ If the hash cluster is to contain only a single table and the hash key values of the
rows in that table are unique (one row per value), SIZE can be set to the average
row size in the cluster.
■ If the hash cluster is to contain multiple tables, SIZE can be set to the average
amount of space required to hold all rows associated with a representative hash
value.
■ If the hash cluster does not use the internal hash function (if you specified
HASH IS) and you expect little or no collisions, you can set SIZE as estimated;
no collisions occur and space is used as efficiently as possible.

18-6 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Guidelines for Managing Hash Clusters

■ If you expect frequent collisions on inserts, the likelihood of overflow blocks

being allocated to store rows is high. To reduce the possibility of overflow
blocks and maximize performance when collisions are frequent, you should
increase SIZE according to Table 18–1.

Table 18–1 SIZE Increase Chart

Available Space per
Block/Calculated SIZE Setting for SIZE
1 Calculated SIZE
2 Calculated SIZE + 15%
3 Calculated SIZE + 12%
4 Calculated SIZE + 8%
>4 Calculated SIZE

Overestimating the value of SIZE increases the amount of unused space in the
cluster. If space efficiency is more important than the performance of data retrieval,
disregard the above adjustments and use the estimated value for SIZE.

Setting HASHKEYS
For maximum distribution of rows in a hash cluster, Oracle rounds the HASHKEYS
value up to the nearest prime number.

Controlling Space in Hash Clusters: Examples

The following examples show how to correctly choose the cluster key and set the
HASH IS, SIZE, and HASHKEYS parameters. For all examples, assume that the
data block size is 2K and that on average, 1950 bytes of each block is available data
space (block size minus overhead).

Example 1 You decide to load the EMP table into a hash cluster. Most queries
retrieve employee records by their employee number. You estimate
that the maximum number of rows in the EMP table at any given
time is 10000 and that the average row size is 55 bytes.

In this case, EMPNO should be the cluster key. Since this column
contains integers that are unique, the internal hash function can be
bypassed. SIZE can be set to the average row size, 55 bytes; note
that 34 hash keys are assigned per data block. HASHKEYS can be
set to the number of rows in the table, 10000, rounded up to the
next highest prime number, 10007:

Managing Hash Clusters 18-7

Altering Hash Clusters

CREATE CLUSTER emp_cluster (empno

NUMBER)
. . .
SIZE 55
HASH IS empno HASHKEYS 10007;

Example 2 Conditions similar to the previous example exist. In this case,

however, rows are usually retrieved by department number. At
most, there are 1000 departments with an average of 10 employees
per department. Note that department numbers increment by 10 (0,
10, 20, 30, . . . ).

In this case, DEPTNO should be the cluster key. Since this column
contains integers that are uniformly distributed, the internal hash
function can be bypassed. A pre-estimated SIZE (the average
amount of space required to hold all rows per department) is 55
bytes * 10, or 550 bytes. Using this value for SIZE, only three hash
keys can be assigned per data block. If you expect some collisions
and want maximum performance of data retrieval, slightly alter
your estimated SIZE to prevent collisions from requiring overflow
blocks. By adjusting SIZE by 12%, to 620 bytes (see previous section
about setting SIZE for clarification), only three hash keys are
assigned per data block, leaving more space for rows from expected
collisions.

HASHKEYS can be set to the number of unique department

numbers, 1000, rounded up to the next highest prime number, 1009:

CREATE CLUSTER emp_cluster (deptno NUMBER)

. . .
SIZE 620
HASH IS deptno HASHKEYS 1009;

Altering Hash Clusters

You can alter a hash cluster with the SQL ALTER CLUSTER statement:
ALTER CLUSTER emp_dept . . . ;

The implications for altering a hash cluster are identical to those for altering an
index cluster. However, note that the SIZE, HASHKEYS, and HASH IS parameters
cannot be specified in an ALTER CLUSTER statement. You must re-create the
cluster to change these parameters and then copy the data from the original cluster.
See Also: For more information about altering an index cluster, see ""Altering
Clusters" on page 17-8.

18-8 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Dropping Hash Clusters

Dropping Hash Clusters

You can drop a hash cluster using the SQL DROP CLUSTER statement:
DROP CLUSTER emp_dept;

A table in a hash cluster is dropped using the SQL DROP TABLE statement. The
implications of dropping hash clusters and tables in hash clusters are the same for
index clusters.
See Also: For more information about dropping clusters, see "Dropping Clusters"
on page 17-10.

Managing Hash Clusters 18-9

Dropping Hash Clusters

18-10 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 19
Detecting and Repairing Data
Block Corruption

Oracle provides different methods for detecting and correcting data block
corruption. One method is to drop and re-create an object after the corruption is
detected; however, this is not always possible or desirable. If data block corruption
is limited to a subset of rows, another option is to rebuild the table by selecting all
data except for the corrupt rows.
Yet another way to manage data block corruption is to use the DBMS_REPAIR
package. You can use DBMS_REPAIR to detect and repair corrupt blocks in tables
and indexes. Using this approach, you can address corruptions where possible, and
also continue to use objects while you attempt to rebuild or repair them.
DBMS_REPAIR uses the following approach to address corruptions:
■ Step 1: Detect and Report Corruptions
■ Step 2: Evaluate the Costs and Benefits of Using DBMS_REPAIR
■ Step 3: Make Objects Usable
■ Step 4: Repair Corruptions and Rebuild Lost Data

Note: Any corruption that involves the loss of data requires

analysis and understanding of how that data fits into the overall
database system. Hence, DBMS_REPAIR is not a magic wand—
you must still determine whether the repair approach provided by
this package is the appropriate tool for each specific corruption
problem. Depending on the nature of the repair, you may lose data
and logical inconsistencies can be introduced; therefore you need to
weigh the gains and losses associated with using DBMS_REPAIR.

Detecting and Repairing Data Block Corruption 19-1

DBMS_REPAIR Package Contents

DBMS_REPAIR Package Contents

Table 19–1 describes the procedures that make up the DBMS_REPAIR package.
Table 19–1 DBMS_REPAIR Procedures
Procedure Name Description
check_object Detects and reports corruptions in a table or index.
fix_corrupt_blocks Marks blocks (that were previously identified by the
check_object procedure) as corrupt.
dump_orphan_keys Reports index entries that point to rows in corrupt
data blocks.
rebuild_freelists Rebuilds an object’s freelists.
skip_corrupt_blocks When used, ignores blocks marked corrupt during
table and index scans. If not used, you get error
ORA-1578 when encountering blocks marked
corrupt.
admin_tables Provides administrative functions (create, drop,
purge) for DBMS_REPAIR repair and orphan key
tables. Note: These tables are always created in the
SYS schema.

Step 1: Detect and Report Corruptions

Your first task, before using DBMS_REPAIR, should be the detection and reporting
of corruptions. Reporting not only indicates what is wrong with a block, but also
identifies the associated repair directive. You have several options, in addition to
DBMS_REPAIR, for detecting corruptions. Table 19–2 describes the different
detection methodologies.
Table 19–2 Comparison of Corruption Detection Methods
Detection Method Description
DBMS_REPAIR Performs block checking for a specified table, partition or index.
Populates a repair table with results.
DB_VERIFY External command-line utility that performs block checking on
an offline database.
ANALYZE Used with the VALIDATE STRUCTURE option, verifies the
integrity of the structure of an index, table or cluster; checks or
verifies that your tables and indexes are in sync.

19-2 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Step 1: Detect and Report Corruptions

Table 19–2 Comparison of Corruption Detection Methods

Detection Method Description
DB_BLOCK_CHECKING Identifies corrupt blocks before they actually are marked
corrupt. Checks are performed when changes are made to a
block.

DBMS_REPAIR: Using the check_object and admin_tables Procedures

The check_object procedure checks and reports block corruptions for a specified
object. Similar to the ANALYZE...VALIDATE STRUCTURE statement for indexes
and tables, block checking is performed for index and data blocks respectively.
Not only does check_object report corruptions, but it also identifies any fixes
that would occur if fix_corrupt_blocks is subsequently run on the object. This
information is made available by populating a repair table, which must first be
created by the admin_tables procedure.
After you run the check_object procedure, a simple query on the repair table
shows the corruptions and repair directives for the object. With this information,
you can assess how best to address the problems reported.

DB_VERIFY: Performing an Offline Database Check

Typically, you use DB_VERIFY as an offline diagnostic utility when you encounter
data corruption problems.
See Also: For more information about DB_VERIFY, see Oracle8i Utilities.

ANALYZE: Corruption Reporting

The ANALYZE TABLE...VALIDATE STRUCTURE statement validates the structure
of the analyzed object. If Oracle successfully validates the structure, a message
confirming its validation is returned to you. If Oracle encounters corruption in the
structure of the object, an error message is returned to you. In this case, you would
drop and re-create the object.
See Also: For more information about the ANALYZE statement, see the Oracle8i
SQL Reference.

DB_BLOCK_CHECKING (Block Checking Initialization Parameter)

You can set block checking for instances via the DB_BLOCK_CHECKING
parameter (the default value is TRUE); this checks data and index blocks whenever

Detecting and Repairing Data Block Corruption 19-3

Step 2: Evaluate the Costs and Benefits of Using DBMS_REPAIR

they are modified. DB_BLOCK_CHECKING is a dynamic parameter, modifiable by

the ALTER SYSTEM SET statement.

Step 2: Evaluate the Costs and Benefits of Using DBMS_REPAIR

Before using DBMS_REPAIR you must weigh the benefits of its use in relation to the
liabilities; you should also examine other options available for addressing corrupt
objects.
A first step is to answer the following questions:
1. What is the extent of the corruption?
To determine if there are corruptions and repair actions, execute the
check_object procedure, and query the repair table.
2. What other options are available for addressing block corruptions?
Assuming the data is available from another source, drop, re-create and re-
populate the object. Another option is to issue the CREATE TABLE...AS
SELECT statement from the corrupt table to create a new one.
You can ignore the corruption by excluding corrupt rows from select
statements.
Perform media recovery.
3. What logical corruptions or side effects will be introduced when you use
DBMS_REPAIR to make an object usable? Can these be addressed? What is the
effort required to do so?
You may not have access to rows in blocks marked corrupt. However, a block
may be marked corrupt even though there are still rows that you can validly
access.
Referential integrity constraints may be broken when blocks are marked
corrupt. If this occurs, disable and re-enable the constraint; any inconsistencies
will be reported. After fixing all issues, you should be able to successfully re-
enable the constraint.
Logical corruption may occur when there are triggers defined on the table. For
example, if rows are re-inserted, should insert triggers be fired or not? You can
address these issues only if you understand triggers and their use in your
installation.
Freelist blocks may be inaccessible. If a corrupt block is at the head or tail of a
freelist, space management reinitializes the freelist. There then may be blocks

19-4 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Step 3: Make Objects Usable

that should be on a freelist, that aren’t. You can address this by running the
rebuild_freelists procedure.
Indexes and tables may be out of sync. You can address this by first executing
the dump_orphan_keys procedure (to obtain information from the keys that
might be useful in rebuilding corrupted data). Then issue the ALTER INDEX
REBUILD ONLINE statement to get the table and its indexes back in sync.
4. If repair involves loss of data, can this data be retrieved?
You can retrieve data from the index when a data block is marked corrupt. The
dump_orphan_keys procedures can help you retrieve this information. Of
course, retrieving data in this manner depends on the amount of redundancy
between the indexes and the table.

Step 3: Make Objects Usable

In this step DBMS_REPAIR makes the object usable by ignoring corruptions during
table and index scans.

Corruption Repair: Using the fix_corrupt_blocks and skip_corrupt_blocks

Procedures
You make a corrupt object usable by establishing an environment that skips
corruptions that remain outside the scope of DBMS_REPAIR’s repair capabilities.
If corruptions involve a loss of data, such as a bad row in a data block, all such
blocks are marked corrupt by the fix_corrupt_blocks procedure. Then, you can
run the skip_corrupt_blocks procedure, which will skip blocks marked
corrupt for the object. When skip is set, table and index scans skip all blocks
marked corrupt. This applies to both media and software corrupt blocks.

Implications when Skipping Corrupt Blocks

If an index and table are out of sync, then a SET TRANSACTION READ ONLY
transaction may be inconsistent in situations where one query probes only the
index, and then a subsequent query probes both the index and the table. If the table
block is marked corrupt, then the two queries will return different results, thereby
breaking the rules of a read-only transaction. One way to approach this is to not
skip corruptions when in a SET TRANSACTION READ ONLY transaction.

Detecting and Repairing Data Block Corruption 19-5

Step 4: Repair Corruptions and Rebuild Lost Data

A similar issue occurs when selecting rows that are chained. Essentially, a query of
the same row may or may not access the corruption—thereby giving different
results.

Step 4: Repair Corruptions and Rebuild Lost Data

After making an object usable, you can perform the following repair activities.

Recover Data Using the dump_orphan_keys Procedures

The dump_orphan_keys procedure reports on index entries that point to rows in
corrupt data blocks. All such index entries are inserted into an orphan key table that
stores the key and rowid of the corruption.
After the index entry information has been retrieved, you can rebuild the index
using the ALTER INDEX REBUILD ONLINE statement.

Repair Freelists Using the rebuild_freelists Procedure

When a block marked "corrupt" is found at the head or tail of a freelist, the freelist is
reinitialized and an error is returned. Although this takes the offending block off the
freelist, it causes you to lose freelist access to all blocks that followed the corrupt
block.
You can use the rebuild_freelists procedure to reinitialize the freelists. The
object is scanned, and if it is appropriate for a block to be on the freelist, it is added
to the master freelist. Freelist groups are handled by meting out the blocks in an
equitable fashion—a block at a time. Any blocks marked "corrupt" in the object are
ignored during the rebuild.

Limitations and Restrictions

DBMS_REPAIR procedures have the following limitations:
■ Tables with LOBS, nested tables, and VARRAYS are supported, but the out of
line columns are ignored.
■ Clusters are supported in the skip_corrupt_blocks and
rebuild_freelist procedures, but not in the check_object procedure.
■ Index-organized tables and LOB indexes are not supported.
■ The dump_orphan_keys procedure does not operate on bitmap indexes or
function-based indexes.

19-6 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 DBMS_REPAIR Procedures

■ The dump_orphan_keys procedure processes keys that are, at most, 3,950

bytes long.

DBMS_REPAIR Procedures
This sections contains detailed descriptions of the DBMS_REPAIR procedures.

check_object
The check_object procedure checks the specified objects, and populates the
repair table with information about corruptions and repair directives. Validation
consists of block checking all blocks in the object. You may optionally specify a
range, partition name, or subpartition name when you wish to check a portion of an
object.
procedure check_object(schema_name IN varchar2,
object_name IN varchar2,
partition_name IN varchar2 DEFAULT NULL,
object_type IN binary_integer DEFAULT TABLE_OBJECT,
repair_table_name IN varchar2 DEFAULT ’REPAIR_TABLE’,
flags IN binary_integer DEFAULT NULL,
relative_fno IN binary_integer DEFAULT NULL,
block_start IN binary_integer DEFAULT NULL,
block_end IN binary_integer DEFAULT NULL,
corrupt_count OUT binary_integer)

Detecting and Repairing Data Block Corruption 19-7

DBMS_REPAIR Procedures

Table 19–3 The check_object Procedure

Argument Description
schema_name Schema name of the object to be checked.
object_name Name of the table or index to be checked.
partition_name Partition or subpartition name to be checked. If this is a
(optional) partitioned object, and partition_name is not specified,
then all partitions and subpartitions are checked. If this is a
partitioned object, and the specified partition contains
subpartitions, then all subpartitions are checked.
object_type Type of the object to be processed. Must be either
(optional) TABLE_OBJECT or INDEX_OBJECT. The default is
TABLE_OBJECT.
repair_table_name Name of the repair table to be populated. The table must exist
(optional) in the SYS schema. Use the admin_tables procedure to
create a repair table. The default name is ’REPAIR_TABLE’.
flags (optional) Reserved for future use.
relative_fno Relative file number. Used when specifying a block range.
(optional)
block_start The first block to process if specifying a block range. May be
(optional) specified only if the object is a single table, partition, or
subpartition.
block_end (optional) The last block to process if specifying a block range. May be
specified only if the object is a single table, partition, or
subpartition.
If only one of block_start or block_end is specified, then the
other defaults to the first or last block in the file respectively.
corrupt_count The number of corruptions reported.

fix_corrupt_blocks
Use this procedure to fix the corrupt blocks in specified objects based on
information in the repair table that was previously generated by the
check_object procedure. Prior to effecting any change to a block, the block is
checked to ensure the block is still corrupt. Corrupt blocks are repaired by marking
the block software corrupt. When a repair is effected, the associated row in the
repair table is updated with a fix timestamp.

19-8 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 DBMS_REPAIR Procedures

procedure fix_corrupt_blocks(
schema_name IN varchar2,
object_name IN varchar2,
partition_name IN varchar2 DEFAULT NULL,
object_type IN binary_integer DEFAULT TABLE_OBJECT,
repair_table_name IN varchar2 DEFAULT ’REPAIR_TABLE’,
flags IN boolean DEFAULT NULL,
fix_count OUT binary_integer)

Table 19–4 The fix_corrupt_blocks Procedure

Argument Description
schema_name Schema name.
object_name Name of the object with corrupt blocks to be fixed.
partition_name Partition or subpartition name to be processed. If this is a
(optional) partitioned object, and partition_name is not specified, then
all partitions and subpartitions are processed. If this is a
partitioned object, and the specified partition contains
subpartitions, then all subpartitions are processed.
object_type Type of the object to be processed. Must be either
(optional) TABLE_OBJECT or INDEX_OBJECT. The default is
TABLE_OBJECT.
repair_table_name Name of the repair table with the repair directives. Must exist in
(optional) the SYS schema.
flags (optional) Reserved for future use.
fix_count The number of blocks fixed.

dump_orphan_keys
Reports on index entries that point to rows in corrupt data blocks. For each such
index entry encountered, a row is inserted into the specified orphan table.
If the repair table is specified, then any corrupt blocks associated with the base table
are handled in addition to all data blocks that are marked software corrupt.
Otherwise, only blocks that are marked corrupt are handled.
This information may be useful for rebuilding lost rows in the table and for
diagnostic purposes.
procedure dump_orphan_keys(
schema_name IN varchar2,
object_name IN varchar2,

Detecting and Repairing Data Block Corruption 19-9

DBMS_REPAIR Procedures

partition_name IN varchar2 DEFAULT NULL,

object_type IN binary_integer DEFAULT INDEX_OBJECT,
repair_table_name IN varchar2 DEFAULT ’REPAIR_TABLE’,
orphan_table_name IN varchar2 DEFAULT ’ORPHAN_KEY_TABLE’,
key_count OUT binary_integer)

Table 19–5 The dump_orphan_keys Procedure

Argument Description
schema_name Schema name.
object_name Object name.
partition_name Partition or subpartition name to be processed. If this is a
(optional) partitioned object, and partition_name is not specified,
then all partitions and subpartitions are processed. If this is a
partitioned object, and the specified partition contains
subpartitions, then all subpartitions are processed.
object_type Type of the object to be processed. The default is
(optional) INDEX_OBJECT.
repair_table_name Name of the repair table that has information regarding
(optional) corrupt blocks in the base table. The specified table must exist
in the SYS schema. The admin_tables procedure is used to
create the table.
orphan_table_name Name of the orphan key table to populate with information
(optional) regarding each index entry that refers to a row in a corrupt
data block. The specified table must exist in the SYS schema.
The admin_tables procedure is used to create the table.
key_count Number of index entries processed.

rebuild_freelists
Rebuilds the freelists for the specified object. All free blocks are placed on the
master freelist. All other freelists are zeroed. If the object has multiple freelist
groups, then the free blocks are distributed among all freelists, allocating to the
different groups in round-robin fashion.
procedure rebuild_freelists(
schema_name IN varchar2,
object_name IN varchar2,
partition_name IN varchar2 DEFAULT NULL,

19-10 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 DBMS_REPAIR Procedures

object_type IN binary_integer DEFAULT TABLE_OBJECT);

Table 19–6 The rebuild_freelists Procedure

Argument Description
schema_name Schema name.
object_name Name of the object whose freelists are to be rebuilt.
partition_name Partition or subpartition name whose freelists are to be rebuilt. If this
(optional) is a partitioned object, and partition_name is not specified, then all
partitions and subpartitions are processed. If this is a partitioned
object, and the specified partition contains subpartitions, then all
subpartitions are processed.
object_type Type of the object to be processed. Must be either TABLE_OBJECT or
(optional) INDEX_OBJECT. The default is TABLE_OBJECT.

skip_corrupt_blocks
Enables or disables the skipping of corrupt blocks during index and table scans of
the specified object. When the object is a table, skip applies to the table and its
indexes. When the object is a cluster, it applies to all of the tables in the cluster, and
their respective indexes.
procedure skip_corrupt_blocks(
schema_name IN varchar2,
object_name IN varchar2,
partition_name IN varchar2 DEFAULT NULL,
object_type IN binary_integer DEFAULT TABLE_OBJECT,
flags IN boolean DEFAULT SKIP_FLAG);

Detecting and Repairing Data Block Corruption 19-11

DBMS_REPAIR Procedures

Table 19–7 The skip_corrupt_blocks Procedure

Argument Description
schema_name Schema name of the object to be processed.
object_name Name of the object.
partition_name Partition or subpartition name to be processed. If this is a partitioned
(optional) object, and partition_name is not specified, then all partitions and
subpartitions are processed. If this is a partitioned object, and the
specified partition contains subpartitions, then all subpartitions are
processed.
object_type Type of the object to be processed. Must be either TABLE_OBJECT or
(optional) CLUSTER_OBJECT. The default is TABLE_OBJECT.
flags If SKIP_FLAG is specified, turns on the skip of software corrupt blocks
(optional) for the object during index and table scans. If NOSKIP_FLAG is
specified, scans that encounter software corrupt blocks return an ORA-
1578.

admin_tables
Provides administrative functions for repair and orphan key tables.
procedure admin_tables(
table_name IN varchar2,
table_type IN binary_integer,
action IN binary_integer,
tablespace IN varchar2 DEFAULT NULL);

19-12 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 DBMS_REPAIR Exceptions

Table 19–8 The admin_tables Procedure

Argument Description
table_name Name of the table to be processed. Defaults to ’ORPHAN_KEY_TABLE’
or ’REPAIR_TABLE’ based on the specified table_type. When specified,
the table name must have the appropriate prefix, ’ORPHAN_’ or
’REPAIR_’.
table_type Type of table, must be one of ORPHAN_TABLE or REPAIR_TABLE.
action Indicates what administrative action to perform. Must be
CREATE_ACTION, PURGE_ACTION, or DROP_ACTION. If the table
already exists, and CREATE_ACTION is specified, then an error is
returned. PURGE_ACTION indicates to delete all rows in the table that
are associated with non-existent objects. If the table does not exist, and
DROP_ACTION is specified, then an error is returned.
When CREATE_ACTION and DROP_ACTION are specified, an
associated view named DBA_<table_name> is created and dropped
respectively. The view is defined so that rows associated with non-
existent objects are eliminated.
Created in the SYS schema.
tablespace Indicates the tablespace to use when creating a table. By default, SYS’s
(optional) default tablespace is used. An error is returned if the tablespace is
specified and the action is not CREATE_ACTION.

DBMS_REPAIR Exceptions

942 repair table doesn’t exist

1418 specified index doesn’t exist
24120 invalid parameter
24121 can’t specify CASCADE_FLAG and a block range
24122 invalid block range
24124 invalid action parameter specified
24126 CASCADE_FLAG specified and object is not a table

Detecting and Repairing Data Block Corruption 19-13

DBMS_REPAIR Exceptions

24127 tablespace specified and action is not CREATE_ACTION

24128 partition specified for non-partitioned object
24129 invalid orphan key table name - must have ’ORPHAN_’
prefix
24129 specified repair table does not start with ’REPAIR_’ prefix
24131 repair table has incorrect columns
24132 repair table name is too long

19-14 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 20
General Management of Schema Objects

This chapter describes general schema object management issues that fall outside
the scope of Chapters 11 through 19, and includes the following topics:
■ Creating Multiple Tables and Views in a Single Operation
■ Renaming Schema Objects
■ Analyzing Tables, Indexes, and Clusters
■ Truncating Tables and Clusters
■ Enabling and Disabling Triggers
■ Managing Integrity Constraints
■ Managing Object Dependencies
■ Managing Object Name Resolution
■ Changing Storage Parameters for the Data Dictionary
■ Displaying Information About Schema Objects

General Management of Schema Objects 20-1

Creating Multiple Tables and Views in a Single Operation

Creating Multiple Tables and Views in a Single Operation

To create schema objects you must have the required privileges for any included
operation. For example, to create multiple tables using the CREATE SCHEMA
command, you must have the privileges required to create tables.
You can create several tables and views and grant privileges in one operation using
the SQL statement CREATE SCHEMA. The CREATE SCHEMA statement is useful
if you want to guarantee the creation of several tables and views and grants in one
operation. If an individual table, view or grant fails, the entire statement is rolled
back. None of the objects are created, nor are the privileges granted. The following
statement creates two tables and a view that joins data from the two tables:
CREATE SCHEMA AUTHORIZATION scott
CREATE TABLE dept (
deptno NUMBER(3,0) PRIMARY KEY,
dname VARCHAR2(15),
loc VARCHAR2(25)
CREATE TABLE emp (
empno NUMBER(5,0) PRIMARY KEY,
ename VARCHAR2(15) NOT NULL,
job VARCHAR2(10),
mgr NUMBER(5,0),
hiredate DATE DEFAULT (sysdate),
sal NUMBER(7,2),
comm NUMBER(7,2),
deptno NUMBER(3,0) NOT NULL
CONSTRAINT dept_fkey REFERENCES dept)
CREATE VIEW sales_staff AS
SELECT empno, ename, sal, comm
FROM emp
WHERE deptno = 30
WITH CHECK OPTION CONSTRAINT sales_staff_cnst
GRANT SELECT ON sales_staff TO human_resources;

The CREATE SCHEMA statement does not support Oracle extensions to the ANSI
CREATE TABLE and CREATE VIEW commands; this includes the STORAGE
clause.

Renaming Schema Objects

To rename an object, you must own it. You can rename schema objects in either of
the following ways:
■ drop and re-create the object
■ rename the object using the SQL statement RENAME

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 Analyzing Tables, Indexes, and Clusters

If you drop and re-create an object, all privileges granted for that object are lost.
Privileges must be re-granted when the object is re-created. Alternatively, a table,
view, sequence, or a private synonym of a table, view, or sequence can be renamed
using the RENAME statement. When using the RENAME statement, grants made
for the object are carried forward for the new name. For example, the following
statement renames the SALES_STAFF view:
RENAME sales_staff TO dept_30;

Note: You cannot rename a stored PL/SQL program unit, public

synonym, index, or cluster. To rename such an object, you must
drop and re-create it.

Before renaming a schema object, consider the following effects:

■ All views and PL/SQL program units dependent on a renamed object become
invalid, and must be recompiled before next use.
■ All synonyms for a renamed object return an error when used.
See Also: For more information about how Oracle manages object dependencies,
see "Managing Object Dependencies" on page 20-23.

Analyzing Tables, Indexes, and Clusters

This section describes how to analyze tables, indexes, and clusters, and includes the
following topics:
■ Using Statistics for Tables, Indexes, and Clusters
■ Validating Tables, Indexes, and Clusters
■ Listing Chained Rows of Tables and Clusters
You can analyze a table, index, or cluster to gather data about it, or to verify the
validity of its storage format. To analyze a table, cluster, or index, you must own the
table, cluster, or index or have the ANALYZE ANY system privilege.
These schema objects can also be analyzed to collect or update statistics about
specific objects. When a DML statement is issued, the statistics for the referenced
objects are used to determine the most efficient execution plan for the statement.
This optimization is called "cost-based optimization." The statistics are stored in the
data dictionary.

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Analyzing Tables, Indexes, and Clusters

A table, index, or cluster can be analyzed to validate the structure of the object. For
example, in rare cases such as hardware or other system failures, an index can
become corrupted and not perform correctly. When validating the index, you can
confirm that every entry in the index points to the correct row of the associated
table. If a schema object is corrupt, you can drop and re-create it.
A table or cluster can be analyzed to collect information about chained rows of the
table or cluster. These results are useful in determining whether you have enough
room for updates to rows. For example, this information can show whether
PCTFREE is set appropriately for the table or cluster.
See Also: For more information about analyzing tables, indexes, and clusters for
performance statistics and the optimizer, see Oracle8i Tuning.
For information about analyzing index-organized tables, see Chapter 14, "Managing
Tables".

Using Statistics for Tables, Indexes, and Clusters

Statistics about the physical storage characteristics of a table, index, or cluster can be
gathered and stored in the data dictionary using the SQL statement ANALYZE with
the STATISTICS option. Oracle can use these statistics when cost-based
optimization is employed to choose the most efficient execution plan for SQL
statements accessing analyzed objects. You can also use statistics generated by this
command to write efficient SQL statements that access analyzed objects.
You can compute or estimate statistics using the ANALYZE statement, with either
the COMPUTE STATISTICS or ESTIMATE STATISTICS option:

COMPUTE When computing statistics, an entire object is scanned to gather

data about the object. This data is used by Oracle to compute
STATISTICS
exact statistics about the object. Slight variances throughout the
object are accounted for in these computed statistics. Because an
entire object is scanned to gather information for computed
statistics, the larger the size of an object, the more work that is
required to gather the necessary information.

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 Analyzing Tables, Indexes, and Clusters

ESTIMATE When estimating statistics, Oracle gathers representative

information from portions of an object. This subset of
STATISTICS
information provides reasonable, estimated statistics about the
object. The accuracy of estimated statistics depends upon how
representative the sampling used by Oracle is. Only parts of an
object are scanned to gather information for estimated statistics,
so an object can be analyzed quickly. You can optionally specify
the number or percentage of rows that Oracle should use in
making the estimate.

Note: When calculating statistics for tables or clusters, the amount

of temporary space required to perform the calculation is related to
the number of rows specified. For COMPUTE STATISTICS, enough
temporary space to hold and sort the entire table plus a small
overhead for each row is required. For ESTIMATE STATISTICS,
enough temporary space to hold and sort the requested sample of
rows plus a small overhead for each row is required. For indexes,
no temporary space is required for analyzing.

See Also: For more information about the SQL statement ANALYZE, see the
Oracle8i SQL Reference.
For more information about the data dictionary views containing statistics, see the
Oracle8i Reference.

Viewing Object Statistics

Whether statistics for an object are computed or estimated, the statistics are stored
in the data dictionary. The statistics can be queried using the following data
dictionary views:
■ USER_INDEXES, ALL_INDEXES, DBA_INDEXES
■ USER_TABLES, ALL_TABLES, DBA_TABLES
■ USER_TAB_COLUMNS, ALL_TAB_COLUMNS, DBA_TAB_COLUMNS

Note: Rows in these views contain entries in the statistics columns

only for indexes, tables, and clusters for which you have gathered
statistics. The entries are updated for an object each time you
ANALYZE the object.

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Analyzing Tables, Indexes, and Clusters

Table Statistics You can gather the following statistics on a table:

Note: The * symbol indicates that the numbers will always be an

exact value when computing statistics.

■ number of rows
■ number of blocks that have been used *
■ number of blocks never used
■ average available free space
■ number of chained rows
■ average row length
■ number of distinct values per column
■ the second smallest value per column *
■ the second largest value per column *

Note: Statistics for all indexes associated with a table are

automatically gathered when the table is analyzed.

Index Statistics You can gather the following statistics on an index:

■ index level *
■ number of leaf blocks
■ number of distinct keys
■ average number of leaf blocks/key
■ average number of data blocks/key
■ clustering factor

Cluster Statistics The only statistic that can be gathered for a cluster is the average
cluster key chain length; this statistic can be estimated or computed. Statistics for
tables in a cluster and all indexes associated with the cluster’s tables (including the

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 Analyzing Tables, Indexes, and Clusters

cluster key index) are automatically gathered when the cluster is analyzed for
statistics.

Note: If the data dictionary currently contains statistics for the

specified object when an ANALYZE statement is issued, the new
statistics replace the old statistics in the data dictionary.

Computing Statistics
The following statement computes statistics for the EMP table:
ANALYZE TABLE emp COMPUTE STATISTICS;

The following query estimates statistics on the EMP table, using the default
statistical sample of 1064 rows:
ANALYZE TABLE emp ESTIMATE STATISTICS;

To specify the statistical sample that Oracle should use, include the SAMPLE option
with the ESTIMATE STATISTICS option. You can specify an integer that indicates
either a number of rows or index values, or a percentage of the rows or index values
in the table. The following statements show examples of each option:
ANALYZE TABLE emp
ESTIMATE STATISTICS
SAMPLE 2000 ROWS;
ANALYZE TABLE emp
ESTIMATE STATISTICS
SAMPLE 33 PERCENT;

In either case, if you specify a percentage greater than 50, or a number of rows or
index values that is greater than 50% of those in the object, Oracle computes the
exact statistics, rather than estimating.

Removing Statistics for a Schema Object

You can remove statistics for a table, index, or cluster from the data dictionary using
the ANALYZE command with the DELETE STATISTICS option. For example, you
might want to delete statistics for an object if you do not want cost-based
optimization to be used for statements regarding the object. The following
statement deletes statistics for the EMP table from the data dictionary:
ANALYZE TABLE emp DELETE STATISTICS;

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Analyzing Tables, Indexes, and Clusters

Shared SQL and Analyzing Statistics

Analyzing a table, cluster, or index can affect current shared SQL statements, which
are statements currently in the shared pool. Whenever an object is analyzed to
update or delete statistics, all shared SQL statements that reference the analyzed
object are flushed from memory so that the next execution of the statement can take
advantage of the new statistics.
You can call the following procedures:
DBMS_UTILITY.-ANALYZE_SCHEMA()
This procedure takes two arguments: the name of a schema and an analysis method
(’COMPUTE’, ’ESTIMATE’, or ’DELETE’). It gathers statistics on all of the objects in
the schema.
DBMS_DDL.-ANALYZE_OBJECTS()
This procedure takes four arguments: the type of object (’CLUSTER’, ’TABLE’, or
’INDEX’), the schema of the object, the name of the object, and an analysis method
(’COMPUTE’, ’ESTIMATE’, or ’DELETE’). It gathers statistics on the object.
You should call these procedures periodically to update the statistics.

Validating Tables, Indexes, and Clusters

To verify the integrity of the structure of a table, index, cluster, or snapshot, use the
ANALYZE command with the VALIDATE STRUCTURE option. If the structure is
valid, no error is returned. However, if the structure is corrupt, you receive an error
message. If a table, index, or cluster is corrupt, you should drop it and re-create it. If
a snapshot is corrupt, perform a complete refresh and ensure that you have
remedied the problem; if not, drop and re-create the snapshot.
The following statement analyzes the EMP table:
ANALYZE TABLE emp VALIDATE STRUCTURE;

You can validate an object and all related objects by including the CASCADE
option. The following statement validates the EMP table and all associated indexes:
ANALYZE TABLE emp VALIDATE STRUCTURE CASCADE;

Listing Chained Rows of Tables and Clusters

You can look at the chained and migrated rows of a table or cluster using the
ANALYZE command with the LIST CHAINED ROWS option. The results of this
command are stored in a specified table created explicitly to accept the information
returned by the LIST CHAINED ROWS option.

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To create an appropriate table to accept data returned by an ANALYZE...LIST

CHAINED ROWS statement, use the UTLCHAIN.SQL script provided with Oracle.
The UTLCHAIN.SQL script creates a table named CHAINED_ROWS in the schema
of the user submitting the script.
After a CHAINED_ROWS table is created, you can specify it when using the
ANALYZE statement. For example, the following statement inserts rows containing
information about the chained rows in the EMP_DEPT cluster into the
CHAINED_ROWS table:
ANALYZE CLUSTER emp_dept LIST CHAINED ROWS INTO chained_rows;

See Also: The name and location of the UTLCHAIN.SQL script are operating
system-dependent; see your operating system-specific Oracle documentation.
For more information about reducing the number of chained and migrated rows in
a table or cluster, see Oracle8i Tuning.

Truncating Tables and Clusters

You can delete all rows of a table or all rows in a group of clustered tables so that
the table (or cluster) still exists, but is completely empty. For example, you may
have a table that contains monthly data, and at the end of each month, you need to
empty it (delete all rows) after archiving its data.
To delete all rows from a table, you have the following three options:
1. Using the DELETE statement
You can delete the rows of a table using the DELETE statement. For example,
the following statement deletes all rows from the EMP table:
DELETE FROM emp;

2. Using the DROP and CREATE statements

You can drop a table and then re-create the table. For example, the following
statements drop and then re-create the EMP table:
DROP TABLE emp;
CREATE TABLE emp ( . . . );

3. Using TRUNCATE
You can delete all rows of the table using the SQL statement TRUNCATE. For
example, the following statement truncates the EMP table:
TRUNCATE TABLE emp;

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Truncating Tables and Clusters

Using DELETE
If there are many rows present in a table or cluster when using the DELETE
command, significant system resources are consumed as the rows are deleted. For
example, CPU time, redo log space, and rollback segment space from the table and
any associated indexes require resources. Also, as each row is deleted, triggers can
be fired. The space previously allocated to the resulting empty table or cluster
remains associated with that object.With DELETE you can choose which rows to
delete, whereas TRUNCATE and DROP wipe out the entire object.

Using DROP and CREATE

When dropping and re-creating a table or cluster, all associated indexes, integrity
constraints, and triggers are also dropped, and all objects that depend on the
dropped table or clustered table are invalidated. Also, all grants for the dropped
table or clustered table are dropped.

Using TRUNCATE
Using the TRUNCATE statement provides a fast, efficient method for deleting all
rows from a table or cluster. A TRUNCATE statement does not generate any
rollback information and it commits immediately; it is a DDL statement and cannot
be rolled back. A TRUNCATE statement does not affect any structures associated
with the table being truncated (constraints and triggers) or authorizations. A
TRUNCATE statement also specifies whether space currently allocated for the table
is returned to the containing tablespace after truncation.
You can truncate any table or cluster in the user’s associated schema. Also, any user
that has the DROP ANY TABLE system privilege can truncate a table or cluster in
any schema.
Before truncating a table or clustered table containing a parent key, all referencing
foreign keys in different tables must be disabled. A self-referential constraint does
not have to be disabled.
As a TRUNCATE statement deletes rows from a table, triggers associated with the
table are not fired. Also, a TRUNCATE statement does not generate any audit
information corresponding to DELETE statements if auditing is enabled. Instead, a
single audit record is generated for the TRUNCATE statement being issued.
A hash cluster cannot be truncated. Also, tables within a hash or index cluster
cannot be individually truncated; truncation of an index cluster deletes all rows

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 Enabling and Disabling Triggers

from all tables in the cluster. If all the rows must be deleted from an individual
clustered table, use the DELETE command or drop and re-create the table.
The REUSE STORAGE or DROP STORAGE options of the TRUNCATE command
control whether space currently allocated for a table or cluster is returned to the
containing tablespace after truncation. The default option, DROP STORAGE,
reduces the number of extents allocated to the resulting table to the original setting
for MINEXTENTS. Freed extents are then returned to the system and can be used
by other objects.
Alternatively, the REUSE STORAGE option specifies that all space currently
allocated for the table or cluster remains allocated to it. For example, the following
statement truncates the EMP_DEPT cluster, leaving all extents previously allocated
for the cluster available for subsequent inserts and deletes:
TRUNCATE CLUSTER emp_dept REUSE STORAGE;

The REUSE or DROP STORAGE option also applies to any associated indexes.
When a table or cluster is truncated, all associated indexes are also truncated. Also
note that the storage parameters for a truncated table, cluster, or associated indexes
are not changed as a result of the truncation.
See Also: See Chapter 25, "Auditing Database Use", for information about auditing.

Enabling and Disabling Triggers

Database triggers are procedures that are stored in the database and activated
("fired") when a user makes a particular modification, such as adding a row to a
table. You can use triggers to supplement the standard capabilities of Oracle to
provide a highly customized database management system. For example, you can
create a trigger to restrict DML operations against a table, allowing only statements
issued during regular business hours.
Database triggers are implicitly executed when any of the following statements are
issued against an associated table:
■ INSERT
■ UPDATE
■ DELETE
■ STARTUP
■ SHUTDOWN
■ LOGON

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Enabling and Disabling Triggers

A trigger can be in either of two distinct modes:

enabled An enabled trigger executes its trigger body if a triggering

statement is issued and the trigger restriction, if any, evaluates
to TRUE. By default, triggers are enabled when first created.

disabled A disabled trigger does not execute its trigger body, even if a
triggering statement is issued and the trigger restriction (if
any) evaluates to TRUE.

To enable or disable triggers using the ALTER TABLE statement, you must own the
table, have the ALTER object privilege for the table, or have the ALTER ANY
TABLE system privilege. To enable or disable an individual trigger using the
ALTER TRIGGER statement, you must own the trigger or have the ALTER ANY
TRIGGER system privilege.
See Also: For more details about triggers, see Oracle8i Concepts.
For details about creating triggers, see Oracle8i SQL Reference.

Enabling Triggers
You enable a disabled trigger using the ALTER TRIGGER statement with the
ENABLE option. To enable the disabled trigger named REORDER on the
INVENTORY table, enter the following statement:
ALTER TRIGGER reorder ENABLE;

To enable all triggers defined for a specific table, use the ALTER TABLE statement
with the ENABLE ALL TRIGGERS option. To enable all triggers defined for the
INVENTORY table, enter the following statement:
ALTER TABLE inventory
ENABLE ALL TRIGGERS;

Disabling Triggers
You may want to temporarily disable a trigger if one of the following conditions is
true:
■ An object that the trigger references is not available.
■ You have to perform a large data load and want it to proceed quickly without
firing triggers.
■ You are loading data into the table to which the trigger applies.

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 Managing Integrity Constraints

You disable a trigger using the ALTER TRIGGER statement with the DISABLE
option. To disable the trigger REORDER on the INVENTORY table, enter the
following statement:
ALTER TRIGGER reorder DISABLE;

You can disable all triggers associated with a table at the same time using the
ALTER TABLE statement with the DISABLE ALL TRIGGERS option. For example,
to disable all triggers defined for the INVENTORY table, enter the following
statement:
ALTER TABLE inventory
DISABLE ALL TRIGGERS;

Managing Integrity Constraints

Integrity constraints are rules or statements about data in a database. Enabled
constraints check data as it is entered or updated in the database and prevent data
that does not conform to the constraint’s rule from being entered. Validated
constraints can guarantee uniqueness, master-detail relationships, compliance with
an expression, or that NULLs are not present.
These rules, or statements are always true when the constraint is enabled and
validated. However, the statement may or may not be true when the constraint is
disabled (or put in "enable novalidate" state) because data in violation of the
integrity constraint can be in the database.The following sections explain the
mechanisms and procedures for managing integrity constraints:
■ Integrity Constraint States
■ Deferring Constraint Checks
■ Managing Constraints That Have Associated Indexes
■ Setting Integrity Constraints Upon Definition
■ Modifying Existing Integrity Constraints
■ Dropping Integrity Constraints
■ Reporting Constraint Exceptions
See Also: You can identify exceptions to a specific integrity constraint while
attempting to enable the constraint. See "Reporting Constraint Exceptions" on
page 20-21.
For general information about integrity constraints, see Oracle8i Concepts.

General Management of Schema Objects 20-13

Managing Integrity Constraints

Integrity Constraint States

An integrity constraint defined on a table can be in one of four states:

disable novalidate When a constraint is disable novalidated, the rule defined by

the constraint is not enforced on the data values in the columns
included in the constraint; however, the definition of the
constraint is retained in the data dictionary.
This mode is useful when you are performing a data
warehouse rollup or load and you want to speed up the load
process.

enable novalidate A table with enable novalidate constraints can contain invalid
data, but it is not possible to add new invalid data to it.
Useful as an intermediate state before validating the data in the
table using enable validate. This ensures no new data can
violate the constraint, and no locks are held when taking
constraints from enable no validate to enable validate.
This mode is useful when you don’t want to enable the
constraint to check for exceptions, for example, after a data
warehouse load.

enable and An enabled constraint is enforced and known to be valid

validate (validity of table data is checked). The definition of the
constraint is stored in the data dictionary.
This is the normal operational state for constraint processing.
This state is useful for preventing invalid data entry during
regular OLTP processing.

disable validate Allows you to have a unique constraint without an index.

Tables in this state cannot be updated.
Enables you to load nonpartitioned data into a partitioned table
using the EXCHANGE PARTITION statement. Also useful
when you have tables for data warehousing purposes and want
to minimize space usage.

Disabling Constraints
To enforce the rules defined by integrity constraints, the constraints should always
be enabled. However, you may wish to temporarily disable the integrity constraints
of a table for the following performance reasons:
■ when loading large amounts of data into a table

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 Managing Integrity Constraints

■ when performing batch operations that make massive changes to a table (for
example, changing every employee’s number by adding 1000 to the existing
number)
■ when importing or exporting one table at a time
In all three cases, temporarily disabling integrity constraints can improve the
performance of the operation, especially in data warehouse configurations.
It is possible to enter data that violates a constraint while that constraint is disabled.
Thus, you should always enable the constraint after completing any of the
operations listed in the bullets above.

Enable Novalidate Constraints

When a constraint is in the enable novalidate state, all subsequent statements are
checked for conformity to the constraint; however, any existing data in the table is
not checked. A table with enable novalidated constraints can contain invalid data,
but it is not possible to add new invalid data to it. Enabling constraints in the
novalidated state is most useful in data warehouse configurations that are
uploading valid OLTP data.
Enabling a constraint does not require validation. Enabling a constraint novalidate
is much faster than enabling and validating a constraint. Also, validating a
constraint that is already enabled does not require any DML locks during validation
(unlike validating a previously disabled constraint). Enforcement guarantees that
no violations are introduced during the validation. Hence, enabling without
validating enables you to reduce the downtime typically associated with enabling a
constraint.

Enabling Constraints
While a constraint is enabled, no row violating the constraint can be inserted into
the table. However, while the constraint is disabled such a row can be inserted; this
row is known as an exception to the constraint. If the constraint is in the enable
novalidated state, violations resulting from data entered while the constraint was
disabled remain. The rows that violate the constraint must be either updated or
deleted in order for the constraint to be put in the validated state.
You can examine all rows violating constraints in the EXCEPTIONS table
See Also: For details about the EXCEPTIONS table, see Oracle8i Reference.

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Managing Integrity Constraints

Integrity Constraint States: Procedures and Benefits

Using integrity constraint states in the following order can ensure the best benefits:
1. disable state
2. perform the operation (load, export, import)
3. enable novalidate state
4. enable state
Some benefits of using constraints in this order are:
■ no locks are held
■ all constraints can go to enable state concurrently
■ constraint enabling is done in parallel
■ concurrent activity on table permitted

Deferring Constraint Checks

When Oracle checks a constraint, it signals an error if the constraint is not satisfied.
You can defer checking the validity of constraints until the end of a transaction.
When you issue the SET CONSTRAINTS statement, the SET CONSTRAINTS mode
lasts for the duration of the transaction, or until another SET CONSTRAINTS
statement resets the mode.

Note: You cannot issue a SET CONSTRAINT statement inside a

trigger.

See Also: For more details about the SET CONSTRAINTS statement, see the
Oracle8i SQL Reference.
For general information about constraints, see Oracle8i Concepts.

How To Defer Constraint Checks

Select Appropriate Data You may wish to defer constraint checks on UNIQUE and
FOREIGN keys if the data you are working with has any of the following
characteristics:
■ tables are snapshots

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 Managing Integrity Constraints

■ tables that contain a large amount of data being manipulated by another

application, which may or may not return the data in the same order
■ update cascade operations on FOREIGN keys
When dealing with bulk data being manipulated by outside applications, you can
defer checking constraints for validity until the end of a transaction.

Ensure Constraints Are Created Deferrable After you have identified and selected the
appropriate tables, make sure the tables’ FOREIGN, UNIQUE and PRIMARY key
constraints are created deferrable. You can do so by issuing a statement similar to
the following:
CREATE TABLE dept (
deptno NUMBER PRIMARY KEY,
dname VARCHAR2 (30)
);
CREATE TABLE emp (
empno NUMBER,
ename VARCHAR2 (30),
deptno NUMBER REFERENCES (dept),
CONSTRAINT epk PRIMARY KEY (empno) DEFERRABLE,
CONSTRAINT efk FOREIGN KEY (deptno)
REFERENCES (dept. deptno) DEFERRABLE);
INSERT INTO dept VALUES (10, ’Accounting’);
INSERT INTO dept VALUES (20, ’SALES’);
INSERT INTO emp VALUES (1, ’Corleone’, 10);
INSERT INTO emp VALUES (2, ’Costanza’, 20);
COMMIT;

SET CONSTRAINT efk DEFERRED;

UPDATE dept SET deptno = deptno + 10
WHERE deptno = 20;

SELECT * from emp ORDER BY deptno;

EMPNO ENAME DEPTNO
----- -------------- -------
1 Corleone 10
2 Costanza 20
UPDATE emp SET deptno = deptno + 10
WHERE deptno = 20;
SELECT * FROM emp ORDER BY deptno;

EMPNO ENAME DEPTNO

----- -------------- -------
1 Corleone 10
2 Costanza 30
COMMIT;

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Managing Integrity Constraints

Set All Constraints Deferred Within the application being used to manipulate the data,
you must set all constraints deferred before you actually begin processing any data.
Use the following DML statement to set all deferrable constraints deferred:
SET CONSTRAINTS ALL DEFERRED;

Note: The SET CONSTRAINTS statement applies only to the

current transaction. The defaults specified when you create a
constraint remain as long as the constraint exists. The ALTER
SESSION SET CONSTRAINTS statement applies for the current
session only.

Check the Commit (Optional) You can check for constraint violations before committing
by issuing the SET CONSTRAINTS ALL IMMEDIATE statement just before issuing
the COMMIT. If there are any problems with a constraint, this statement will fail
and the constraint causing the error will be identified. If you commit while
constraints are violated, the transaction will be rolled back and you will receive an
error message.

Managing Constraints That Have Associated Indexes

When you create a UNIQUE or PRIMARY key, Oracle checks to see if an existing
index can be used to enforce uniqueness for the constraint. If there is no such index,
Oracle creates one.
When Oracle is using a unique index to enforce a constraint, and constraints
associated with the unique index are dropped or disabled, the index is dropped.
While enabled foreign keys reference a PRIMARY or UNIQUE key, you cannot
disable or drop the PRIMARY or UNIQUE key constraint or the index.

Note: Deferrable UNIQUE and PRIMARY keys all must use non-
unique indexes.

Setting Integrity Constraints Upon Definition

When an integrity constraint is defined in a CREATE TABLE or ALTER TABLE
statement, it can be enabled, disabled, or validated or not validated by including
one of the following clauses in the constraint definition:
■ ENABLE

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 Managing Integrity Constraints

■ DISABLE
■ ENABLE [VALIDATE]
■ DISABLE [NOVALIDATE]
■ ENABLE NOVALIDATE
■ DISABLE VALIDATE
If none of these clauses are identified in a constraint’s definition, Oracle
automatically enables and validates the constraint.

Disabling Constraints Upon Definition

The following CREATE TABLE and ALTER TABLE statements both define and
disable integrity constraints:
CREATE TABLE emp (
empno NUMBER(5) PRIMARY KEY DISABLE, . . . ;

ALTER TABLE emp

ADD PRIMARY KEY (empno) DISABLE;

An ALTER TABLE statement that defines and disables an integrity constraint never
fails because of rows of the table that violate the integrity constraint. The definition
of the constraint is allowed because its rule is not enforced.
See Also: For more information about constraint exceptions, see "Reporting
Constraint Exceptions" on page 20-21.

Enabling Constraints Upon Definition

The following CREATE TABLE and ALTER TABLE statements both define and
enable integrity constraints:
CREATE TABLE emp (
empno NUMBER(5) CONSTRAINT emp.pk PRIMARY KEY, . . . ;
ALTER TABLE emp
ADD CONSTRAINT emp.pk PRIMARY KEY (empno);

An ALTER TABLE statement that defines and attempts to enable an integrity

constraint may fail because rows of the table may violate the integrity constraint. In
this case, the statement is rolled back and the constraint definition is not stored and
not enabled.

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Managing Integrity Constraints

To enable a UNIQUE key or PRIMARY KEY, which creates an associated index, the
owner of the table also needs a quota for the tablespace intended to contain the
index, or the UNLIMITED TABLESPACE system privilege.

Modifying Existing Integrity Constraints

You can use the ALTER TABLE statement to enable, disable or modify a constraint.

Disabling Enabled Constraints

The following statements disable integrity constraints:
ALTER TABLE dept
DISABLE CONSTRAINT dname_ukey;
ALTER TABLE dept
DISABLE PRIMARY KEY,
DISABLE UNIQUE (dname, loc);

The following statements enable novalidate disabled integrity constraints:

ALTER TABLE dept
ENABLE NOVALIDATE CONSTRAINT dname_ukey;
ALTER TABLE dept
ENABLE NOVALIDATE PRIMARY KEY,
ENABLE NOVALIDATE UNIQUE (dname, loc);

The following statements enable or validate disabled integrity constraints:

ALTER TABLE dept
MODIFY CONSTRAINT dname_key VALIDATE;
ALTER TABLE dept
MODIFY PRIMARY KEY ENABLE NOVALIDATE;

The following statements enable disabled integrity constraints:

ALTER TABLE dept
ENABLE CONSTRAINT dname_ukey;
ALTER TABLE dept
ENABLE PRIMARY KEY,
ENABLE UNIQUE (dname, loc);

To disable or drop a UNIQUE key or PRIMARY KEY constraint and all dependent
FOREIGN KEY constraints in a single step, use the CASCADE option of the
DISABLE or DROP clauses. For example, the following statement disables a
PRIMARY KEY constraint and any FOREIGN KEY constraints that depend on it:
ALTER TABLE dept
DISABLE PRIMARY KEY CASCADE;

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 Managing Integrity Constraints

Dropping Integrity Constraints

You can drop an integrity constraint if the rule that it enforces is no longer true, or if
the constraint is no longer needed. You can drop the constraint using the ALTER
TABLE statement with the DROP clause. The following two statements drop
integrity constraints:
ALTER TABLE dept
DROP UNIQUE (dname, loc);
ALTER TABLE emp
DROP PRIMARY KEY,
DROP CONSTRAINT dept_fkey;

Dropping UNIQUE key and PRIMARY KEY constraints drops the associated
unique indexes. Also, if FOREIGN KEYs reference a UNIQUE or PRIMARY KEY,
you must include the CASCADE CONSTRAINTS clause in the DROP statement, or
you cannot drop the constraint.

Reporting Constraint Exceptions

If exceptions exist when a constraint is validated, an error is returned and the
integrity constraint remains novalidated. When a statement is not successfully
executed because integrity constraint exceptions exist, the statement is rolled back.
If exceptions exist, you cannot validate the constraint until all exceptions to the
constraint are either updated or deleted.
You cannot use the CREATE TABLE statement to determine which rows are in
violation. To determine which rows violate the integrity constraint, issue the ALTER
TABLE statement with the EXCEPTIONS option in the ENABLE clause. The
EXCEPTIONS option places the ROWID, table owner, table name, and constraint
name of all exception rows into a specified table.

Note: You must create an appropriate exceptions report table to

accept information from the EXCEPTIONS option of the ENABLE
clause before enabling the constraint. You can create an exception
table by submitting the script UTLEXCPT.SQL, which creates a
table named EXCEPTIONS. You can create additional exceptions
tables with different names by modifying and re-submitting the
script.

The following statement attempts to validate the PRIMARY KEY of the DEPT table,
and if exceptions exist, information is inserted into a table named EXCEPTIONS:

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Managing Integrity Constraints

ALTER TABLE dept ENABLE PRIMARY KEY EXCEPTIONS INTO exceptions;

If duplicate primary key values exist in the DEPT table and the name of the
PRIMARY KEY constraint on DEPT is SYS_C00610, the following rows might be
placed in the table EXCEPTIONS by the previous statement:

SELECT * FROM exceptions;

ROWID OWNER TABLE_NAME CONSTRAINT

------------------ --------- -------------- -----------
AAAAZ9AABAAABvqAAB SCOTT DEPT SYS_C00610
AAAAZ9AABAAABvqAAG SCOTT DEPT SYS_C00610

A more informative query would be to join the rows in an exception report table
and the master table to list the actual rows that violate a specific constraint, as
shown in the following example:
SELECT deptno, dname, loc FROM dept, exceptions
WHERE exceptions.constraint = ’SYS_C00610’
AND dept.rowid = exceptions.row_id;

DEPTNO DNAME LOC

---------- -------------- -----------
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
10 RESEARCH DALLAS

All rows that violate a constraint must be either updated or deleted from the table
containing the constraint. When updating exceptions, you must change the value
violating the constraint to a value consistent with the constraint or a null. After the
row in the master table is updated or deleted, the corresponding rows for the
exception in the exception report table should be deleted to avoid confusion with
later exception reports. The statements that update the master table and the
exception report table should be in the same transaction to ensure transaction
consistency.
To correct the exceptions in the previous examples, you might issue the following
transaction:
UPDATE dept SET deptno = 20 WHERE dname = ’RESEARCH’;
DELETE FROM exceptions WHERE constraint = ’SYS_C00610’;
COMMIT;

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 Managing Object Dependencies

When managing exceptions, the goal is to eliminate all exceptions in your exception
report table.

Note: While you are correcting current exceptions for a table with
the constraint disabled, other users may issue statements creating
new exceptions. You can avoid this by enable novalidating the
constraint before you start eliminating exceptions.

See Also: The exact name and location of the UTLEXCPT.SQL script is operating
system specific. For more information, see your operating system-specific Oracle
documentation.

Managing Object Dependencies

This section describes the various object dependencies, and includes the following
topics:
■ Manually Recompiling Views
■ Manually Recompiling Procedures and Functions
■ Manually Recompiling Packages
First, review Table 20–1, which shows how objects are affected by changes in other
objects on which they depend.

Table 20–1 Operations that Affect Object Status

Resulting Status
Resulting Status of Dependent
Operation of Object Objects
CREATE table, sequence, synonym VALID if there are No change1
no errors
ALTER table (ADD column MODIFY VALID if there no INVALID
column) errors
RENAME table, sequence, synonym,
view
DROP table, sequence, synonym, view, None; the object is INVALID
procedure, function, package dropped

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Managing Object Dependencies

Table 20–1 Operations that Affect Object Status (Cont.)

Resulting Status
Resulting Status of Dependent
Operation of Object Objects
CREATE view, procedure2 VALID if there are No change1
no errors;
INVALID if there
are syntax or
authorization
errors
CREATE OR REPLACE view or VALID if there are INVALID
procedure2 no error;
INVALID if there
are syntax or
authorization
errors
REVOKE object privilege3 ON No change All objects of user
objectTO/FROM user that depend on
object are
INVALID3
REVOKE object privilege3 ON object No change All objects in the
TO/FROM PUBLIC database that
depend on object
are INVALID3
REVOKE system privilege4 TO/FROM No change All objects of user
user are INVALID4
REVOKE system privilege4 TO/FROM No change All objects in the
PUBLIC database are
INVALID4
1 May cause dependent objects to be made INVALID, if object did not exist earlier.
2 Stand-alone procedures and functions, packages, and triggers.
3 Only DML object privileges, including SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, and
EXECUTE; revalidation does not require recompiling.
4 Only DML system privileges, including SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ANY
TABLE, and EXECUTE ANY PROCEDURE; revalidation does not require recompiling.

Oracle automatically recompiles an invalid view or PL/SQL program unit the next
time it is used. In addition, a user can force Oracle to recompile a view or program
unit using the appropriate SQL command with the COMPILE parameter. Forced
compilations are most often used to test for errors when a dependent view or
program unit is invalid, but is not currently being used. In these cases, automatic
recompilation would not otherwise occur until the view or program unit was

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 Managing Object Name Resolution

executed. To identify invalid dependent objects, query the views USER_/ALL_/

DBA_OBJECTS.

Manually Recompiling Views

To recompile a view manually, you must have the ALTER ANY TABLE system
privilege or the view must be contained in your schema. Use the ALTER VIEW
command with the COMPILE parameter to recompile a view. The following
statement recompiles the view EMP_DEPT contained in your schema:
ALTER VIEW emp_dept COMPILE;

Manually Recompiling Procedures and Functions

To recompile a stand-alone procedure manually, you must have the ALTER ANY
PROCEDURE system privilege or the procedure must be contained in your schema.
Use the ALTER PROCEDURE/FUNCTION statement with the COMPILE
parameter to recompile a stand-alone procedure or function. The following
statement recompiles the stored procedure UPDATE_SALARY contained in your
schema:
ALTER PROCEDURE update_salary COMPILE;

Manually Recompiling Packages

To recompile a package manually, you must have the ALTER ANY PROCEDURE
system privilege or the package must be contained in your schema. Use the ALTER
PACKAGE statement with the COMPILE parameter to recompile either a package
body or both a package specification and body. The following statements recompile
just the body, and the body and specification of the package ACCT_MGMT,
respectively:
ALTER PACKAGE acct_mgmt COMPILE BODY;
ALTER PACKAGE acct_mgmt COMPILE PACKAGE;

Managing Object Name Resolution

This section describes how Oracle resolves an object name.
1. First. Oracle attempts to qualify the first piece of the name referenced in the
SQL statement. For example, in SCOTT.EMP, SCOTT is the first piece. If there is
only one piece, the one piece is considered the first piece.

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Changing Storage Parameters for the Data Dictionary

a. In the current schema, Oracle searches for an object whose name matches
the first piece of the object name. If it does not find such an object, it
continues with Step b.
b. If no schema object is found in the current schema, Oracle searches for a
public synonym that matches the first piece of the name. If it does not find
one, it continues with Step c.
c. If no public synonym is found, Oracle searches for a schema whose name
matches the first piece of the object name. If it finds one, it returns to Step b,
now using the second piece of the name as the object to find in the qualified
schema. If the second piece does not correspond to a object in the
previously qualified schema or there is not a second piece, Oracle returns
an error.
If no schema is found in Step c, the object cannot be qualified and Oracle
returns an error.
2. A schema object has been qualified. Any remaining pieces of the name must
match a valid part of the found object. For example, if SCOTT.EMP.DEPTNO is
the name, SCOTT is qualified as a schema, EMP is qualified as a table, and
DEPTNO must correspond to a column (because EMP is a table). If EMP is
qualified as a package, DEPTNO must correspond to a public constant,
variable, procedure, or function of that package.
When global object names are used in a distributed database, either explicitly or
indirectly within a synonym, the local Oracle resolves the reference locally. For
example, it resolves a synonym to a remote table’s global object name. The partially
resolved statement is shipped to the remote database, and the remote Oracle
completes the resolution of the object as described here.

Changing Storage Parameters for the Data Dictionary

This section describes aspects of changing data dictionary storage parameters, and
includes the following topics:
■ Structures in the Data Dictionary
■ Errors that Require Changing Data Dictionary Storage
If your database is very large or contains an unusually large number of objects,
columns in tables, constraint definitions, users, or other definitions, the tables that
make up the data dictionary might at some point be unable to acquire additional
extents. For example, a data dictionary table may need an additional extent, but
there is not enough contiguous space in the SYSTEM tablespace. If this happens,

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 Changing Storage Parameters for the Data Dictionary

you cannot create new objects, even though the tablespace intended to hold the
objects seems to have sufficient space. To remedy this situation, you can change the
storage parameters of the underlying data dictionary tables to allow them to be
allocated more extents, in the same way that you can change the storage settings for
user-created segments. For example, you can adjust the values of NEXT or
PCTINCREASE for the data dictionary table.

WARNING: Exercise caution when changing the storage settings

for the data dictionary objects. If you choose inappropriate
settings, you could damage the structure of the data dictionary
and be forced to re-create your entire database. For example, if
you set PCTINCREASE for the data dictionary table USER$ to 0
and NEXT to 2K, that table will quickly reach the maximum
number of extents for a segment, and you will not be able to
create any more users or roles without exporting, re-creating, and
importing the entire database.

Structures in the Data Dictionary

The following tables and clusters contain the definitions of all the user-created
objects in the database:

SEG$ segments defined in the database (including

temporary segments)

OBJ$ user-defined objects in the database (including

clustered tables); indexed by I_OBJ1 and I_OBJ2

UNDO$ rollback segments defined in the database; indexed

by I_UNDO1

FET$ available free extents not allocated to any segment

UET$ extents allocated to segments

TS$ tablespaces defined in the database

FILE$ files that make up the database; indexed by I_FILE1

FILEXT$ datafiles with the AUTOEXTEND option set on

TAB$ tables defined in the database (includes clustered

tables); indexed by I_TAB1

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Changing Storage Parameters for the Data Dictionary

CLU$ clusters defined in the database

IND$ indexes defined in the database; indexed by I_IND1

ICOL$ columns that have indexes defined on them

(includes individual entries for each column in a
composite index); indexed by I_ICOL1

COL$ columns defined in tables in the database; indexed

by I_COL1 and I_COL2

CON$ constraints defined in the database (includes

information on constraint owner); indexed by
I_CON1 and I_CON2

CDEF$ definitions of constraints in CON$; indexed by

I_CDEF1, I_CDEF2, and I_CDEF3

CCOL$ columns that have constraints defined on them

(includes individual entries for each column in a
composite key); indexed by I_CCOL1

USER$ users and roles defined in the database; indexed by

I_USER1

TSQ$ tablespace quotas for users (contains one entry for

each tablespace quota defined for each user)

C_OBJ# cluster containing TAB$, CLU$, ICOL$, IND$, and

COL$: indexed by I_OBJ#

C_TS# cluster containing FET$, TS$, and FILE$; indexed by

I_TS#

C_USER# cluster containing USER and TSQ$$; indexed by

I_USER#

C_COBJ# cluster containing CDEF$ and CCOL$; indexed by

I_COBJ#

Of all of the data dictionary segments, the following are the most likely to require
change:

C_TS# if the free space in your database is very fragmented

C_OBJ# if you have many indexes or many columns in your

tables

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 Displaying Information About Schema Objects

CON$, C_COBJ# if you use integrity constraints heavily

C_USER# If you have a large number of users defined in your

database

For the clustered tables, you must change the storage settings for the cluster, not for
the table.

Errors that Require Changing Data Dictionary Storage

Oracle returns an error if a user tries to create a new object that requires Oracle to
allocate an additional extent to the data dictionary when it is unable to allocate an
extent. The error message ORA-1653, "failed to allocate extent of size num in
tablespace ’name’" indicates this kind of problem.
If you receive this error message and the segment you were trying to change (such
as a table or rollback segment) has not reached the limits specified for it in its
definition, check the storage settings for the object that contains its definition.
For example, if you received an ORA-1547 while trying to define a new PRIMARY
KEY constraint on a table and there is sufficient space for the index that Oracle must
create for the key, check if CON$ or C_COBJ# cannot be allocated another extent; to
do this, query DBA_SEGMENTS and consider changing the storage parameters for
CON$ or C_COBJ#.
See Also: For more information, see "Example 7: Displaying Segments that Cannot
Allocate Additional Extents" on page 20-33.

Displaying Information About Schema Objects

The data dictionary provides many views about the schema objects described in this
book. The following list summarizes the views associated with schema objects:
■ ALL_OBJECTS, USER_OBJECTS, DBA_OBJECTS
■ ALL_CATALOG, USER_CATALOG, DBA_CATALOG
■ ALL_TABLES, USER_TABLES, DBA_TABLES
■ ALL_TAB_COLUMNS, USER_TAB_COLUMNS, DBA_TAB_COLUMNS
■ ALL_TAB_COMMENTS, USER_TAB_COMMENTS
■ ALL_COL_COMMENTS, USER_COL_COMMENTS, DBA_COL_COMMENTS
■ ALL_VIEWS, USER_VIEWS, DBA_VIEWS

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Displaying Information About Schema Objects

■ ALL_INDEXES, USER_INDEXES, DBA_INDEXES

■ ALL_IND_COLUMNS, USER_IND_COLUMNS, DBA_IND_COLUMNS
■ USER_CLUSTERS, DBA_CLUSTERS
■ USER_CLU_COLUMNS, DBA_CLU_COLUMNS
■ ALL_SEQUENCES, USER_SEQUENCES, DBA_SEQUENCES
■ ALL_SYNONYMS, USER_SYNONYMS, DBA_SYNONYMS
■ ALL_DEPENDENCIES, USER_DEPENDENCIES, DBA_DEPENDENCIES
The following data dictionary views contain information about the segments of a
database:
■ USER_SEGMENTS
■ DBA_SEGMENTS
The following data dictionary views contain information about a database’s extents:
■ USER_EXTENTS
■ DBA_EXTENTS
■ USER_FREE_SPACE
■ DBA_FREE_SPACE

Oracle Dictionary Storage Packages

Table 20–2 describes packages that are supplied with Oracle to either allow PL/SQL
access to some SQL features, or to extend the functionality of the database.

Table 20–2 Supplied Packages: Additional Functionality

Procedure Description
dbms_space.unused_space Returns information about unused space in an
object (table, index, or cluster).
dbms_space.free_blocks Returns information about free blocks in an
object (table, index, or cluster).
dbms_session.free_unused_ Procedure for reclaiming unused memory after
user_memory performing operations requiring large amounts
of memory (where large>100K). This procedure
should only be used in cases where memory is at
a premium.

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 Displaying Information About Schema Objects

The following examples demonstrate ways to display miscellaneous schema objects.

Example 1: Displaying Schema Objects By Type

The following query lists all of the objects owned by the user issuing the query:
SELECT object_name, object_type FROM user_objects;

OBJECT_NAME OBJECT_TYPE
------------------------- -------------------
EMP_DEPT CLUSTER
EMP TABLE
DEPT TABLE
EMP_DEPT_INDEX INDEX
PUBLIC_EMP SYNONYM
EMP_MGR VIEW

Example 2: Displaying Column Information

Column information, such as name, datatype, length, precision, scale, and default
data values can be listed using one of the views ending with the _COLUMNS suffix.
For example, the following query lists all of the default column values for the EMP
and DEPT tables:
SELECT table_name, column_name, data_default
FROM user_tab_columns
WHERE table_name = ’DEPT’ OR table_name = ’EMP’;

TABLE_NAME COLUMN_NAME DATA_DEFAULT

---------- ------------- --------------------
DEPT DEPTNO
DEPT DNAME
DEPT LOC ’NEW YORK’
EMP EMPNO
EMP ENAME
EMP JOB
EMP MGR
EMP HIREDATE SYSDATE
EMP SAL
EMP COMM
EMP DEPTNO

Notice that not all columns have user-specified defaults. These columns
automatically have NULL as the default.

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Displaying Information About Schema Objects

Example 3: Displaying Dependencies of Views and Synonyms

When you create a view or a synonym, the view or synonym is based on its
underlying base object. The ALL/USER/DBA_DEPENDENCIES data dictionary
views can be used to reveal the dependencies for a view and the ALL/USER/
DBA_SYNONYMS data dictionary views can be used to list the base object of a
synonym. For example, the following query lists the base objects for the synonyms
created by the user JWARD:
SELECT table_owner, table_name, synonym_name
FROM sys.dba_synonyms
WHERE owner = ’JWARD’;

TABLE_OWNER TABLE_NAME SYNONYM_NAME

---------------------- ----------- -----------------
SCOTT DEPT DEPT
SCOTT EMP EMP

Example 4: Displaying General Segment Information

The following query returns the name of each rollback segment, the tablespace that
contains each, and the size of each rollback segment:
SELECT segment_name, tablespace_name, bytes, blocks, extents
FROM sys.dba_segments
WHERE segment_type = ’ROLLBACK’;

SEGMENT_NAME TABLESPACE_NAME BYTES BLOCKS EXTENTS

------------ --------------- --------- ------- ---------
RS1 SYSTEM 20480 10 2
RS2 TS1 40960 20 3
SYSTEM SYSTEM 184320 90 3

Example 5: Displaying General Extent Information

General information about the currently allocated extents in a database is stored in
the DBA_EXTENTS data dictionary view. For example, the following query
identifies the extents associated with rollback segments and the size of each of those
extents:
SELECT segment_name, bytes, blocks
FROM sys.dba_extents
WHERE segment_type = ’ROLLBACK’;

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 Displaying Information About Schema Objects

SEGMENT_NAME BYTES BLOCKS

--------------- --------- --------
RS1 10240 5
RS1 10240 5
SYSTEM 51200 25
SYSTEM 51200 25
SYSTEM 51200 25

Notice that the RS1 rollback segment is comprised of two extents, both 10K, while
the SYSTEM rollback segment is comprised of three equally sized extents of 50K.

Example 6: Displaying the Free Space (Extents) of a Database

Information about the free extents (extents not allocated to any segment) in a
database is stored in the DBA_FREE_SPACE data dictionary view. For example, the
following query reveals the amount of free space available via free extents in each
tablespace:
SELECT tablespace_name, file_id, bytes, blocks
FROM sys.dba_free_space;

TABLESPACE_NAME FILE_ID BYTES BLOCKS

------------------- --------- -------- ----------
SYSTEM 1 8120320 3965
SYSTEM 1 10240 5
TS1 2 10432512 5094

Example 7: Displaying Segments that Cannot Allocate Additional Extents

You can also use DBA_FREE_SPACE, in combination with the views
DBA_SEGMENTS, DBA_TABLES, DBA_CLUSTERS, DBA_INDEXES, and
DBA_ROLLBACK_SEGS, to determine if any other segment is unable to allocate
additional extents for data dictionary objects only.
A segment may not be allocated to an extent for any of the following reasons:
■ The tablespace containing the segment does not have enough room for the next
extent.
■ The segment has the maximum number of extents, as recorded in the data
dictionary (in SEG.MAX_EXTENTS).

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Displaying Information About Schema Objects

■ The segment has the maximum number of extents allowed by the data block
size, which is operating system specific.

Note: While the STORAGE clause value for MAXEXTENTS can

be UNLIMITED, data dictionary tables cannot have MAXEXTENTS
greater than the allowed block maximum. Thus, data dictionary
tables cannot be converted to unlimited format.

The following query returns the names, owners, and tablespaces of all segments
that fit any of the above criteria:
SELECT seg.owner, seg.segment_name,
seg.segment_type, seg.tablespace_name,
DECODE(seg.segment_type,
’TABLE’, t.next_extent,
’CLUSTER’, c.next_extent,
’INDEX’, i.next_extent,
’ROLLBACK’, r.next_extent)
FROM sys.dba_segments seg,
sys.dba_tables t,
sys.dba_clusters c,
sys.dba_indexes i,
sys.dba_rollback_segs r

WHERE ((seg.segment_type = ’TABLE’

AND seg.segment_name = t.table_name
AND seg.owner = t.owner
AND NOT EXISTS (SELECT tablespace_name
FROM dba_free_space free
WHERE free.tablespace_name = t.tablespace_name
AND free.bytes >= t.next_extent))
OR (seg.segment_type = ’CLUSTER’
AND seg.segment_name = c.cluster_name
AND seg.owner = c.owner
AND NOT EXISTS (SELECT tablespace_name
FROM dba_free_space free
WHERE free.tablespace_name = c.tablespace_name
AND free.bytes >= c.next_extent))
OR (seg.segment_type = ’INDEX’
AND seg.segment_name = i.index_name
AND seg.owner = i.owner
AND NOT EXISTS (SELECT tablespace_name
FROM dba_free_space free
WHERE free.tablespace_name = i.tablespace_name
AND free.bytes >= i.next_extent))
OR (seg.segment_type = ’ROLLBACK’
AND seg.segment_name = r.segment_name

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 Displaying Information About Schema Objects

AND seg.owner = r.owner

AND NOT EXISTS (SELECT tablespace_name
FROM dba_free_space free
WHERE free.tablespace_name = r.tablespace_name
AND free.bytes >= r.next_extent)))
OR seg.extents = seg.max_extents OR seg.extents = data_block_size;

Note: When you use this query, replace data_block_size with the
data block size for your system.

Once you have identified a segment that cannot allocate additional extents, you can
solve the problem in either of two ways, depending on its cause:
■ If the tablespace is full, add datafiles to the tablespace.
■ If the segment has too many extents, and you cannot increase MAXEXTENTS
for the segment, perform the following steps: first, export the data in the
segment; second, drop and re-create the segment, giving it a larger INITIAL
setting so that it does not need to allocate so many extents; and third, import
the data back into the segment.

General Management of Schema Objects 20-35

Displaying Information About Schema Objects

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 21
Managing Rollback Segments

This chapter describes how to manage rollback segments, and includes the
following topics:
■ Guidelines for Managing Rollback Segments
■ Creating Rollback Segments
■ Specifying Storage Parameters for Rollback Segments
■ Taking Rollback Segments Online and Offline
■ Explicitly Assigning a Transaction to a Rollback Segment
■ Dropping Rollback Segments
■ Monitoring Rollback Segment Information
See Also: If you are using Oracle with the Parallel Server option, see Oracle8i
Parallel Server Concepts and Administration.

Managing Rollback Segments 21-1

Guidelines for Managing Rollback Segments

Guidelines for Managing Rollback Segments

This section describes guidelines to consider before creating or managing the
rollback segments of your databases, and includes the following topics:
■ Use Multiple Rollback Segments
■ Choose Between Public and Private Rollback Segments
■ Specify Rollback Segments to Acquire Automatically
■ Set Rollback Segment Sizes Appropriately
■ Create Rollback Segments with Many Equally Sized Extents
■ Set an Optimal Number of Extents for Each Rollback Segment
■ Set the Storage Location for Rollback
Every database contains one or more rollback segments, which are portions of the
database that record the actions of transactions in the event that a transaction is
rolled back. You use rollback segments to provide read consistency, roll back
transactions, and recover the database.
See Also: For more information about rollback segments, see Oracle8i Concepts.

Use Multiple Rollback Segments

Using multiple rollback segments distributes rollback segment contention across
many segments and improves system performance. Multiple rollback segments are
required in the following situations:
■ When a database is created, a single rollback segment named SYSTEM is
created in the SYSTEM tablespace. You can create any objects in non-SYSTEM
tablespaces, but you cannot write to them until you have created and brought
online at least one additional rollback segment in a non- SYSTEM tablespace
(for non-SYSTEM objects).
■ When many transactions are concurrently proceeding, more rollback
information is generated at the same time. You can indicate the number of
concurrent transactions you expect for the instance with the parameter
TRANSACTIONS, and the number of transactions you expect each rollback
segment to have to handle with the parameter
TRANSACTIONS_PER_ROLLBACK_SEGMENT. Then, when an instance
opens a database, it attempts to acquire at least TRANSACTIONS/
TRANSACTIONS_PER_ROLLBACK_SEGMENT rollback segments to handle
the maximum amount of transactions. Therefore, after setting the parameters,

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 Guidelines for Managing Rollback Segments

create TRANSACTIONS/TRANSACTIONS_PER_ROLLBACK_ SEGMENT

rollback segments.
See Also: In order to start instances in an Oracle Parallel Server environment, you
must give each instance access to its own rollback segment, in addition to the
SYSTEM rollback segment. For additional details, see Oracle8i Parallel Server
Concepts and Administration.

Add a Rollback Segment to the SYSTEM Tablespace

An instance always acquires the SYSTEM rollback segment in addition to any other
rollback segments it needs. However, if there are multiple rollback segments, Oracle
tries to use the SYSTEM rollback segment only for special system transactions and
distributes user transactions among other rollback segments. If there are too many
transactions for the non-SYSTEM rollback segments, Oracle uses the SYSTEM
segment.

Choose Between Public and Private Rollback Segments

A private rollback segment is acquired explicitly by an instance when the instance
opens the database. Public rollback segments form a pool of rollback segments that
any instance requiring a rollback segment can use.
If a database does not have the Parallel Server option, public and private rollback
segments are identical. Therefore, you can create all public rollback segments. A
database with the Parallel Server option can also have only public segments, as long
as the number of segments is high enough that each instance opening the database
can acquire at least one rollback segment in addition to its SYSTEM rollback
segment. You may also use private rollback segments when using the Oracle
Parallel Server.
See Also: For more information about the Parallel Server option and rollback
segments, see Oracle8i Parallel Server Concepts and Administration.
For more information about public and private rollback segments, see Oracle8i
Concepts.

Specify Rollback Segments to Acquire Automatically

When an instance starts, it acquires by default TRANSACTIONS/
TRANSACTIONS_PER_ROLLBACK_SEGMENT rollback segments. If you want to
ensure that the instance acquires particular rollback segments that have particular
sizes or particular tablespaces, specify the rollback segments by name in the
ROLLBACK_SEGMENTS parameter in the instance’s parameter file.

Managing Rollback Segments 21-3

Guidelines for Managing Rollback Segments

The instance acquires all the rollback segments listed in this parameter, even if more
than TRANSACTIONS/TRANSACTIONS_PER_ROLLBACK_SEGMENT segments
are specified. The rollback segments can be either private or public.

Set Rollback Segment Sizes Appropriately

Total rollback segment size should be set based on the size of the most common
transactions issued against a database. In general, short transactions experience
better performance when the database has many smaller rollback segments, while
long-running transactions, like batch jobs, perform better with larger rollback
segments. Generally, rollback segments can handle transactions of any size easily;
however, in extreme cases when a transaction is either very short or very long, a
user might want to use an appropriately sized rollback segment.
If a system is running only short transactions, rollback segments should be small so
that they are always cached in main memory. If the rollback segments are small
enough, they are more likely to be cached in the SGA according to the LRU
algorithm, and database performance is improved because less disk I/O is
necessary. The main disadvantage of small rollback segments is the increased
likelihood of the error "snapshot too old" when running a long query involving
records that are frequently updated by other transactions. This error occurs because
the rollback entries needed for read consistency are overwritten as other update
entries wrap around the rollback segment. Consider this issue when designing an
application’s transactions, and make them short atomic units of work so that you
can avoid this problem.
In contrast, long-running transactions work better with larger rollback segments,
because the rollback entries for a long-running transaction can fit in preallocated
extents of a large rollback segment.
When database systems applications concurrently issue a mix of very short and
very long transactions, performance can be optimized if transactions are explicitly
assigned to a rollback segment based on the transaction/rollback segment size. You
can minimize dynamic extent allocation and truncation for rollback segments. This
is not required for most systems and is intended for extremely large or small
transactions.
To optimize performance when issuing a mix of extremely small and large
transactions, make a number of rollback segments of appropriate size for each type
of transaction (such as small, medium, and large). Most rollback segments should
correspond to the typical transactions, with a fewer number of rollback segments
for the atypical transactions. Then set OPTIMAL for each such rollback segment so
that the rollback segment returns to its intended size if it has to grow.

21-4 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Guidelines for Managing Rollback Segments

You should tell users about the different sets of rollback segments that correspond
to the different types of transactions. Often, it is not beneficial to assign a transaction
explicitly to a specific rollback segment; however, you can assign an atypical
transaction to an appropriate rollback segment created for such transactions. For
example, you can assign a transaction that contains a large batch job to a large
rollback segment.
When a mix of transactions is not prevalent, each rollback segment should be 10%
of the size of the database’s largest table because most SQL statements affect 10% or
less of a table; therefore, a rollback segment of this size should be sufficient to store
the actions performed by most SQL statements.
Generally speaking, you should set a high MAXEXTENTS for rollback segments;
this allows a rollback segment to allocate subsequent extents as it needs them.

Create Rollback Segments with Many Equally Sized Extents

Each rollback segment’s total allocated space should be divided among many
equally sized extents. In general, optimal rollback I/O performance is observed if
each rollback segment for an instance has 10 to 20 equally sized extents.
After determining the desired total initial size of a rollback segment and the number
of initial extents for the segment, use the following formula to calculate the size of
each extent of the rollback segment:
T / n = s

where:
T = total initial rollback segment size, in bytes
n = number of extents initially allocate
s = calculated size, in bytes, of each extent initially allocated
After s is calculated, create the rollback segment and specify the storage parameters
INITIAL and NEXT as s, and MINEXTENTS to n. PCTINCREASE cannot be
specified for rollback segments and therefore defaults to 0. Also, if the size s of an
extent is not an exact multiple of the data block size, it is rounded up to the next
multiple.

Set an Optimal Number of Extents for Each Rollback Segment

You should carefully assess the kind of transactions the system runs when setting
the OPTIMAL parameter for each rollback segment. For a system that executes

Managing Rollback Segments 21-5

Guidelines for Managing Rollback Segments

long-running transactions frequently, OPTIMAL should be large so that Oracle does

not have to shrink and allocate extents frequently. Also, for a system that executes
long queries on active data, OPTIMAL should be large to avoid "snapshot too old"
errors. OPTIMAL should be smaller for a system that mainly executes short
transactions and queries so that the rollback segments remain small enough to be
cached in memory, thus improving system performance.
To obtain estimates and monitor the effectiveness of the OPTIMAL settings for
rollback segments, use the MONITOR ROLLBACK statement. The following
statistics are given for each rollback segment:

Size, High Water the most space ever allocated for the rollback
segment, in bytes
Size, Optimal the OPTIMAL size of the rollback segment, in
bytes

Occurrences, Wraps the cumulative number of times a transaction

continues writing from one extent in a rollback
segment to another existing extent

Occurrences, Extends the cumulative number of times a new extent is

allocated for a rollback segment

Shrinks the cumulative number of times Oracle has

truncated extents from the rollback segment

Average Size, Shrunk the average size of the space Oracle truncated
from the rollback segment, in bytes

Average Size, Active the average number of bytes in active extents in

the rollback segment, measured over time

Assuming that an instance has equally sized rollback segments with comparably
sized extents, the OPTIMAL parameter for a given rollback segment should be set

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 Creating Rollback Segments

slightly higher than Average Sizes, Active. Table 21–1 provides additional
information on how to interpret the statistics given in this monitor.

Table 21–1 Analyzing the Effectiveness of Current OPTIMAL Settings

Average Sizes,
Shrinks Shrunk Analysis and Recommendation
Low Low If Average Sizes, active is close to Sizes,
Optimal, then the OPTIMAL setting is
correct. Otherwise, OPTIMAL is too large
(not many shrinks are being performed.)
Low High Excellent: a good setting for OPTIMAL.
High Low OPTIMAL is too small: too many shrinks
are being performed.
High High Periodic long transactions are probably
causing these statistics. Set the OPTIMAL
parameter higher until Shrinks is low.

Set the Storage Location for Rollback

If possible, create one tablespace specifically to hold all rollback segments. This way,
all rollback segment data is stored separately from other types of data. Creating this
"rollback segment" tablespace can provide the following benefits:
■ A tablespace holding rollback segments can always be kept online, thus
maximizing the combined storage capacity of rollback segments at all times.
Note that if some rollback segments are not available, the overall database
operation can be affected.
■ Because tablespaces with active rollback segments cannot be taken offline,
designating a tablespace to hold all rollback segments of a database ensures that
the data stored in other tablespaces can be taken offline without concern for the
database’s rollback segments.
■ A tablespace’s free extents are likely to be more fragmented if the tablespace
contains rollback segments that frequently allocate and deallocate extents.

Creating Rollback Segments

To create rollback segments, you must have the CREATE ROLLBACK SEGMENT
system privilege. To create additional rollback segments for a database, use the SQL

Managing Rollback Segments 21-7

Specifying Storage Parameters for Rollback Segments

statement CREATE ROLLBACK SEGMENT. The tablespace to contain the new

rollback segment must be online.
The following statement creates a public rollback segment named USERS_RS in the
USERS tablespace, using the default storage parameters of the USERS tablespace:
CREATE PUBLIC ROLLBACK SEGMENT users_rs TABLESPACE users;

Bringing New Rollback Segments Online

If you create a private rollback segment, you should add the name of this new
rollback segment to the ROLLBACK_SEGMENTS parameter in the parameter file
for the database. Doing so enables the private rollback segment to be captured by
the instance at instance start up. For example, if two new private rollback segments
are created and named RS1 and RS2, the ROLLBACK_SEGMENTS parameter of the
parameter file should be similar to the following:
ROLLBACK SEGMENTS= (RS1, RS2)

See Also: Once a rollback segment is created, it is not available for use by
transactions of any instance until it is brought online. See "Taking Rollback
Segments Online and Offline" on page 21-10 for more information.

Specifying Storage Parameters for Rollback Segments

This section describes aspects of specifying rollback segment storage parameters,
and includes the following topics:
■ Setting Storage Parameters When Creating a Rollback Segment
■ Changing Rollback Segment Storage Parameters
■ Altering Rollback Segment Format
■ Shrinking a Rollback Segment Manually

Setting Storage Parameters When Creating a Rollback Segment

Suppose you wanted to create a public rollback segment DATA1_RS with storage
parameters and optimal size set as follows:
■ The rollback segment is allocated an initial extent of 50K.
■ The rollback segment is allocated the second extent of 50K.
■ The optimal size of the rollback segment is 750K.

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 Specifying Storage Parameters for Rollback Segments

■ The minimum number of extents and the number of extents initially allocated
when the segment is created is 15.
■ The maximum number of extents that the rollback segment can allocate,
including the initial extent, is 100.
The following statement creates a rollback segment with these characteristics:
CREATE PUBLIC ROLLBACK SEGMENT data1_rs
TABLESPACE users
STORAGE (
INITIAL 50K
NEXT 50K
OPTIMAL 750K
MINEXTENTS 15
MAXEXTENTS 100);

Changing Rollback Segment Storage Parameters

You can change a rollback segment’s storage parameters after creating it. However,
you cannot alter the size of any extent currently allocated to a rollback segment. You
can only affect future extents.
Alter a rollback segment’s storage parameters using the SQL statement ALTER
ROLLBACK SEGMENT.
The following statement alters the maximum number of extents that the DATA1_RS
rollback segment can allocate.
ALTER PUBLIC ROLLBACK SEGMENT data1_rs
STORAGE (MAXEXTENTS 120);

You can alter the settings for the SYSTEM rollback segment, including the
OPTIMAL parameter, just as you can alter those of any rollback segment.
See Also: For guidance on setting sizes and storage parameters (including
OPTIMAL) for rollback segments, see "Guidelines for Managing Rollback
Segments" on page 21-2.

Altering Rollback Segment Format

To alter rollback segments, you must have the ALTER ROLLBACK SEGMENT
system privilege.
You can define limited or unlimited format for rollback segments. When converting
to limited or unlimited format, you must take the rollback segments offline. If you

Managing Rollback Segments 21-9

Taking Rollback Segments Online and Offline

identify unlimited format for rollback segments, extents for that segment must have
a minimum of 4 data blocks. Thus, a limited format rollback segment cannot be
converted to unlimited format if it has less than 4 data blocks in any extent. If you
want to convert from limited to unlimited format and have less than 4 data blocks
in an extent, your only choice is to drop and re-create the rollback segment.

Shrinking a Rollback Segment Manually

To shrink a rollback segment you must have the ALTER ROLLBACK SEGMENT
system privilege.
You can manually decrease the size of a rollback segment using the SQL statement
ALTER ROLLBACK SEGMENT. The rollback segment you are trying shrink must
be online.
The following statement shrinks rollback segment RBS1 to 100K:
ALTER ROLLBACK SEGMENT rbs1 SHRINK TO 100K;

See Also: For a complete description of the ALTER ROLLBACK SEGMENT

statement, see the Oracle8i SQL Reference.

Taking Rollback Segments Online and Offline

This section describes aspects of taking rollback segments online and offline, and
includes the following topics:
■ Bringing Rollback Segments Online
■ Taking Rollback Segments Offline
A rollback segment is either online and available to transactions, or offline and
unavailable to transactions. Generally, rollback segments are online and available
for use by transactions.
You may wish to take online rollback segments offline in the following situations:
■ When you want to take a tablespace offline, and the tablespace contains
rollback segments. You cannot take a tablespace offline if it contains rollback
segments that transactions are currently using. To prevent associated rollback
segments from being used, you can take them offline before taking the
tablespace offline.

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 Taking Rollback Segments Online and Offline

■ You want to drop a rollback segment, but cannot because transactions are
currently using it. To prevent the rollback segment from being used, you can
take it offline before dropping it.

Note: You cannot take the SYSTEM rollback segment offline.

You might later want to bring an offline rollback segment back online so that
transactions can use it. When a rollback segment is created, it is initially offline, and
you must explicitly bring a newly created rollback segment online before it can be
used by an instance’s transactions. You can bring an offline rollback segment online
via any instance accessing the database that contains the rollback segment.

Bringing Rollback Segments Online

You can bring online only a rollback segment whose current status (as shown in the
DBA_ROLLBACK_SEGS data dictionary view) is OFFLINE or PARTLY
AVAILABLE. To bring an offline rollback segment online, use the SQL statement
ALTER ROLLBACK SEGMENT with the ONLINE option.

Bringing a PARTLY AVAILABLE Rollback Segment Online

A rollback segment in the PARTLY AVAILABLE state contains data for an in-doubt
or recovered distributed transaction, and yet to be recovered transactions. You can
view its status in the data dictionary view DBA_ROLLBACK_SEGS as PARTLY
AVAILABLE. The rollback segment usually remains in this state until the
transaction is resolved either automatically by RECO, or manually by a DBA.
However, you might find that all rollback segments are PARTLY AVAILABLE. In
this case, you can bring a PARTLY AVAILABLE segment online, as described above.
Some resources used by the rollback segment for the in-doubt transaction remain
inaccessible until the transaction is resolved. As a result, the rollback segment may
have to grow if other transactions assigned to it need additional space.
As an alternative to bringing a PARTLY AVAILABLE segment online, you might
find it easier to create a new rollback segment temporarily, until the in-doubt
transaction is resolved.

Bringing Rollback Segment Online Automatically

If you would like a rollback segment to be automatically brought online whenever
you start up the database, add the segment’s name to the ROLLBACK_SEGMENTS
parameter in the database’s parameter file.

Managing Rollback Segments 21-11

Taking Rollback Segments Online and Offline

Bringing Rollback Segments Online: Example

The following statement brings the rollback segment USER_RS_2 online:
ALTER ROLLBACK SEGMENT user_rs_2 ONLINE;

After you bring a rollback segment online, its status in the data dictionary view
DBA_ROLLBACK_SEGS is ONLINE.
See Also: For information about the ROLLBACK_SEGMENTS and
DBA_ROLLBACK_SEGS parameters, see the Oracle8i Reference.
To see a query for checking rollback segment state, see "Displaying Rollback
Segment Information" on page 21-14.

Taking Rollback Segments Offline

To take an online rollback segment offline, use the ALTER ROLLBACK SEGMENT
command with the OFFLINE option. The rollback segment’s status in the
DBA_ROLLBACK_SEGS data dictionary view must be "ONLINE", and the rollback
segment must be acquired by the current instance.
The following example takes the rollback segment USER_RS_2 offline:
ALTER ROLLBACK SEGMENT user_rs_2 OFFLINE;

If you try to take a rollback segment that does not contain active rollback entries
offline, Oracle immediately takes the segment offline and changes its status to
"OFFLINE".
In contrast, if you try to take a rollback segment that contains rollback data for
active transactions (local, remote, or distributed) offline, Oracle makes the rollback
segment unavailable to future transactions and takes it offline after all the active
transactions using the rollback segment complete. Until the transactions complete,
the rollback segment cannot be brought online by any instance other than the one
that was trying to take it offline. During this period, the rollback segment’s status in
the view DBA_ROLLBACK_SEGS remains ONLINE; however, the rollback
segment’s status in the view V$ROLLSTAT is PENDING OFFLINE.
The instance that tried to take a rollback segment offline and caused it to change to
PENDING OFFLINE can bring it back online at any time; if the rollback segment is
brought back online, it will function normally.

Taking Public and Private Rollback Segments Offline

After you take a public or private rollback segment offline, it remains offline until
you explicitly bring it back online or you restart the instance.

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 Dropping Rollback Segments

See Also: For information on viewing rollback segment status, see "Displaying
Rollback Segment Information" on page 21-14.
For information about the views DBA_ROLLBACK_SEGS and V$ROLLSTAT, see
the Oracle8i Reference.

Explicitly Assigning a Transaction to a Rollback Segment

A transaction can be explicitly assigned to a specific rollback segment using the SET
TRANSACTION statement with the USE ROLLBACK SEGMENT clause.
Transactions are explicitly assigned to rollback segments for the following reasons:
■ The anticipated amount of rollback information generated by a transaction can
fit in the current extents of the assigned rollback segment.
■ Additional extents do not have to be dynamically allocated (and subsequently
truncated) for rollback segments, which reduces overall system performance.
To assign a transaction to a rollback segment explicitly, the rollback segment must
be online for the current instance, and the SET TRANSACTION USE ROLLBACK
SEGMENT statement must be the first statement of the transaction. If a specified
rollback segment is not online or a SET TRANSACTION USE ROLLBACK
SEGMENT clause is not the first statement in a transaction, an error is returned.
For example, if you are about to begin a transaction that contains a significant
amount of work (more than most transactions), you can assign the transaction to a
large rollback segment, as follows:
SET TRANSACTION USE ROLLBACK SEGMENT large_rs1;

After the transaction is committed, Oracle will automatically assign the next
transaction to any available rollback segment unless the new transaction is
explicitly assigned to a specific rollback segment by the user.

Dropping Rollback Segments

You can drop rollback segments when the extents of a segment become too
fragmented on disk, or the segment needs to be relocated in a different tablespace.
Before dropping a rollback segment, make sure that status of the rollback segment is
OFFLINE. If the rollback segment that you want to drop is currently ONLINE,
PARTLY AVAILABLE, NEEDS RECOVERY, or INVALID, you cannot drop it. If the
status is INVALID, the segment has already been dropped. Before you can drop it,
you must take it offline.

Managing Rollback Segments 21-13

Monitoring Rollback Segment Information

To drop a rollback segment, you must have the DROP ROLLBACK SEGMENT
system privilege.
If a rollback segment is offline, you can drop it using the SQL statement DROP
ROLLBACK SEGMENT.
The following statement drops the DATA1_RS rollback segment:
DROP PUBLIC ROLLBACK SEGMENT data1_rs;

If you use the DROP ROLLBACK SEGMENT statement, indicate the correct type of
rollback segment to drop, public or private, by including or omitting the PUBLIC
keyword.

Note: If a rollback segment specified in ROLLBACK_SEGMENTS

is dropped, make sure to edit the parameter files of the database to
remove the name of the dropped rollback segment from the list in
the ROLLBACK_SEGMENTS parameter. If this step is not
performed before the next instance startup, startup fails because it
cannot acquire the dropped rollback segment.

After a rollback segment is dropped, its status changes to INVALID. The next time a
rollback segment is created, it takes the row vacated by a dropped rollback segment,
if one is available, and the dropped rollback segment’s row no longer appears in the
DBA_ROLLBACK_SEGS view.
See Also: For more information about the view DBA_ROLLBACK_SEGS, see the
Oracle8i Reference.

Monitoring Rollback Segment Information

For a detailed description of how to use the MONITOR for the corresponding
operation, see "Set an Optimal Number of Extents for Each Rollback Segment" on
page 21-5.

Displaying Rollback Segment Information

The DBA_ROLLBACK_SEGS data dictionary view stores information about the
rollback segments of a database. For example, the following query lists the name,
associated tablespace, and status of each rollback segment in a database:
SELECT segment_name, tablespace_name, status
FROM sys.dba_rollback_segs;

21-14 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Monitoring Rollback Segment Information

SEGMENT_NAME TABLESPACE_NAME STATUS

------------- ---------------- ------
SYSTEM SYSTEM ONLINE
PUBLIC_RS SYSTEM ONLINE
USERS_RS USERS ONLINE

In addition, the following data dictionary views contain information about the
segments of a database, including rollback segments:
■ USER_SEGMENTS
■ DBA_SEGMENTS

Displaying All Rollback Segments

The following query returns the name of each rollback segment, the tablespace that
contains it, and its size:
SELECT segment_name, tablespace_name, bytes, blocks, extents
FROM sys.dba_segments
WHERE segment_type = ’ROLLBACK’;

SEGMENT_NAME TABLESPACE_NAME BYTES BLOCKS EXTENTS

------------ --------------- ------- ------ ---------
RS1 SYSTEM 20480 10 2
RS2 TS1 40960 20 3
SYSTEM SYSTEM 184320 90 3

Displaying Whether a Rollback Segment Has Gone Offline

When you take a rollback segment offline, it does not actually go offline until all
active transactions in it have completed. Between the time when you attempt to
take it offline and when it actually is offline, its status in DBA_ROLLBACK_SEGS
remains ONLINE, but it is not used for new transactions. To determine whether any
rollback segments for an instance are in this state, use the following query:
SELECT name, xacts ’ACTIVE TRANSACTIONS’
FROM v$rollname, v$rollstat
WHERE status = ’PENDING OFFLINE’
AND v$rollname.usn = v$rollstat.usn;

NAME ACTIVE TRANSACTIONS

---------- --------------------
RS2 3

Managing Rollback Segments 21-15

Monitoring Rollback Segment Information

If your instance is part of a Parallel Server configuration, this query displays

information for rollback segments of the current instance only, not those of other
instances.

Displaying Deferred Rollback Segments

The following query shows which rollback segments are private and which are
public. Note that it only displays information about the rollback segments that are
currently online for the current instance:
SELECT segment_name, tablespace_name, owner
FROM sys.dba_rollback_segs;

SEGMENT_NAME TABLESPACE_NAME OWNER

------------- ---------------- ------
SYSTEM SYSTEM SYS
PUBLIC_RS SYSTEM PUBLIC
USERS_RS USERS SYS

Displaying All Deferred Rollback Segments

The following query shows all deferred rollback segments (rollback segments that
were created to hold rollback entries for tablespaces taken offline until the
tablespaces are brought back online):
SELECT segment_name, segment_type, tablespace_name
FROM sys.dba_segments
WHERE segment_type = ’DEFERRED ROLLBACK’;

SEGMENT_NAME SEGMENT_TYPE TABLESPACE_NAME

------------ ----------------- ----------------
USERS_RS DEFERRED ROLLBACK USERS

21-16 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Part IV
Database Security
 22
Establishing Security Policies

This chapter provides guidelines for developing security policies for database
operation, and includes the following topics:
■ System Security Policy
■ Data Security Policy
■ User Security Policy
■ Password Management Policy
■ Auditing Policy

Establishing Security Policies 22-1

System Security Policy

System Security Policy

This section describes aspects of system security policy, and includes the following
topics:
■ Database User Management
■ User Authentication
■ Operating System Security
Each database has one or more administrators who are responsible for maintaining
all aspects of the security policy: the security administrators. If the database system
is small, the database administrator may have the responsibilities of the security
administrator. However, if the database system is large, a special person or group of
people may have responsibilities limited to those of a security administrator.
After deciding who will manage the security of the system, a security policy must
be developed for every database. A database’s security policy should include
several sub-policies, as explained in the following sections.

Database User Management

Database users are the access paths to the information in an Oracle database.
Therefore, tight security should be maintained for the management of database
users. Depending on the size of a database system and the amount of work required
to manage database users, the security administrator may be the only user with the
privileges required to create, alter, or drop database users. On the other hand, there
may be a number of administrators with privileges to manage database users.
Regardless, only trusted individuals should have the powerful privileges to
administer database users.

User Authentication
Database users can be authenticated (verified as the correct person) by Oracle using
the host operating system, network services, or the database. Generally, user
authentication via the host operating system is preferred for the following reasons:
■ Users can connect to Oracle faster and more conveniently without specifying a
username or password.
■ Centralized control over user authorization in the operating system: Oracle
need not store or manage user passwords and usernames if the operating
system and database correspond.
■ User entries in the database and operating system audit trails correspond.

22-2 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Data Security Policy

User authentication by the database is normally used when the host operating
system cannot support user authentication.
See Also: For more information about network authentication, see Oracle8i
Distributed Database Systems.
For more information about user authentication, see "Creating Users" on page 23-11.

Operating System Security

If applicable, the following security issues must also be considered for the operating
system environment executing Oracle and any database applications:
■ Database administrators must have the operating system privileges to create
and delete files.
■ Typical database users should not have the operating system privileges to
create or delete files related to the database.
■ If the operating system identifies database roles for users, the security
administrators must have the operating system privileges to modify the
security domain of operating system accounts.
See Also: For more information about operating system security issues for Oracle
databases, see your operating system-specific Oracle documentation.

Data Security Policy

Data security includes the mechanisms that control the access to and use of the
database at the object level. Fine-grained access control can also limit data access to
a more granular level. Your data security policy determines which users have access
to a specific schema object, and the specific types of actions allowed for each user on
the object. For example, user SCOTT can issue SELECT and INSERT statements but
not DELETE statements using the EMP table. Your data security policy should also
define the actions, if any, that are audited for each schema object.
Your data security policy will be determined primarily by the level of security you
wish to establish for the data in your database. For example, it may be acceptable to
have little data security in a database when you wish to allow any user to create any
schema object, or grant access privileges for their objects to any other user of the
system. Alternatively, it might be necessary for data security to be very controlled
when you wish to make a database or security administrator the only person with
the privileges to create objects and grant access privileges for objects to roles and
users.

Establishing Security Policies 22-3

User Security Policy

Overall data security should be based on the sensitivity of data. If information is not
sensitive, then the data security policy can be more lax. However, if data is
sensitive, a security policy should be developed to maintain tight control over
access to objects.

User Security Policy

This section describes aspects of user security policy, and includes the following
topics:
■ General User Security
■ End-User Security
■ Administrator Security
■ Application Developer Security
■ Application Administrator Security

General User Security

For all types of database users, consider the following general user security issues:
■ Password Security
■ Privilege Management

Password Security
If user authentication is managed by the database, security administrators should
develop a password security policy to maintain database access security. For
example, database users should be required to change their passwords at regular
intervals, and of course, when their passwords are revealed to others. By forcing a
user to modify passwords in such situations, unauthorized database access can be
reduced.

Secure Connections with Encrypted Passwords

To better protect the confidentiality of your password, Oracle can be configured to
use encrypted passwords for client/server and server/server connections.
By setting the following values, you can require that the password used to verify a
connection always be encrypted:

22-4 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 User Security Policy

■ Set the ORA_ENCRYPT_LOGIN environment variable to TRUE on the client

machine.
■ Set the DBLINK_ENCRYPT_LOGIN server initialization parameter to TRUE.
If enabled at both the client and server, passwords will not be sent across the
network "in the clear", but will be encrypted using a modified DES (Data
Encryption Standard) algorithm.
The DBLINK_ENCRYPT_LOGIN parameter is used for connections between two
Oracle servers (for example, when performing distributed queries). If you are
connecting from a client, Oracle checks the ORA_ENCRYPT_LOGIN environment
variable.
Whenever you attempt to connect to a server using a password, Oracle encrypts the
password before sending it to the server. If the connection fails and auditing is
enabled, the failure is noted in the audit log. Oracle then checks the appropriate
DBLINK_ENCRYPT_LOGIN or ORA_ENCRYPT_LOGIN value. If it set to FALSE,
Oracle attempts the connection again using an unencrypted version of the
password. If the connection is successful, the connection replaces the previous
failure in the audit log, and the connection proceeds. To prevent malicious users
from forcing Oracle to re-attempt a connection with an unencrypted version of the
password, you must set the appropriate values to TRUE.

Privilege Management
Security administrators should consider issues related to privilege management for
all types of users. For example, in a database with many usernames, it may be
beneficial to use roles (which are named groups of related privileges that you grant
to users or other roles) to manage the privileges available to users. Alternatively, in
a database with a handful of usernames, it may be easier to grant privileges
explicitly to users and avoid the use of roles.
Security administrators managing a database with many users, applications, or
objects should take advantage of the benefits offered by roles. Roles greatly simplify
the task of privilege management in complicated environments.

End-User Security
Security administrators must also define a policy for end-user security. If a database
is large with many users, the security administrator can decide what groups of
users can be categorized, create user roles for these user groups, grant the necessary
privileges or application roles to each user role, and assign the user roles to the

Establishing Security Policies 22-5

User Security Policy

users. To account for exceptions, the security administrator must also decide what
privileges must be explicitly granted to individual users.

Using Roles for End-User Privilege Management

Roles are the easiest way to grant and manage the common privileges needed by
different groups of database users.
Consider a situation where every user in the accounting department of a company
needs the privileges to run the ACCTS_RECEIVABLE and ACCTS_PAYABLE
database applications. Roles are associated with both applications, and contain the
object privileges necessary to execute those applications.
The following actions, performed by the database or security administrator, address
this simple security situation:
1. Create a role named ACCOUNTANT.
2. Grant the roles for the ACCTS_RECEIVABLE and ACCTS_PAYABLE database
applications to the ACCOUNTANT role.
3. Grant each user of the accounting department the ACCOUNTANT role.
This security model is illustrated in Figure 22–1.

Figure 22–1 User Role

Users

ACCOUNTANT User Roles

Role

ACCTS_PAY ACCTS_REC
Role Role Application Roles

Privileges to Privileges to
execute the execute the Application Privileges
ACCTS_PAY ACCTS_REC
application application

This plan addresses the following potential situations:

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 User Security Policy

■ If accountants subsequently need a role for a new database application, that

application’s role can be granted to the ACCOUNTANT role, and all users in
the accounting department will automatically receive the privileges associated
with the new database application. The application’s role does not need to be
granted to individual users requiring use of the application.
■ Similarly, if the accounting department no longer requires the need for a specific
application, the application’s role can be dropped from the ACCOUNTANT
role.
■ If the privileges required by the ACCTS_RECEIVABLE or ACCTS_PAYABLE
applications change, the new privileges can be granted to, or revoked from, the
application’s role. The security domain of the ACCOUNTANT role, and all
users granted the ACCOUNTANT role automatically reflect the privilege
modification.
■ You have an index where a user requires only 1 role.
When possible, utilize roles in all possible situations to make end-user privilege
management efficient and simple.

Administrator Security
Security administrators should have a policy addressing administrator security. For
example, when the database is large and there are several types of database
administrators, the security administrator may decide to group related
administrative privileges into several administrative roles. The administrative roles
can then be granted to appropriate administrator users. Alternatively, when the
database is small and has only a few administrators, it may be more convenient to
create one administrative role and grant it to all administrators.

Protection for Connections as SYS and SYSTEM

After database creation, immediately change the passwords for the administrative
SYS and SYSTEM usernames to prevent unauthorized access to the database.
Connecting as SYS and SYSTEM gives a user the powerful privileges to modify a
database in many ways. Therefore, privileges for these usernames are extremely
sensitive, and should only be available to select database administrators.
See Also: The passwords for these accounts can be modified using the procedures
described in "Altering Users" on page 23-15.

Establishing Security Policies 22-7

User Security Policy

Protection for Administrator Connections

Only database administrators should have the capability to connect to a database
with administrator privileges. Connecting as SYSDBA gives a user unrestricted
privileges to do anything to a database (such as startup, shutdown, and recover) or
the objects within a database (such as create, drop, and delete from). Only users
with SYS-privileged connections can alter data dictionary tables (for example,
connect as SYSDBA/SYSOPER).

Using Roles for Administrator Privilege Management

Roles are the easiest way to restrict the powerful system privileges and roles
required by personnel administrating of the database.
Consider a scenario where the database administrator responsibilities at a large
installation are shared among several database administrators, each responsible for
the following specific database management jobs:
■ an administrator responsible for object creation and maintenance
■ an administrator responsible for database tuning and performance
■ a security administrator responsible for creating new users, granting roles and
privileges to database users
■ a database administrator responsible for routine database operation (for
example, startup, shutdown, backup)
■ an administrator responsible for emergency situations, such as database
recovery
■ new, inexperienced database administrators needing limited capabilities to
experiment with database management
In this scenario, the security administrator should structure the security for
administrative personnel as follows:
1. Six roles should be defined to contain the distinct privileges required to
accomplish each type of job (for example, DBA_OBJECTS, DBA_TUNE,
DBA_SECURITY, DBA_MAINTAIN, DBA_RECOV, DBA_NEW).
2. Each role is granted the appropriate privileges.
3. Each type of database administrator can be granted the corresponding role.
This plan diminishes the likelihood of future problems in the following ways:

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 User Security Policy

■ If a database administrator’s job description changes to include more

responsibilities, that database administrator can be granted other
administrative roles corresponding to the new responsibilities.
■ If a database administrator’s job description changes to include fewer
responsibilities, that database administrator can have the appropriate
administrative roles revoked.
■ The data dictionary always stores information about each role and each user, so
information is available to disclose the task of each administrator.

Application Developer Security

Security administrators must define a special security policy for the application
developers using a database. A security administrator may grant the privileges to
create necessary objects to application developers. Alternatively, the privileges to
create objects may only be granted to a database administrator, who receives
requests for object creation from developers.

Application Developers and Their Privileges

Database application developers are unique database users who require special
groups of privileges to accomplish their jobs. Unlike end users, developers need
system privileges, such as CREATE TABLE, CREATE PROCEDURE, and so on.
However, only specific system privileges should be granted to developers to restrict
their overall capabilities in the database.

The Application Developer’s Environment: Test and Production Databases

In many cases, application development is restricted to test databases and not
allowed on production databases. This restriction ensures that application
developers do not compete with end users for database resources, and that they
cannot detrimentally affect a production database.
After an application has been thoroughly developed and tested, it is permitted
access to the production database and made available to the appropriate end users
of the production database.

Establishing Security Policies 22-9

User Security Policy

Free Versus Controlled Application Development

The database administrator can define the following options when determining
which privileges should be granted to application developers:

Free An application developer is allowed to create new schema

Development objects, including tables, indexes, procedures, packages, and so
on. This option allows the application developer to develop an
application independent of other objects.

Controlled An application developer is not allowed to create new schema

Development objects. All required tables, indexes, procedures, and so on are
created by a database administrator, as requested by an
application developer. This option allows the database
administrator to completely control a database’s space usage
and the access paths to information in the database.

Although some database systems use only one of these options, other systems could
mix them. For example, application developers can be allowed to create new stored
procedures and packages, but not allowed to create tables or indexes. A security
administrator’s decision regarding this issue should be based on the following:
■ the control desired over a database’s space usage
■ the control desired over the access paths to schema objects
■ the database used to develop applications—if a test database is being used for
application development, a more liberal development policy would be in order

Roles and Privileges for Application Developers

Security administrators can create roles to manage the privileges required by the
typical application developer. For example, a typical role named
APPLICATION_DEVELOPER might include the CREATE TABLE, CREATE VIEW,
and CREATE PROCEDURE system privileges. Consider the following when
defining roles for application developers:
■ CREATE system privileges are usually granted to application developers so that
they can create their own objects. However, CREATE ANY system privileges,
which allow a user to create an object in any user’s schema, are not usually
granted to developers. This restricts the creation of new objects only to the
developer’s user account.
■ Object privileges are rarely granted to roles used by application developers.
This is often impractical because granting object privileges via roles often
restricts their usability in the creation of other objects (primarily views and

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 Password Management Policy

stored procedures). It is more practical to allow application developers to create

their own objects for development purposes.

Space Restrictions Imposed on Application Developers

While application developers are typically given the privileges to create objects as
part of the development process, security administrators must maintain limits on
what and how much database space can be used by each application developer. For
example, as the security administrator, you should specifically set or restrict the
following limits for each application developer:
■ the tablespaces in which the developer can create tables or indexes
■ the quota for each tablespace accessible to the developer
See Also: Both limitations can be set by altering a developer’s security domain. For
more information, see "Altering Users" on page 23-15.

Application Administrator Security

In large database systems with many database applications (for example,
precompiler and Forms applications), you might want to have application
administrators. An application administrator is responsible for the following types
of tasks:
■ creating roles for an application and managing the privileges of each
application role
■ creating and managing the objects used by a database application
■ maintaining and updating the application code and Oracle procedures and
packages, as necessary
Often, an application administrator is also the application developer who designed
the application. However, these jobs might not be the responsibility of the
developer and can be assigned to another individual familiar with the database
application.

Password Management Policy

Database security systems depend on passwords being kept secret at all times. Still,
passwords are vulnerable to theft, forgery, and misuse.To allow for greater control
over database security, Oracle’s password management policy is controlled by
DBAs.

Establishing Security Policies 22-11

Password Management Policy

This section describes the following aspects of Oracle password management:

■ Account Locking
■ Password Aging and Expiration
■ Password History
■ Password Complexity Verification

Account Locking
When a particular user exceeds a designated number of failed login attempts, the
server automatically locks that user’s account. DBAs specify the permissible
number of failed login attempts using the CREATE PROFILE statement. DBAs also
specify the amount of time accounts remain locked.
In the following example, the maximum number of failed login attempts for the
user ASHWINI is 4, and the amount of time the account will remain locked is 30
days; the account will unlock automatically after the passage of 30 days.
CREATE PROFILE prof LIMIT
FAILED_LOGIN_ATTEMPTS 4
PASSWORD_LOCK_TIME 30;
ALTER USER ashwini PROFILE prof;

If the DBA does not specify a time interval for unlocking the account,
ACCOUNT_LOCK _TIME reverts to a default value. If the DBA specifies
ACCOUNT_LOCK_TIME as UNLIMITED, then the system security officer must
explicitly unlock the account. Thus, the amount of time an account remains locked
depends upon how the DBA configures the resource profile assigned to the user.
After a user successfully logs into an account, that user’s unsuccessful login attempt
count, if there is one, is reset to 0.
The security officer can also explicitly lock user accounts. When this occurs, the
account cannot be unlocked automatically; only the security officer should unlock
the account.
See Also: For more information about the CREATE PROFILE statement, see the
Oracle8i SQL Reference.

Password Aging and Expiration

DBAs use the CREATE PROFILE statement to specify a maximum lifetime for
passwords. When the specified amount of time passes and the password expires,

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 Password Management Policy

the user or DBA must change the password. The following statement indicates that
ASHWINI can use the same password for 90 days before it expires:
CREATE PROFILE prof LIMIT
FAILED_LOGIN_ATTEMPTS 4
PASSWORD_LOCK_TIME 30
PASSWORD_LIFE_TIME 90;
ALTER USER ashwini PROFILE prof;

DBAs can also specify a grace period using the CREATE PROFILE statement. Users
enter the grace period upon the first attempt to login to a database account after
their password has expired. During the grace period, a warning message appears
each time users try to log in to their accounts, and continues to appear until the
grace period expires. Users must change the password within the grace period. If
the password is not changed within the grace period, the account expires and no
further logins to that account are allowed until the password is changed.
Figure 22–2 shows the chronology of the password lifetime and grace period.

Figure 22–2 Chronology of Password Lifetime and Grace Period.

last password 1st login after Expires ...
change password lifetime

Password ... ...

Grace period
Life time

For example, the lifetime of a password is 60 days, and the grace period is 3 days. If
the user tries to log in on any day after the 60th day (this could be the 70th day,
100th day, or another; the point here is that it is the first login attempt after the
password lifetime), that user receives a warning message indicating that the
password is about to expire in 3 days. If the user does not change the password
within three days from the first day of the grace period, the user’s account expires.
The following statement indicates that the user must change the password within 3
days of its expiration:
CREATE PROFILE prof LIMIT
FAILED_LOGIN_ATTEMPTS 4
ACCOUNT_LOCK_TIME 30
PASSWORD_GRACE_TIME 3;
ALTER USER ashwini PROFILE prof;

The security officer can also explicitly expire the account. This is particularly useful
for new accounts.

Establishing Security Policies 22-13

Password Management Policy

See Also: For more information about the CREATE PROFILE statement, see
Oracle8i SQL Reference.

Password History
DBAs use the CREATE PROFILE statement to specify a time interval during which
users cannot reuse a password.
In the following statement, the DBA indicates that the user cannot reuse her
password for 60 days.
CREATE PROFILE prof LIMIT
PASSWORD_REUSE_TIME 60
PASSWORD_REUSE_MAX UNLIMITED;

The next statement shows that the number of password changes the user must
make before her current password can be used again is 3.
CREATE PROFILE prof LIMIT
PASSWORD_REUSE_MAX 3
PASSWORD_REUSE_TIME UNLIMITED;

Note: If you specify PASSWORD_REUSE_TIME or

PASSWORD_REUSE_MAX, you must set the other to UNLIMITED
or not specify it at all.

Password Complexity Verification

Oracle’s password complexity verification routine can be specified using a PL/SQL
script (utlpwdmg.sql), which sets the default profile parameters.
The password complexity verification routine performs the following checks:
■ The password has a minimum length of 4.
■ The password is not the same as the userid.
■ The password has at least one alpha, one numeric, and one punctuation mark.
■ The password does not match simple words like welcome, account, database, or
user.

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 Password Management Policy

■ The password differs from the previous password by at least 3 letters.

Note: Oracle recommends that you do not change passwords

using the ALTER USER statement because it does not fully support
the password verification function. Instead, you should use
OCIPasswordChange() to change passwords.

Password Verification Routine Formatting Guidelines

DBAs can enhance the existing password verification complexity routine or create
their own password verification routines using PL/SQL or third-party tools.
The DBA-authored PL/SQL call must adhere to the following format:

routine_name (
userid_parameter IN VARCHAR(30),
password_parameter IN VARCHAR (30),
old_password_parameter IN VARCHAR (30)
)
RETURN BOOLEAN

After a new routine is created, it must be assigned as the password verification

routine using the user’s profile or the system default profile.
CREATE/ALTER PROFILE profile_name LIMIT
PASSWORD_VERIFY_FUNCTION routine_name

The password verify routine must be owned by SYS.

Password Verification Routine: Sample Script The following sample script sets default
password resource limits and provides minimum checking of password complexity.
You can use this sample script as a model when developing your own complexity
checks for a new password.
This script sets the default password resource parameters, and must be run to
enable the password features. However, you can change the default resource
parameters if necessary.
The default password complexity function performs the following minimum
complexity checks:
■ The password satisfies minimum length requirements.
■ The password is not the username. You can modify this function based on your
requirements.

Establishing Security Policies 22-15

Password Management Policy

This function must be created in SYS schema, and you must connect sys/
<password> as sysdba before running the script.
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION verify_function
(username varchar2,
password varchar2,
old_password varchar2)
RETURN boolean IS
n boolean;
m integer;
differ integer;
isdigit boolean;
ischar boolean;
ispunct boolean;
digitarray varchar2(20);
punctarray varchar2(25);
chararray varchar2(52);

BEGIN
digitarray:= '0123456789';
chararray:= 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ';
punctarray:='!"#$%&()’’*+,-/:;<=>?_';

--Check if the password is same as the username

IF password = username THEN
raise_application_error(-20001, 'Password same as user');
END IF;

--Check for the minimum length of the password

IF length(password) < 4 THEN
raise_application_error(-20002, 'Password length less than 4');
END IF;

--Check if the password is too simple. A dictionary of words may be

--maintained and a check may be made so as not to allow the words
--that are too simple for the password.
IF NLS_LOWER(password) IN ('welcome', 'database', 'account', 'user', 'password', 'oracle',
'computer', 'abcd') THEN raise_application_error(-20002, 'Password too simple');
END IF;

--Check if the password contains at least one letter, one digit and one
--punctuation mark.
--1. Check for the digit
--You may delete 1. and replace with 2. or 3.
isdigit:=FALSE;
m := length(password);
FOR i IN 1..10 LOOP
FOR j IN 1..m LOOP
IF substr(password,j,1) = substr(digitarray,i,1) THEN
isdigit:=TRUE;

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 Password Management Policy

GOTO findchar;
END IF;
END LOOP;
END LOOP;
IF isdigit = FALSE THEN
raise_application_error(-20003, 'Password should contain at least one
digit, one character and one punctuation');
END IF;
--2. Check for the character
<<findchar>>
ischar:=FALSE;
FOR i IN 1..length(chararray) LOOP
FOR j IN 1..m LOOP
IF substr(password,j,1) = substr(chararray,i,1) THEN
ischar:=TRUE;
GOTO findpunct;
END IF;
END LOOP;
END LOOP;
IF ischar = FALSE THEN
raise_application_error(-20003, 'Password should contain at least one digit, one
character and one punctuation');
END IF;
--3. Check for the punctuation
<<findpunct>>
ispunct:=FALSE;
FOR i IN 1..length(punctarray) LOOP
FOR j IN 1..m LOOP
IF substr(password,j,1) = substr(punctarray,i,1) THEN
ispunct:=TRUE;
GOTO endsearch;
END IF;
END LOOP;
END LOOP;
IF ispunct = FALSE THEN raise_application_error(-20003, 'Password should contain at least
one \ digit, one character and one punctuation');
END IF;

<<endsearch>>

--Check if the password differs from the previous password by at least 3 letters
IF old_password = '' THEN
raise_application_error(-20004, 'Old password is null');
END IF;
--Everything is fine; return TRUE ;
differ := length(old_password) - length(password);

IF abs(differ) < 3 THEN

IF length(password) < length(old_password) THEN

Establishing Security Policies 22-17

Auditing Policy

m := length(password);
ELSE
m:= length(old_password);
END IF;
differ := abs(differ);
FOR i IN 1..m LOOP
IF substr(password,i,1) != substr(old_password,i,1) THEN
differ := differ + 1;
END IF;
END LOOP;
IF differ < 3 THEN
raise_application_error(-20004, 'Password should differ by at
least 3 characters');
END IF;
END IF;
--Everything is fine; return TRUE ;
RETURN(TRUE);
END;

Auditing Policy
Security administrators should define a policy for the auditing procedures of each
database. You may, for example, decide to have database auditing disabled unless
questionable activities are suspected. When auditing is required, the security
administrator must decide what level of detail to audit the database; usually,
general system auditing is followed by more specific types of auditing after the
origins of suspicious activity are determined.

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 23
Managing Users and Resources

This chapter describes how to control access to an Oracle database, and includes the
following topics:
■ Session and User Licensing
■ User Authentication
■ Oracle Users
■ Managing Resources with Profiles
■ Listing Information About Database Users and Profiles
See Also: For guidelines on establishing security policies for users and profiles, see
Chapter 22, "Establishing Security Policies".
Privileges and roles control the access a user has to a database and the schema
objects within the database. For information on privileges and roles, see Chapter 24,
"Managing User Privileges and Roles".

Managing Users and Resources 23-1

Session and User Licensing

Session and User Licensing

This section describes aspects of session and user licensing, and includes the
following topics:
■ Concurrent Usage Licensing
■ Connecting Privileges
■ Setting the Maximum Number of Sessions
■ Setting the Session Warning Limit
■ Changing Concurrent Usage Limits While the Database is Running
■ Named User Limits
■ Viewing Licensing Limits and Current Values
Oracle helps you ensure that your site complies with its Oracle Server license
agreement. If your site is licensed by concurrent usage, you can track and limit the
number of sessions concurrently connected to a database. If your site is licensed by
named users, you can limit the number of named users created in a database. In
either case, you control the licensing facilities, and must enable the facilities and set
the appropriate limits.
To use the licensing facility, you need to know which type of licensing agreement
your site has, and what the maximum number of sessions or named users is. Your
site may use either type of licensing (concurrent usage or named user), but not both.

Note: In a few cases, a site might have an unlimited license, rather

than concurrent usage or named user licensing. In these cases only,
leave the licensing mechanism disabled, and omit
LICENSE_MAX_SESSIONS, LICENSE_SESSIONS_WARNING, and
LICENSE_MAX_USERS from the parameter file, or set the value of
all three to 0.

Concurrent Usage Licensing

Concurrent usage licensing limits the number of sessions that can be connected
simultaneously to the database on the specified computer. You can set a limit on the
number of concurrent sessions before you start an instance. In fact, you should have
set this limit as part of the initial installation procedure. You can also change the
maximum number of concurrent sessions while the database is running.

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 Session and User Licensing

See Also: For information about the initial installation procedure, see Chapter 2,
"Creating an Oracle Database".

Connecting Privileges
After your instance’s session limit is reached, only users with RESTRICTED
SESSION privilege (usually DBAs) can connect to the database. When a user with
RESTRICTED SESSION privileges connects, Oracle sends the user a message
indicating that the maximum limit has been reached, and writes a message to the
ALERT file. When the maximum is reached, you should connect only to terminate
unneeded processes. Do not raise the licensing limits unless you have upgraded
your Oracle license agreement.
In addition to setting a maximum concurrent session limit, you can set a warning
limit on the number of concurrent sessions. After this limit is reached, additional
users can continue to connect (up to the maximum limit); however, Oracle writes an
appropriate message to the ALERT file with each connection, and sends each
connecting user who has the RESTRICTED SESSION privilege a warning indicating
that the maximum is about to be reached.
If a user is connecting with administrator privileges, the limits still apply; however,
Oracle enforces the limit after the first statement the user executes.
In addition to enforcing the concurrent usage limits, Oracle tracks the highest
number of concurrent sessions for each instance. You can use this "high water
mark."
See Also: For information about terminating sessions, see "Terminating Sessions" on
page 4-15.
For information about Oracle licensing limit upgrades, see "Viewing Licensing
Limits and Current Values" on page 23-6.

Managing Users and Resources 23-3

Session and User Licensing

Parallel Server Concurrent Usage Limits

For instances running with the Parallel Server, each instance can have its own
concurrent usage limit and warning limit. However, the sum of the instances’ limits
must not exceed the site’s concurrent usage license.

WARNING: Sessions that connect to Oracle through

multiplexing software or hardware (such as a TP monitor) each
contribute individually to the concurrent usage limit. However,
the Oracle licensing mechanism cannot distinguish the number
of sessions connected this way. If your site uses multiplexing
software or hardware, you must consider that and set the
maximum concurrent usage limit lower to account for the
multiplexed sessions.

See Also: For more information about setting and changing limits in a parallel
server environment, see Oracle8i Parallel Server Concepts and Administration.

Setting the Maximum Number of Sessions

To set the maximum number of concurrent sessions for an instance, set the
parameter LICENSE_MAX_SESSIONS as follows:
LICENSE_MAX_SESSIONS = 80

If you set this limit, you are not required to set a warning limit
(LICENSE_SESSIONS_WARNING). However, using the warning limit makes the
maximum limit easier to manage, because it gives you advance notice that your site
is nearing maximum use.

Setting the Session Warning Limit

To set the warning limit for an instance, set the parameter
LICENSE_SESSIONS_WARNING in the parameter file used to start the instance.
Set the session warning to a value lower than the concurrent usage maximum limit
(LICENSE_MAX_SESSIONS).

Changing Concurrent Usage Limits While the Database is Running

To change either the maximum concurrent usage limit or the warning limit while
the database is running, use the ALTER SYSTEM command with the appropriate

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 Session and User Licensing

option. The following statement changes the maximum limit to 100 concurrent
sessions:
ALTER SYSTEM SET LICENSE_MAX_SESSIONS = 100;

The following statement changes both the warning limit and the maximum limit:
ALTER SYSTEM
SET LICENSE_MAX_SESSIONS = 64
LICENSE_SESSIONS_WARNING = 54;

If you change either limit to a value lower than the current number of sessions, the
current sessions remain; however, the new limit is enforced for all future
connections until the instance is shut down. To change the limit permanently,
change the value of the appropriate parameter in the parameter file.
To change the concurrent usage limits while the database is running, you must have
the ALTER SYSTEM privilege. Also, to connect to an instance after the instance’s
maximum limit has been reached, you must have the RESTRICTED SESSION
privilege.

WARNING: Do not raise the concurrent usage limits unless you

have appropriately upgraded your Oracle Server license. Contact
your Oracle representative for more information.

Named User Limits

Named user licensing limits the number of individuals authorized to use Oracle on
the specified computer. To enforce this license, you can set a limit on the number of
users created in the database before you start an instance. You can also change the
maximum number of users while the instance is running, or disable the limit
altogether. You cannot create more users after reaching this limit. If you try to do so,
Oracle returns an error indicating that the maximum number of users have been
created, and writes a message to the ALERT file.
This mechanism operates on the assumption that each person accessing the
database has a unique username, and that there are no shared usernames. Do not
allow multiple users to connect using the same username.
See Also: For instances running with the Parallel Server, all instances connected to
the same database should have the same named user limit. See Oracle8i Parallel
Server Concepts and Administration for more information.

Managing Users and Resources 23-5

Session and User Licensing

Setting User Limits

To limit the number of users created in a database, set the LICENSE_MAX_USERS
parameter in the database’s parameter file. The following example sets the
maximum number of users to 200:
LICENSE_MAX_USERS = 200

If the database contains more than LICENSE_MAX_USERS when you start it,
Oracle returns a warning and writes an appropriate message in the ALERT file. You
cannot create additional users until the number of users drops below the limit or
until you delete users or upgrade your Oracle license.

Changing User Limits

To change the maximum named users limit, use the ALTER SYSTEM command
with the LICENSE_MAX_USERS option. The following statement changes the
maximum number of defined users to 300:
ALTER SYSTEM SET LICENSE_MAX_USERS = 300;

If you try to change the limit to a value lower than the current number of users,
Oracle returns an error and continues to use the old limit. If you successfully
change the limit, the new limit remains in effect until you shut down the instance;
to change the limit permanently, change the value of LICENSE_MAX_USERS in the
parameter file.
To change the maximum named users limit, you must have the ALTER SYSTEM
privilege.

WARNING: Do not raise the named user limit unless you have
appropriately upgraded your Oracle license. Contact your Oracle
representative for more information.

Viewing Licensing Limits and Current Values

You can see the current limits of all of the license settings, the current number of
sessions, and the maximum number of concurrent sessions for the instance by
querying the V$LICENSE data dictionary view. You can use this information to
determine if you need to upgrade your Oracle license to allow more concurrent
sessions or named users:
SELECT sessions_max s_max,
sessions_warning s_warning,
sessions_current s_current,

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 User Authentication

sessions_highwater s_high,
users_max
FROM v$license;

S_MAX S_WARNING S_CURRENT S_HIGH USERS_MAX

-------------------------------------------------------
100 80 65 82 50

In addition, Oracle writes the session high water mark to the database’s ALERT file
when the database shuts down, so you can check for it there.
To see the current number of named users defined in the database, use the
following query:
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM dba_users;

COUNT(*)
----------
174

User Authentication
This section describes aspects of authenticating users, and includes the following
topics:
■ Database Authentication
■ External Authentication
■ Enterprise Authentication
Depending on how you want user identities to be authenticated, there are three
ways to define users before they are allowed to create a database session:
1. You can configure Oracle so that it performs both identification and
authentication of users. This is called database authentication.
2. You can configure Oracle so that it performs only the identification of users
(leaving authentication up to the operating system or network service). This is
called external authentication.
3. You can configure Oracle so that it performs only the identification of users.
This is called enterprise authentication.

Managing Users and Resources 23-7

User Authentication

Database Authentication
If you choose database authentication for a user, administration of the user account,
password, and authentication of that user is performed entirely by Oracle. To have
Oracle authenticate a user, specify a password for the user when you create or alter
the user. Users can change their password at any time. Passwords are stored in an
encrypted format. Each password must be made up of single-byte characters, even
if your database uses a multi-byte character set.
To enhance security when using database authentication, Oracle recommends the
use of password management, including account locking, password aging and
expiration, password history, and password complexity verification.
The following statement creates a user who is identified and authenticated by
Oracle:
CREATE USER scott IDENTIFIED BY tiger;

See Also: For more information about the CREATE USER and ALTER USER
statements, see Oracle8i SQL Reference.
For more information about valid passwords, see Oracle8i SQL Reference.
For more information about Oracle password management, see Chapter 22,
"Establishing Security Policies".

Advantages of Database Authentication

Following are advantages of database authentication:
■ User accounts and all authentication are controlled by the database.There is no
reliance on anything outside of the database.
■ Oracle provides strong password management features to enhance security
when using database authentication.
■ It is easier to administer small user communities.

External Authentication
When you choose external authentication for a user, the user account is maintained
by Oracle, but password administration and user authentication is performed by an
external service. This external service can be the operating system or a network
service, such as Net8.
With external authentication, your database relies on the underlying operating
system or network authentication service to restrict access to database accounts. A

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 User Authentication

database password is not used for this type of login. If your operating system or
network service permits, you can have it authenticate users. If you do so, set the
parameter OS_AUTHENT_PREFIX, and use this prefix in Oracle usernames. This
parameter defines a prefix that Oracle adds to the beginning of every user’s
operating system account name. Oracle compares the prefixed username with the
Oracle usernames in the database when a user attempts to connect.
For example, assume that OS_AUTHENT_PREFIX is set as follows:
OS_AUTHENT_PREFIX=OPS$

If a user with an operating system account named "TSMITH" is to connect to an

Oracle database and be authenticated by the operating system, Oracle checks that
there is a corresponding database user "OPS$TSMITH" and, if so, allows the user to
connect. All references to a user authenticated by the operating system must include
the prefix, as seen in "OPS$TSMITH".
The default value of this parameter is "OPS$" for backward compatibility with
previous versions of Oracle. However, you might prefer to set the prefix value to
some other string or a null string (an empty set of double quotes: ""). Using a null
string eliminates the addition of any prefix to operating system account names, so
that Oracle usernames exactly match operating system usernames.
After you set OS_AUTHENT_PREFIX, it should remain the same for the life of a
database. If you change the prefix, any database username that includes the old
prefix cannot be used to establish a connection, unless you alter the username to
have it use password authentication.
The following command creates a user who is identified by Oracle and
authenticated by the operating system or a network service:
CREATE USER scott IDENTIFIED EXTERNALLY;

Using CREATE USER IDENTIFIED EXTERNALLY, you can create database

accounts that must be authenticated via the operating system or network service
and cannot be authenticated using a password.
See Also: The text of the OS_AUTHENT_PREFIX parameter is case sensitive on
some operating systems. See your operating system-specific Oracle documentation
for more information about this initialization parameter.

Operating System Authentication

By default, Oracle only allows operating system authenticated logins over secure
connections. Therefore, if you want the operating system to authenticate a user, by
default that user cannot connect to the database over Net8. This means the user

Managing Users and Resources 23-9

User Authentication

cannot connect using a multi-threaded server, since this connection uses Net8. This
default restriction prevents a remote user from impersonating another operating
system user over a network connection.
If you are not concerned about remote users impersonating another operating
system user over a network connection, and you want to use operating system user
authentication with network clients, set the parameter REMOTE_OS_AUTHENT
(default is FALSE) to TRUE in the database’s parameter file. Setting the initialization
parameter REMOTE_OS_AUTHENT to TRUE allows the RDBMS to accept the
client operating system username received over a non-secure connection and use it
for account access. The change will take effect the next time you start the instance
and mount the database.

Network Authentication
Network authentication is performed via Net8, which may be configured to use a
third party service such as Kerberos. If you are using Net8 as the only external
authentication service, the setting of the parameter REMOTE_OS_AUTHENT is
irrelevant, since Net8 only allows secure connections.
See Also: For information about network authentication, see Oracle8i Distributed
Database Systems.

Advantages of External Authentication

Following are advantages of external authentication:
■ More choices of authentication mechanism are available, such as smart cards,
fingerprints, Kerberos, or the operating system.
■ If you are already using some external mechanism for authentication, such as
one of those listed above, there may be less administrative overhead to use that
mechanism with the database as well.

Enterprise Authentication
If you choose enterprise authentication for a user, the user account is maintained by
Oracle, but password administration and user authentication is performed by the
Oracle Security Service (OSS). This authentication service can be shared among
multiple Oracle database servers and allows user’s authentication and
authorization information to be managed centrally.
Use the following command to create a user (known as a global user) who is
identified by Oracle and authenticated by the Oracle Security Service:

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 Oracle Users

CREATE USER scott IDENTIFIED GLOBALLY as ’<external name>’;

See Also: For information about the contents of the <EXTERNAL NAME> string,
see Oracle8i Distributed Database Systems.

Advantages of Enterprise Authentication

Following are advantages of enterprise authentication:
■ It is easier to administer large user communities with many databases.
■ You can use industry standard public key certificates, giving increased
opportunity for interoperability.
See Also: For information about enterprise authentication, see Oracle8i Distributed
Database Systems.

Oracle Users
Each Oracle database has a list of valid database users. To access a database, a user
must run a database application and connect to the database instance using a valid
username defined in the database. This section explains how to manage users for a
database, and includes the following topics:
■ Creating Users
■ Altering Users
■ Dropping Users

Creating Users
To create a database user, you must have the CREATE USER system privilege.
When creating a new user, tablespace quotas can be specified for any tablespace in
the database, even if the creator does not have a quota on a specified tablespace.
Because it is a powerful privilege, a security administrator is normally the only user
who has the CREATE USER system privilege.
You create a user with the SQL statement CREATE USER. Using either option, you
can also specify the new user’s default and temporary segment tablespaces,
tablespace quotas, and profile.
CREATE USER OPS$jward
IDENTIFIED EXTERNALLY
DEFAULT TABLESPACE data_ts
TEMPORARY TABLESPACE temp_ts

Managing Users and Resources 23-11

Oracle Users

QUOTA 100M ON test_ts

QUOTA 500K ON data_ts
PROFILE clerk;

See Also: A newly created user cannot connect to the database until granted the
CREATE SESSION system privilege; see "Granting System Privileges and Roles" on
page 24-9.

Specifying a Name
Within each database a username must be unique with respect to other usernames
and roles; a user and role cannot have the same name. Furthermore, each user has
an associated schema. Within a schema, each schema object must have a unique
name.

Setting a User’s Authentication

In the previous CREATE USER statement, the new user is to be authenticated using
the operating system. The username includes the default prefix "OPS$." If the
OS_AUTHENT_PREFIX parameter is set differently (that is, if it specifies either no
prefix or some other prefix), modify the username accordingly, by omitting the
prefix or substituting the correct prefix.
Alternatively, you can create a user who is authenticated using the database and a
password:
CREATE USER jward
IDENTIFIED BY airplane
. . . ;

In this case, the connecting user must supply the correct password to the database
to connect successfully.

User Passwords in Multi-Byte Character Sets In a database that uses a multi-byte

character set, passwords must include only single-byte characters. Multi-byte
characters are not accepted in passwords.
See Also: For more information about valid passwords, see the Oracle8i SQL
Reference.

Assigning a Default Tablespace

Each user has a default tablespace. When a user creates a schema object and
specifies no tablespace to contain it, Oracle stores the object in the user’s default
tablespace.

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The default setting for every user’s default tablespace is the SYSTEM tablespace. If
a user does not create objects, this default setting is fine. However, if a user creates
any type of object, consider specifically setting the user’s default tablespace. You
can set a user’s default tablespace during user creation, and change it later.
Changing the user’s default tablespace affects only objects created after the setting
is changed.
Consider the following issues when deciding which tablespace to specify:
■ Set a user’s default tablespace only if the user has the privileges to create objects
(such as tables, views, and clusters).
■ Set a user’s default tablespace to a tablespace for which the user has a quota.
■ If possible, set a user’s default tablespace to a tablespace other than the
SYSTEM tablespace to reduce contention between data dictionary objects and
user objects for the same datafiles.
In the previous CREATE USER statement, JWARD’s default tablespace is DATA_TS.

Assigning a Temporary Tablespace

Each user also has a temporary tablespace. When a user executes a SQL statement
that requires a temporary segment, Oracle stores the segment in the user’s
temporary tablespace.
If a user’s temporary tablespace is not explicitly set, the default is the SYSTEM
tablespace. However, setting each user’s temporary tablespace reduces file
contention among temporary segments and other types of segments. You can set a
user’s temporary tablespace at user creation, and change it later.
In the previous CREATE USER statement, JWARD’s temporary tablespace is
TEMP_TS, a tablespace created explicitly to only contain temporary segments.

Assigning Tablespace Quotas

You can assign each user a tablespace quota for any tablespace. Assigning a quota
does two things:
■ Users with privileges to create certain types of objects can create those objects in
the specified tablespace.
■ Oracle limits the amount of space that can be allocated for storage of a user’s
objects within the specified tablespace to the amount of the quota.
By default, a user has no quota on any tablespace in the database. If the user has the
privilege to create a schema object, you must assign a quota to allow the user to

Managing Users and Resources 23-13

Oracle Users

create objects. Minimally, assign users a quota for the default tablespace, and
additional quotas for other tablespaces in which they will create objects.
You can assign a user either individual quotas for a specific amount of disk space in
each tablespace or an unlimited amount of disk space in all tablespaces. Specific
quotas prevent a user’s objects from consuming too much space in the database.
You can assign a user’s tablespace quotas when you create the user, or add or
change quotas later. If a new quota is less than the old one, then the following
conditions hold true:
■ If a user has already exceeded a new tablespace quota, the user’s objects in the
tablespace cannot be allocated more space until the combined space of these
objects falls below the new quota.
■ If a user has not exceeded a new tablespace quota, or if the space used by the
user’s objects in the tablespace falls under a new tablespace quota, the user’s
objects can be allocated space up to the new quota.

Revoking Tablespace Access You can revoke a user’s tablespace access by changing
the user’s current quota to zero. After a quota of zero is assigned, the user’s objects
in the revoked tablespace remain, but the objects cannot be allocated any new space.

UNLIMITED TABLESPACE System Privilege To permit a user to use an unlimited

amount of any tablespace in the database, grant the user the UNLIMITED
TABLESPACE system privilege. This overrides all explicit tablespace quotas for the
user. If you later revoke the privilege, explicit quotas again take effect. You can
grant this privilege only to users, not to roles.
Before granting the UNLIMITED TABLESPACE system privilege, consider the
consequences of doing so:
Advantage
■ You can grant a user unlimited access to all tablespaces of a database with one
statement.
Disadvantages
■ The privilege overrides all explicit tablespace quotas for the user.
■ You cannot selectively revoke tablespace access from a user with the
UNLIMITED TABLESPACE privilege. You can grant access selectively only
after revoking the privilege.

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Setting Default Roles

You cannot set a user’s default roles in the CREATE USER statement. When you
first create a user, the user’s default role setting is ALL, which causes all roles
subsequently granted to the user to be default roles. Use the ALTER USER
command to change the user’s default roles.

WARNING: When you create a role (other than a user role), it is

granted to you implicitly and added as a default role. You will get
an error at login if you have more than MAX_ENABLED_ROLES.
You can avoid this error by altering the user’s default roles to be
less than MAX_ENABLED_ROLES. Thus, you should change the
DEFAULT ROLE settings of SYS and SYSTEM before creating
user roles.

Altering Users
Users can change their own passwords. However, to change any other option of a
user’s security domain, you must have the ALTER USER system privilege. Security
administrators are normally the only users that have this system privilege, as it
allows a modification of any user’s security domain. This privilege includes the
ability to set tablespace quotas for a user on any tablespace in the database, even if
the user performing the modification does not have a quota for a specified
tablespace.
You can alter a user’s security settings with the SQL statement ALTER USER.
Changing a user’s security settings affects the user’s future sessions, not current
sessions.
The following statement alters the security settings for user AVYRROS:
ALTER USER avyrros
IDENTIFIED EXTERNALLY
DEFAULT TABLESPACE data_ts
TEMPORARY TABLESPACE temp_ts
QUOTA 100M ON data_ts
QUOTA 0 ON test_ts
PROFILE clerk;

The ALTER USER statement here changes AVYRROS’s security settings as follows:
■ Authentication is changed to use AVYRROS’s operating system account.
■ AVYRROS’s default and temporary tablespaces are explicitly set.
■ AVYRROS is given a 100M quota for the DATA_TS tablespace.

Managing Users and Resources 23-15

Oracle Users

■ AVYRROS’s quota on the TEST_TS is revoked.

■ AVYRROS is assigned the CLERK profile.

Changing a User’s Authentication Mechanism

Most non-DBA users can still change their own passwords with the ALTER USER
statement, as follows:
ALTER USER andy
IDENTIFIED BY swordfish;

Users can change their own passwords this way, without any special privileges
(other than those to connect to the database). Users should be encouraged to change
their passwords frequently.
Users must have the ALTER USER privilege to switch between Oracle database
authentication, external authentication, and enterprise authentication; usually, only
DBAs should have this privilege.

Passwords in Multi-Byte Character Sets In a database that uses a multi-byte character

set, passwords must include only single-byte characters. Multi-byte characters are
not accepted in passwords.
See Also: For more information about valid passwords, see the Oracle8i SQL
Reference.

Changing a User’s Default Roles

A default role is one that is automatically enabled for a user when the user creates a
session. You can assign a user zero or more default roles.
See Also: For more information on changing users’ default roles, see Chapter 24,
"Managing User Privileges and Roles".

Dropping Users
When a user is dropped, the user and associated schema are removed from the data
dictionary and all schema objects contained in the user’s schema, if any, are
immediately dropped.

Note: If a user’s schema and associated objects must remain but

the user must be denied access to the database, revoke the CREATE
SESSION privilege from the user.

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A user that is currently connected to a database cannot be dropped. To drop a

connected user, you must first terminate the user’s sessions using the SQL
statement ALTER SYSTEM with the KILL SESSION clause.
To drop a user and all the user’s schema objects (if any), you must have the DROP
USER system privilege. Because the DROP USER system privilege is so powerful, a
security administrator is typically the only type of user that has this privilege.
You can drop a user from a database using the SQL statement DROP USER.
If the user’s schema contains any schema objects, use the CASCADE option to drop
the user and all associated objects and foreign keys that depend on the tables of the
user successfully. If you do not specify CASCADE and the user’s schema contains
objects, an error message is returned and the user is not dropped. Before dropping a
user whose schema contains objects, thoroughly investigate which objects the user’s
schema contains and the implications of dropping them before the user is dropped.
Pay attention to any unknown cascading effects. For example, if you intend to drop
a user who owns a table, check whether any views or procedures depend on that
particular table.
DROP USER jones CASCADE;

See Also: For more information about terminating sessions, see "Terminating
Sessions" on page 4-15.

Managing Resources with Profiles

A profile is a named set of resource limits. If resource limits are turned on, Oracle
limits database usage and instance resources to whatever is defined in the user’s
profile. You can assign a profile to each user, and a default profile to all users who
do not have specific profiles. For profiles to take effect, resource limits must be
turned on for the database as a whole.
This section describes aspects of profile management, and includes the following
topics:
■ Creating Profiles
■ Assigning Profiles
■ Altering Profiles
■ Using Composite Limits
■ Dropping Profiles
■ Enabling and Disabling Resource Limits

Managing Users and Resources 23-17

Managing Resources with Profiles

Creating Profiles
To create a profile, you must have the CREATE PROFILE system privilege. You can
create profiles using the SQL statement CREATE PROFILE. At the same time, you
can explicitly set particular resource limits.
The following statement creates the profile CLERK:
CREATE PROFILE clerk LIMIT
SESSIONS_PER_USER 2
CPU_PER_SESSION unlimited
CPU_PER_CALL 6000
LOGICAL_READS_PER_SESSION unlimited
LOGICAL_READS_PER_CALL 100
IDLE_TIME 30
CONNECT_TIME 480;

All unspecified resource limits for a new profile take the limit set by the DEFAULT
profile. You can also specify limits for the DEFAULT profile.

Using the DEFAULT Profile

Each database has a DEFAULT profile, and its limits are used in two cases:
■ If a user is not explicitly assigned a profile, then the user conforms to all the
limits of the DEFAULT profile.
■ All unspecified limits of any profile use the corresponding limit of the
DEFAULT profile.
Initially, all limits of the DEFAULT profile are set to UNLIMITED. However, to
prevent unlimited resource consumption by users of the DEFAULT profile, the
security administrator should change the default limits using the ALTER PROFILE
statement:
ALTER PROFILE default LIMIT
. . . ;

Any user with the ALTER PROFILE system privilege can adjust the limits in the
DEFAULT profile. The DEFAULT profile cannot be dropped.

Assigning Profiles
After a profile has been created, you can assign it to database users. Each user can
be assigned only one profile at any given time. If a profile is assigned to a user who
already has a profile, the new profile assignment overrides the previously assigned

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 Managing Resources with Profiles

profile. Profile assignments do not affect current sessions. Profiles can be assigned
only to users and not to roles or other profiles.
Profiles can be assigned to users using the SQL statements CREATE USER or
ALTER USER.
See Also: For more information about assigning a profile to a user, see "Creating
Users" on page 23-11 and "Altering Users" on page 23-15.

Altering Profiles
You can alter the resource limit settings of any profile using the SQL statement
ALTER PROFILE. To alter a profile, you must have the ALTER PROFILE system
privilege.
Any adjusted profile limit overrides the previous setting for that profile limit. By
adjusting a limit with a value of DEFAULT, the resource limit reverts to the default
limit set for the database. All profiles not adjusted when altering a profile retain the
previous settings. Any changes to a profile do not affect current sessions. New
profile settings are used only for sessions created after a profile is modified.
The following statement alters the CLERK profile:
ALTER PROFILE clerk LIMIT
CPU_PER_CALL default
LOGICAL_READS_PER_SESSION 20000;

See Also: For information about default profiles, see "Using the DEFAULT Profile"
on page 23-18.

Using Composite Limits

You can limit the total resource cost for a session via composite limits. In addition to
setting specific resource limits explicitly for a profile, you can set a single composite
limit that accounts for resource limits in a profile. You can set a profile’s composite
limit using the COMPOSITE_LIMIT parameter of the SQL statements CREATE
PROFILE or ALTER PROFILE. A composite limit is set via service units, which are
weighted amounts of each resource.
The following CREATE PROFILE statement is defined using the
COMPOSITE_LIMIT parameter:
CREATE PROFILE clerk LIMIT
COMPOSITE_LIMIT 20000
SESSIONS_PER_USER 2
CPU_PER_CALL 1000;

Managing Users and Resources 23-19

Managing Resources with Profiles

Notice that both explicit resource limits and a composite limit can exist concurrently
for a profile. The limit that is reached first stops the activity in a session. Composite
limits allow additional flexibility when limiting the use of system resources.

Determining the Value of the Composite Limit

The correct composite limit depends on the total amount of resource used by an
average profile user. As with each specific resource limit, historical information
should be gathered to determine the normal range of composite resource usage for
a typical profile user.
See Also: For information on how to calculate the composite limit see the Oracle8i
SQL Reference.

Setting Resource Costs

Each system has its own characteristics; some system resources may be more
valuable than others. Oracle enables you to give each system resource a cost. Costs
weight each system resource at the database level. Costs are only applied to the
composite limit of a profile; costs do not apply to set individual resource limits
explicitly.
To set resource costs, you must have the ALTER RESOURCE system privilege.
Only certain resources can be given a cost: CPU_PER_ SESSION,
LOGICAL_READS_PER_SESSION, CONNECT_TIME, and PRIVATE_SGA. Set
costs for a database using the SQL command ALTER RESOURCE COST:
ALTER RESOURCE COST
CPU_PER_SESSION 1
LOGICAL_READS_PER_SESSION 50;

A large cost means that the resource is very expensive, while a small cost means
that the resource is not expensive. By default, each resource is initially given a cost
of 0. A cost of 0 means that the resource should not be considered in the composite
limit (that is, it does not cost anything to use this resource). No resource can be
given a cost of NULL.
See Also: For additional information and recommendations on setting resource
costs, see your operating system-specific Oracle documentation and the Oracle8i
SQL Reference.

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 Managing Resources with Profiles

Dropping Profiles
To drop a profile, you must have the DROP PROFILE system privilege. You can
drop a profile using the SQL statement DROP PROFILE. To successfully drop a
profile currently assigned to a user, use the CASCADE option.
The following statement drops the profile CLERK, even though it is assigned to a
user:
DROP PROFILE clerk CASCADE;

Any user currently assigned to a profile that is dropped is automatically assigned to

the DEFAULT profile. The DEFAULT profile cannot be dropped. Note that when a
profile is dropped, the drop does not affect currently active sessions; only sessions
created after a profile is dropped abide by any modified profile assignments.

Enabling and Disabling Resource Limits

A profile can be created, assigned to users, altered, and dropped at any time by any
authorized database user, but the resource limits set for a profile are enforced only
when you enable resource limitation for the associated database. Resource
limitation enforcement can be enabled or disabled by two different methods, as
described in the next two sections.
To alter the enforcement of resource limitation while the database remains open,
you must have the ALTER SYSTEM system privilege.

Enabling and Disabling Resource Limits Before Startup

If a database can be temporarily shut down, resource limitation can be enabled or
disabled by the RESOURCE_LIMIT initialization parameter in the database’s
parameter file. Valid values for the parameter are TRUE (enables enforcement) and
FALSE; by default, this parameter’s value is set to FALSE. Once the parameter file
has been edited, the database instance must be restarted to take effect. Every time
an instance is started, the new parameter value enables or disables the enforcement
of resource limitation.

Enabling and Disabling Resource Limits While the Database is Open

If a database cannot be temporarily shut down or the resource limitation feature
must be altered temporarily, you can enable or disable the enforcement of resource
limitation using the SQL command ALTER SYSTEM. After an instance is started, an
ALTER SYSTEM statement overrides the value set by the RESOURCE_LIMIT

Managing Users and Resources 23-21

Listing Information About Database Users and Profiles

parameter. For example, the following statement enables the enforcement of

resource limitation for a database:
ALTER SYSTEM
SET RESOURCE_LIMIT = TRUE;

Note: This does not apply to password resources.

An ALTER SYSTEM statement does not permanently determine the enforcement of

resource limitation. If the database is shut down and restarted, the enforcement of
resource limits is determined by the value set for the RESOURCE_LIMIT parameter.

Listing Information About Database Users and Profiles

The data dictionary stores information about every user and profile, including the
following:
■ all users in a database
■ each user’s default tablespace for tables, clusters, and indexes
■ each user’s tablespace for temporary segments
■ each user’s space quotas, if any
■ each user’s assigned profile and resource limits
■ the cost assigned to each applicable system resource
■ each current session’s memory usage
The following data dictionary views may be of interest when you work with
database users and profiles:
■ ALL_USERS
■ USER_USERS
■ DBA_USERS
■ USER_TS_QUOTAS
■ DBA_TS_QUOTAS
■ USER_PASSWORD_LIMITS
■ USER_RESOURCE_LIMITS

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 Listing Information About Database Users and Profiles

■ DBA_PROFILES
■ RESOURCE_COST
■ V$SESSION
■ V$SESSTAT
■ V$STATNAME
See Also: See the Oracle8i Reference for detailed information about each view.

Listing Information about Users and Profiles: Examples

The examples in this section assume a database in which the following statements
have been executed:
CREATE PROFILE clerk LIMIT
SESSIONS_PER_USER 1Oracle8i SQL Reference.
IDLE_TIME 30
CONNECT_TIME 600;

CREATE USER jfee

IDENTIFIED BY wildcat
DEFAULT TABLESPACE users
TEMPORARY TABLESPACE temp_ts
QUOTA 500K ON users
PROFILE clerk;

CREATE USER dcranney

IDENTIFIED BY bedrock
DEFAULT TABLESPACE users
TEMPORARY TABLESPACE temp_ts
QUOTA unlimited ON users;

CREATE USER userscott

IDENTIFIED BY "scott1"
PASSWORD_LIFETIME 60
PASSWORD_GRACE_TIME 10;

Listing All Users and Associated Information

The following query lists users and their associated information as defined in the
database:
SELECT username, profile, account_status from dba_users;
USERNAME PROFILE ACCOUNT_STATUS
--------------- --------------- ----------------
SYS DEFAULT OPEN

Managing Users and Resources 23-23

Listing Information About Database Users and Profiles

SYSTEM DEFAULT OPEN

BLAKE DEFAULT OPEN
SCOTT DEFAULT OPEN
ADAMS DEFAULT OPEN
JFEE DEFAULT OPEN
DCRANNEY DEFAULT OPEN
JONES DEFAULT OPEN
CLARK DEFAULT OPEN
U DEFAULT LOCKED

All passwords are encrypted to preserve security.

Listing All Tablespace Quotas

The following query lists all tablespace quotas specifically assigned to each user:
SELECT * FROM sys.dba_ts_quotas;
TABLESPACE USERNAME BYTES MAX_BYTES BLOCKS MAX_BLOCKS
---------- --------- -------- ---------- ------- ----------
SYSTEM SYSTEM 0 0 0 0
SYSTEM JFEE 0 512000 0 250
SYSTEM DCRANNEY 0 -1 0 -1

When specific quotas are assigned, the exact number is indicated in the
MAX_BYTES column. Unlimited quotas are indicated by "-1".

Listing All Profiles and Assigned Limits

The following query lists all profiles in the database and associated settings for each
limit in each profile:
SELECT * FROM sys.dba_profiles
ORDER BY profile;
PROFILE RESOURCE_NAME RESOURCE LIMIT

------------------------- --------------- ---------- --------------

DEFAULT COMPOSITE_LIMIT KERNEL UNLIMITED
DEFAULT SESSIONS_PER_USER KERNEL 1
DEFAULT CPU_PER_CALL KERNEL UNLIMITED
DEFAULT LOGICAL_READS_PER_CALL KERNEL UNLIMITED
DEFAULT CONNECT_TIME KERNEL 30
DEFAULT IDLE_TIME KERNEL 600
DEFAULT LOGICAL_READS_PER_SESSION KERNEL UNLIMITED
DEFAULT CPU_PER_SESSION KERNEL UNLIMITED
DEFAULT PRIVATE_SGA KERNEL UNLIMITED
DEFAULT FAILED_LOGIN_ATTEMPTS PASSWORD UNLIMITED
DEFAULT PASSWORD_LIFE_TIME PASSWORD UNLIMITED
DEFAULT PASSWORD_REUSE_MAX PASSWORD UNLIMITED

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 Listing Information About Database Users and Profiles

DEFAULT PASSWORD_LOCK_TIME PASSWORD UNLIMITED

DEFAULT PASSWORD_GRACE_TIME PASSWORD UNLIMITED
DEFAULT PASSWORD_VERIFY_FUNCTION PASSWORD UNLIMITED
DEFAULT PASSWORD_REUSE_TIME PASSWORD UNLIMITED
PROF COMPOSITE_LIMIT KERNEL DEFAULT
PROF PRIVATE_SGA KERNEL DEFAULT
PROF CONNECT_TIME KERNEL DEFAULT
PROF IDLE_TIME KERNEL DEFAULT
PROF LOGICAL_READS_PER_CALL KERNEL DEFAULT
PROF LOGICAL_READS_PER_SESSION KERNEL DEFAULT
PROF SESSIONS_PER_USER KERNEL DEFAULT
PROF CPU_PER_CALL KERNEL DEFAULT
PROF CPU_PER_SESSION KERNEL DEFAULT
PROF FAILED_LOGIN_ATTEMPTS PASSWORD 5
PROF PASSWORD_LIFE_TIME PASSWORD 60
PROF PASSWORD_REUSE_MAX PASSWORD UNLIMITED
PROF PASSWORD_LOCK_TIME PASSWORD 1
PROF PASSWORD_GRACE_TIME PASSWORD 10
PROF PASSWORD_VERIFY_FUNCTION PASSWORD UNLIMITED
PROF PASSWORD_REUSE_TIME PASSWORD 60
32 rows selected.

Viewing Memory Use Per User Session

The following query lists all current sessions, showing the Oracle user and current
memory use per session:
SELECT username, value || ’bytes’ "Current session memory"
FROM v$session sess, v$sesstat stat, v$statname name
WHERE sess.sid = stat.sid
AND stat.statistic# = name.statistic#
AND name.name = ’SESSION_MEMORY’;

The amount of space indicated in "Current session memory" is allocated in the

shared pool for each session connected through the multi-threaded server. You can
limit the amount of memory allocated per user with the PRIVATE_SGA resource
limit.
To see the maximum memory ever allocated to each session since the instance
started, replace ’session memory’ in the query above with ’max session memory’.

Managing Users and Resources 23-25

Examples

Examples
This section contains examples that use functions described throughout this
chapter.
1. The following statement creates the profile prof:
CREATE PROFILE prof limit
FAILED_LOGIN_ATTEMPTS 5
PASSWORD_LIFE_TIME 60
PASSWORD_REUSE_MAX 60
PASSWORD_REUSE_TIME UNLIMITED
PASSWORD_VERIFY_FUNCTION verify_function
PASSWORD_LOCK_TIME 1
PASSWORD_GRACE_TIME 10;

2. The following statement creates a user with the same password as the username
with profile prof;
CREATE USER userscott IDENTIFIED BY userscott PROFILE prof;
ORA-28003: Password verification for the specified password failed
ORA-20001: Password same as user

3. The following statement creates user userscott identified by "scott1%" with

profile prof;
CREATE USER userscott IDENTIFIED BY "scott%" PROFILE prof;

4. The following statement changes the user's password to "scott%" again and
returns an error:
ALTER USER userscott IDENTIFIED BY "scott%";
ORA-28007: The password cannot be reused

5. The following statement locks the user account:

ALTER USER userscott ACCOUNT LOCK;

6. The following statement checks the user account status:

SELECT username, user_id, account_status, lock_date
FROM dba_users
WHERE username='USERSCOTT';

7. The following statement expires the password:

ALTER USER userscott PASSWORD EXPIRE;

8. The following statement checks the user account status:

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 Examples

SELECT username, user_id, account_status, expiry_date

FROM dba_users
WHERE username='USERSCOTT';

9. The following statement unlocks the user:

ALTER USER userscott ACCOUNT UNLOCK;

10. The following statement checks the account status:

SELECT username, user_id, account_status, expiry_date
FROM dba_users
WHERE username='USERSCOTT';

Managing Users and Resources 23-27

Examples

23-28 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 24
Managing User Privileges and Roles

This chapter explains how to control the ability to execute system operations and
access to schema objects using privileges and roles. The following topics are
included:
■ Identifying User Privileges
■ Managing User Roles
■ Granting User Privileges and Roles
■ Revoking User Privileges and Roles
■ Granting Roles Using the Operating System or Network
■ Listing Privilege and Role Information
See Also: For information about controlling access to a database, see Chapter 23.
For suggested general database security policies, see Chapter 22.

Managing User Privileges and Roles 24-1

Identifying User Privileges

Identifying User Privileges

This section describes Oracle user privileges, and includes the following topics:
■ System Privileges
■ Object Privileges
A user privilege is a right to execute a particular type of SQL statement, or a right to access
another user’s object. Oracle also provides shortcuts for grouping privileges that are
commonly granted or revoked together.

System Privileges
There are over 100 distinct system privileges. Each system privilege allows a user to
perform a particular database operation or class of database operations.
For security reasons, system privileges do not allow users to access the data
dictionary. Hence, users with ANY privileges (such as UPDATE ANY TABLE,
SELECT ANY TABLE or CREATE ANY INDEX) cannot access dictionary tables and
views that have not been granted to PUBLIC.

WARNING: System privileges can be very powerful, and should

be cautiously granted to roles and trusted users of the database.
Users with the ANY privilege cannot access the data dictionary.

See Also: For a complete list/description of system privileges, see the Oracle8i SQL
Reference.

System Privilege Restrictions

The dictionary protection mechanism prevents unauthorized users from accessing
dictionary objects.
Access to dictionary objects is restricted to the users SYSDBA and SYSOPER.
System privileges providing access to objects in other schemas do not give you
access to dictionary objects. For example, the SELECT ANY TABLE privilege allows
you to access views and tables in other schemas, but does not enable you to select
dictionary objects (base tables of dynamic performance views, views, packages, and
synonyms).
Also, attempting to connect with the SQL*Plus command connect SYS/
password results in failure. However, the following two SQL*Plus commands are
valid:

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 Identifying User Privileges

connect SYS/password as SYSDBA

connect SYS/password as SYSOPER

Accessing Frequently Used Dictionary Objects

Users with explicit object privileges and the SYSDBA can access dictionary objects.
If, however, you need access to dictionary objects and do not have explicit object
privileges, you can be granted the following roles:
■ SELECT_CATALOG_ROLE
Enables users to SELECT all exported catalog views and tables granted to this
role. Grant this role to users who must access all exported views and tables in
the data dictionary.
■ EXECUTE_CATALOG_ROLE
Provides EXECUTE privilege on exported packages in the dictionary.
■ DELETE_CATALOG_ROLE
Enables users to delete records from the AUD$ table.
These roles enable database administrators to access certain objects in the dictionary
while maintaining dictionary security.

Note: SYSDBA should not grant any user the object privileges for
nonexported objects in the dictionary; doing so may compromise
the integrity of the database.

See Also: For details about any exported table or view, see the Oracle8i Reference.

Object Privileges
Each type of object has different privileges associated with it. For a detailed list of
objects and associated privileges, see the Oracle8i SQL Reference.

Object Privilege Shortcut

The ALL and ALL PRIVILEGES shortcuts grant or revoke all available object
privileges for a object. This shortcut is not a privilege; rather, it is a way of granting
or revoking all object privileges with one word in GRANT and REVOKE

Managing User Privileges and Roles 24-3

Managing User Roles

statements. Note that if all object privileges are granted using the ALL shortcut,
individual privileges can still be revoked.
Likewise, all individually granted privileges can be revoked using the ALL
shortcut. However, if you REVOKE ALL, and revoking causes integrity constraints
to be deleted (because they depend on a REFERENCES privilege that you are
revoking), you must include the CASCADE CONSTRAINTS option in the REVOKE
statement.

Managing User Roles

This section describes aspects of managing roles, and includes the following topics:
■ Creating a Role
■ Predefined Roles
A role groups several privileges and roles, so that they can be granted to and revoked
from users simultaneously. Roles can be enabled and disabled per user.
See Also: For information about roles, see Oracle8i Concepts.

Creating a Role
You can create a role using the SQL statement CREATE ROLE.
You must have the CREATE ROLE system privilege to create a role. Typically, only
security administrators have this system privilege.

Note: Immediately after creation, a role has no privileges

associated with it. To associate privileges with a new role, you must
grant privileges or other roles to the new role.

The following statement creates the CLERK role, which is authorized by the
database using the password BICENTENNIAL:
CREATE ROLE clerk
IDENTIFIED BY bicentennial;

Role Names
You must give each role you create a unique name among existing usernames and
role names of the database. Roles are not contained in the schema of any user.

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 Managing User Roles

Role Names in Multi-Byte Character Sets

In a database that uses a multi-byte character set, Oracle recommends that each role
name contain at least one single-byte character. If a role name contains only multi-
byte characters, the encrypted role name/password combination is considerably
less secure.

Predefined Roles
The roles listed in Table 24–1 are automatically defined for Oracle databases. These
roles are provided for backward compatibility to earlier versions of Oracle. You can
grant and revoke privileges and roles to these predefined roles, much the way you
do with any role you define.

Table 24–1 Predefined Roles

Role Name Privileges Granted To Role
CONNECT1 ALTER SESSION, CREATE CLUSTER,
CREATE DATABASE LINK, CREATE
SEQUENCE, CREATE SESSION, CREATE
SYNONYM, CREATE TABLE, CREATE
VIEW
CREATE TYPE 7 CREATE TYPE, EXECUTE, EXECUTE ANY
TYPE
RESOURCE 1,2 CREATE CLUSTER, CREATE INDEXTYPE,
CREATE OPERATOR, CREATE
PROCEDURE, CREATE SEQUENCE,
CREATE TABLE, CREATE TRIGGER,
CREATE TYPE
DBA 1,3, 4 All system privileges WITH ADMIN
OPTION
EXP_FULL_DATABASE 5 SELECT ANY TABLE, BACKUP ANY
TABLE, INSERT, DELETE, AND UPDATE
ON THE TABLES SYS.INCVID, SYS.INCFIL,
AND SYS.INCEXP
IMP_FULL_DATABASE 5 BECOME USER
6
DELETE_CATALOG_ROLE DELETE privileges on all dictionary
packages for this role.
EXECUTE_CATALOG_ROLE 6 EXECUTE privilege on all dictionary
packages for this role.
SELECT_CATALOG_ROLE 6 SELECT privilege on all catalog tables and
views for this role.

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Managing User Roles

Table 24–1 Predefined Roles (Cont.)

Role Name Privileges Granted To Role
RECOVERY_CATALOG_OWNER8 DROP ROLE
RECOVERY_CATALOG_OWNER, CREATE
ROLE RECOVERY_CATALOG_OWNER,,
CREATE TRIGGER, CREATE PROCEDURE
TO RECOVERY_CATALOG_OWNER
HS_ADMIN_ROLE9 HS_EXTERNAL_OBJECT,
HS_EXTERNAL_USER
AQ_USER_ROLE10
AQ_ADMINISTRATOR_ROLE10
SNMPAGENT11
1Created by SQL.BSQ. For backward compatibility. Not recommended for use.
2Grantees of the RESOURCE role also receive the UNLIMITED TABLESPACE system privilege
as an explicit grant (not as part of the RESOURCE role). For backward compatibility. Not
recommended for use.
3Grantees of the DBA role also receive the UNLIMITED TABLESPACE system privilege with
the ADMIN option as an explicit grant (not as part of the DBA role). Therefore when the DBA
role is revoked, any explicit grant of UNLIMITED TABLESPACE is also revoked.
4Also includes the EXP_FULL_DATABASE and IMP_FULL_DATABASE roles if CATEXP.SQL
has been run.
5Created by CATEXP.SQL.
6These roles must be granted to users who do not have the DBA role, but require access to the
views and tables in the data dictionary.
7The CREATE TYPE command is only available if the Oracle objects option is installed on your
database server.
8Created by CAT.SQL.
9Created by CATQUEUE.SQL.
10Only granted when you have the Advanced Queuing option.
11Only granted when you have the Intelligent Agents option.

Role Authorization
A database role can optionally require authorization when a user attempts to enable
the role. Role authorization can be maintained by the database (using passwords),
by the operating system, or by a network service.
To alter the authorization method for a role, you must have the ALTER ANY ROLE
system privilege or have been granted the role with the ADMIN OPTION.
See Also: For more information about network roles, see Oracle8i Distributed
Database Systems.

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 Managing User Roles

Role Authorization by the Database

The use of a role can be protected by an associated password. If you are granted a
role protected by a password, you can enable or disable the role only by supplying
the proper password for the role in a SET ROLE statement.

Note: In a database that uses a multi-byte character set,

passwords for roles must include only single-byte characters.
Multi-byte characters are not accepted in passwords.

See Also: For more information about valid passwords, see the Oracle8i Reference.

Role Authorization by the Operating System

The following statement creates a role named ACCTS_REC and requires that the
operating system authorize its use:
CREATE ROLE role IDENTIFIED EXTERNALLY;

Role authentication via the operating system is useful only when the operating
system is able to dynamically link operating system privileges with applications.
When a user starts an application, the operating system grants an operating system
privilege to the user. The granted operating system privilege corresponds to the role
associated with the application. At this point, the application can enable the
application role. When the application is terminated, the previously granted
operating system privilege is revoked from the user’s operating system account.
If a role is authorized by the operating system, you must configure information for
each user at the operating system level. This operation is operating system
dependent.
If roles are granted by the operating system, you do not need to have the operating
system authorize them also; this is redundant.
See Also: For more information about roles granted by the operating system, see
"Granting Roles Using the Operating System or Network" on page 24-16.

Role Authorization and Network Clients

If users connect to the database over Net8, by default their roles cannot be
authenticated by the operating system. This includes connections through a multi-
threaded server, as this connection requires Net8. This restriction is the default

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Managing User Roles

because a remote user could impersonate another operating system user over a
network connection.
If you are not concerned with this security risk and want to use operating system
role authentication for network clients, set the parameter REMOTE_OS_ROLES in
the database’s parameter file to TRUE. The change will take effect the next time you
start the instance and mount the database. (The parameter is FALSE by default.)

Withholding Authorization
A role can also be created without authorization. If a role is created without any
protection, the role can be enabled or disabled by any grantee.

Changing a Role’s Authorization

You can set and change the authorization method for a role using the SQL statement
ALTER ROLE.
The following statement alters the CLERK role to be authorized externally:
ALTER ROLE clerk
IDENTIFIED EXTERNALLY;

Changing a User’s Default Roles

A user’s list of default roles can be set and altered using the SQL statement ALTER
USER.
See Also: See "Altering Users" on page 23-15 for more information about these
options.

Using the MAX_ENABLED_ROLES Parameter A user can enable as many roles as specified
by the initialization parameter MAX_ENABLED_ROLES. All indirectly granted roles
enabled as a result of enabling a primary role are included in this count. The database
administrator can alter this limitation by modifying the value for this parameter. Higher
values permit each user session to have more concurrently enabled roles. However, the
larger the value for this parameter, the more memory space is required on behalf of each
user session; this is because the PGA size is affected for each user session, and requires 4
bytes per role. Determine the highest number of roles that will be concurrently enabled
by any one user and use this value for the MAX_ENABLED_ROLES parameter.

Dropping Roles
In some cases, it may be appropriate to drop a role from the database. The security
domains of all users and roles granted a dropped role are immediately changed to

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 Granting User Privileges and Roles

reflect the absence of the dropped role’s privileges. All indirectly granted roles of
the dropped role are also removed from affected security domains. Dropping a role
automatically removes the role from all users’ default role lists.
Because the creation of objects is not dependent on the privileges received via a role,
tables and other objects are not dropped when a role is dropped.
To drop a role, you must have the DROP ANY ROLE system privilege or have been
granted the role with the ADMIN OPTION.
You can drop a role using the SQL statement DROP ROLE.
The following statement drops the role CLERK:
DROP ROLE clerk;

Granting User Privileges and Roles

This section describes aspects of granting privileges and roles, and includes the
following topics:
■ Granting System Privileges and Roles
■ Granting Object Privileges and Roles
■ Granting Privileges on Columns

Granting System Privileges and Roles

You can grant system privileges and roles to other roles and users using the SQL
statement GRANT.
To grant a system privilege or role, you must have the ADMIN OPTION for all
system privileges and roles being granted. Also, any user with the GRANT ANY
ROLE system privilege can grant any role in a database.
The following statement grants the system privilege and the ACCTS_PAY role to the
user JWARD:
GRANT create session, accts_pay
TO jward;

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Granting User Privileges and Roles

Note: Object privileges cannot be granted along with system

privileges and roles in the same GRANT statement.

The ADMIN Option

When a user creates a role, the role is automatically granted to the creator with the
ADMIN OPTION. A grantee with the ADMIN option has several expanded
capabilities:
■ The grantee can grant or revoke the system privilege or role to or from any user
or other role in the database. (Users cannot revoke a role from themselves.)
■ The grantee can further grant the system privilege or role with the ADMIN
OPTION.
■ The grantee of a role can alter or drop the role.
In the following statement, the security administrator grants the NEW_DBA role to
MICHAEL:
GRANT new_dba TO michael WITH ADMIN OPTION;

The user MICHAEL can not only use all of the privileges implicit in the NEW_DBA
role, but can grant, revoke, or drop the NEW_DBA role as deemed necessary.
Because of these powerful capabilities, exercise caution when granting system
privileges or roles with the ADMIN OPTION. Such privileges are usually reserved
for a security administrator and rarely granted to other administrators or users of
the system.

Granting Object Privileges and Roles

You can grant object privileges to roles and users using the SQL command GRANT.
To grant an object privilege, you must fulfill one of the following conditions:
■ You own the object specified.
■ You have been granted the object privileges being granted with the GRANT
OPTION.
The following statement grants the SELECT, INSERT, and DELETE object privileges
for all columns of the EMP table to the users JFEE and TSMITH:

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 Granting User Privileges and Roles

GRANT select, insert, delete ON emp TO jfee, tsmith;

To grant the INSERT object privilege for only the ENAME and JOB columns of the
EMP table to the users JFEE and TSMITH, issue the following statement:
GRANT insert(ename, job) ON emp TO jfee, tsmith;

To grant all object privileges on the SALARY view to the user JFEE, use the ALL
shortcut, as shown in the following example:
GRANT ALL ON salary TO jfee;

Note: System privileges and roles cannot be granted along with

object privileges in the same GRANT statement.

The GRANT OPTION

The user whose schema contains an object is automatically granted all associated
object privileges with the GRANT OPTION. This special privilege allows the
grantee several expanded privileges:
■ The grantee can grant the object privilege to any users in the database, with or
without the GRANT OPTION, or to any role in the database.
■ If the grantee receives object privileges for a table with the GRANT OPTION
and the grantee has the CREATE VIEW or CREATE ANY VIEW system
privilege, the grantee can create views on the table and grant the corresponding
privileges on the view to any user or role in the database.
The GRANT OPTION is not valid when granting an object privilege to a role.
Oracle prevents the propagation of object privileges via roles so that grantees of a
role cannot propagate object privileges received by means of roles.

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Revoking User Privileges and Roles

Granting Privileges on Columns

You can grant INSERT, UPDATE, or REFERENCES privileges on individual
columns in a table.

WARNING: Before granting a column-specific INSERT privilege,

determine if the table contains any columns on which NOT
NULL constraints are defined. Granting selective insert capability
without including the NOT NULL columns prevents the user
from inserting any rows into the table. To avoid this situation,
make sure that each NOT NULL column is either insertable or
has a non-NULL default value. Otherwise, the grantee will not be
able to insert rows into the table and will receive an error.

Grant INSERT privilege on the ACCT_NO column of the ACCOUNTS table to

SCOTT:
GRANT INSERT (acct_no)
ON accounts TO scott;

Revoking User Privileges and Roles

This section describes aspects of revoking user privileges and roles, and includes
the following topics:
■ Revoking System Privileges and Roles
■ Revoking Object Privileges and Roles

Revoking System Privileges and Roles

You can revoke system privileges and/or roles using the SQL statement REVOKE.
Any user with the ADMIN OPTION for a system privilege or role can revoke the
privilege or role from any other database user or role The revoker does not have to
be the user that originally granted the privilege or role. Also, users with the
GRANT ANY ROLE can revoke any role.
The following statement revokes the CREATE TABLE system privilege and the
ACCTS_REC role from TSMITH:
REVOKE create table, accts_rec FROM tsmith;

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 Revoking User Privileges and Roles

Note: The ADMIN OPTION for a system privilege or role cannot

be selectively revoked. The privilege or role must be revoked and
then the privilege or role re-granted without the ADMIN OPTION.

Revoking Object Privileges and Roles

You can revoke object privileges using the SQL command REVOKE.
To revoke an object privilege, the revoker must be the original grantor of the object
privilege being revoked.
For example, assuming you are the original grantor, to revoke the SELECT and
INSERT privileges on the EMP table from the users JFEE and TSMITH, you would
issue the following statement:
REVOKE select, insert ON emp
FROM jfee, tsmith;

The following statement revokes all privileges (which were originally granted to the
role HUMAN_RESOURCE) from the table DEPT:
REVOKE ALL ON dept FROM human_resources;

Note: This statement above would only revoke the privileges that
the grantor authorized, not the grants made by other users. The
GRANT OPTION for an object privilege cannot be selectively
revoked. The object privilege must be revoked and then re-granted
without the GRANT OPTION. Users cannot revoke object
privileges from themselves.

Revoking Column-Selective Object Privileges

Although users can grant column-selective INSERT, UPDATE, and REFERENCES
privileges for tables and views, they cannot selectively revoke column specific
privileges with a similar REVOKE statement. Instead, the grantor must first revoke
the object privilege for all columns of a table or view, and then selectively re-grant
the column-specific privileges that should remain.
For example, assume that role HUMAN_RESOURCES has been granted the
UPDATE privilege on the DEPTNO and DNAME columns of the table DEPT. To

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Revoking User Privileges and Roles

revoke the UPDATE privilege on just the DEPTNO column, you would issue the
following two statements:
REVOKE UPDATE ON dept FROM human_resources;
GRANT UPDATE (dname) ON dept TO human_resources;

The REVOKE statement revokes UPDATE privilege on all columns of the DEPT table
from the role HUMAN_RESOURCES. The GRANT statement re-grants UPDATE
privilege on the DNAME column to the role HUMAN_RESOURCES.

Revoking the REFERENCES Object Privilege

If the grantee of the REFERENCES object privilege has used the privilege to create a
foreign key constraint (that currently exists), the grantor can revoke the privilege
only by specifying the CASCADE CONSTRAINTS option in the REVOKE
statement:
REVOKE REFERENCES ON dept FROM jward CASCADE CONSTRAINTS;

Any foreign key constraints currently defined that use the revoked REFERENCES
privilege are dropped when the CASCADE CONSTRAINTS options is specified.

Effects of Revoking Privileges

Depending on the type of privilege, there may be cascading effects when a privilege
is revoked.

System Privileges
There are no cascading effects when revoking a system privilege related to DDL
operations, regardless of whether the privilege was granted with or without the
ADMIN OPTION. For example, assume the following:
1. The security administrator grants the CREATE TABLE system privilege to JFEE
with the ADMIN OPTION.
2. JFEE creates a table.
3. JFEE grants the CREATE TABLE system privilege to TSMITH.
4. TSMITH creates a table.
5. The security administrator revokes the CREATE TABLE system privilege from
JFEE.
6. JFEE’s table continues to exist. TSMITH still has the table and the CREATE
TABLE system privilege.

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 Revoking User Privileges and Roles

Cascading effects can be observed when revoking a system privilege related to a

DML operation. For example, if SELECT ANY TABLE is granted to a user, and that
user has created any procedures, all procedures contained in the user’s schema
must be re-authorized before they can be used again.

Object Privileges
Revoking an object privilege may have cascading effects that should be investigated
before issuing a REVOKE statement.
■ Object definitions that depend on a DML object privilege can be affected if the
DML object privilege is revoked. For example, assume the procedure body of
the TEST procedure includes a SQL statement that queries data from the EMP
table. If the SELECT privilege on the EMP table is revoked from the owner of
the TEST procedure, the procedure can no longer be executed successfully.
■ Object definitions that require the ALTER and INDEX DDL object privileges are
not affected if the ALTER or INDEX object privilege is revoked. For example, if
the INDEX privilege is revoked from a user that created an index on someone
else’s table, the index continues to exist after the privilege is revoked.
■ When a REFERENCES privilege for a table is revoked from a user, any foreign
key integrity constraints defined by the user that require the dropped
REFERENCES privilege are automatically dropped. For example, assume that
the user JWARD is granted the REFERENCES privilege for the DEPTNO
column of the DEPT table and creates a foreign key on the DEPTNO column in
the EMP table that references the DEPTNO column. If the REFERENCES
privilege on the DEPTNO column of the DEPT table is revoked, the foreign key
constraint on the DEPTNO column of the EMP table is dropped in the same
operation.
■ The object privilege grants propagated using the GRANT OPTION are revoked
if a grantor’s object privilege is revoked. For example, assume that USER1 is
granted the SELECT object privilege with the GRANT OPTION, and grants the
SELECT privilege on EMP to USER2. Subsequently, the SELECT privilege is
revoked from USER1. This revoke is cascaded to USER2 as well. Any objects
that depended on USER1’s and USER2’s revoked SELECT privilege can also be
affected, as described in previous bullet items.

Granting to and Revoking from the User Group PUBLIC

Privileges and roles can also be granted to and revoked from the user group
PUBLIC. Because PUBLIC is accessible to every database user, all privileges and
roles granted to PUBLIC are accessible to every database user.

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Granting Roles Using the Operating System or Network

Security administrators and database users should grant a privilege or role to

PUBLIC only if every database user requires the privilege or role. This
recommendation reinforces the general rule that at any given time, each database
user should only have the privileges required to accomplish the group’s current
tasks successfully.
Revoking a privilege from PUBLIC can cause significant cascading effects. If any
privilege related to a DML operation is revoked from PUBLIC (for example,
SELECT ANY TABLE, UPDATE ON emp), all procedures in the database, including
functions and packages, must be reauthorized before they can be used again. Therefore,
exercise caution when granting DML-related privileges to PUBLIC.
See Also: For more information about object dependencies, see "Managing Object
Dependencies" on page 20-23.

When Do Grants and Revokes Take Effect?

Depending on what is granted or revoked, a grant or revoke takes effect at different
times:
■ All grants/revokes of system and object privileges to anything (users, roles, and
PUBLIC) are immediately observed.
■ All grants/revokes of roles to anything (users, other roles, PUBLIC) are only
observed when a current user session issues a SET ROLE statement to re-enable
the role after the grant/revoke, or when a new user session is created after the
grant/revoke.

Granting Roles Using the Operating System or Network

This section describes aspects of granting roles via your operating system or
network, and includes the following topics:
■ Using Operating System Role Identification
■ Using Operating System Role Management
■ Granting and Revoking Roles When OS_ROLES=TRUE
■ Enabling and Disabling Roles When OS_ROLES=TRUE
■ Using Network Connections with Operating System Role Management
Instead of a security administrator explicitly granting and revoking database roles
to and from users using GRANT and REVOKE statements, the operating system
that operates Oracle can grant roles to users at connect time. Roles can be

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administered using the operating system and passed to Oracle when a user creates
a session. As part of this mechanism, each user’s default roles and the roles granted
to a user with the ADMIN OPTION can be identified. Even if the operating system
is used to authorize users for roles, all roles must be created in the database and
privileges assigned to the role with GRANT statements.
Roles can also be granted through a network service. For information about
network roles, see Oracle8i Distributed Database Systems.
The advantage of using the operating system to identify a user’s database roles is
that privilege management for an Oracle database can be externalized. The security
facilities offered by the operating system control a user’s privileges. This option
may offer advantages of centralizing security for a number of system activities. For
example, MVS Oracle administrators may want RACF groups to identify a database
user’s roles, UNIX Oracle administrators may want UNIX groups to identify a
database user’s roles, or VMS Oracle administrators may want to use rights
identifiers to identify a database user’s roles.
The main disadvantage of using the operating system to identify a user’s database
roles is that privilege management can only be performed at the role level.
Individual privileges cannot be granted using the operating system, but can still be
granted inside the database using GRANT statements.
A secondary disadvantage of using this feature is that by default users cannot
connect to the database through the multi-threaded server, or any other network
connection, if the operating system is managing roles. However, you can change
this default; see "Using Network Connections with Operating System Role
Management" on page 24-19.
See Also: The features described in this section are available only on some
operating systems. This information is operating system-dependent; see your
operating system-specific Oracle documentation.

Using Operating System Role Identification

To operate a database so that it uses the operating system to identify each user’s
database roles when a session is created, set the initialization parameter OS_ROLES
to TRUE (and restart the instance, if it is currently running). When a user attempts
to create a session with the database, Oracle initializes the user’s security domain
using the database roles identified by the operating system.
To identify database roles for a user, each Oracle user’s operating system account
must have operating system identifiers (these may be called groups, rights
identifiers, or other similar names) that indicate which database roles are to be

Managing User Privileges and Roles 24-17

Granting Roles Using the Operating System or Network

available for the user. Role specification can also indicate which roles are the default
roles of a user and which roles are available with the ADMIN OPTION. No matter
which operating system is used, the role specification at the operating system level
follows the format:
ORA_<ID>_<ROLE>[_[D][A]]
where:

ID
The definition of ID varies on different operating systems. For example, on VMS, ID
is the instance identifier of the database; on MVS, it is the machine type; on UNIX, it
is the system ID.

D
This optional character indicates that this role is to be a default role of the database
user.

A
This optional character indicates that this role is to be granted to the user with the
ADMIN OPTION. This allows the user to grant the role to other roles only. (Roles
cannot be granted to users if the operating system is used to manage roles.)

Note: If either the D or A characters are specified, they must be

preceded by an underscore.

For example, an operating system account might have the following roles identified
in its profile:
ORA_PAYROLL_ROLE1
ORA_PAYROLL_ROLE2_A
ORA_PAYROLL_ROLE3_D
ORA_PAYROLL_ROLE4_DA

When the corresponding user connects to the PAYROLL instance of Oracle, ROLE3
and ROLE4 are defaults, while ROLE2 and ROLE4 are available with the ADMIN
OPTION.

Using Operating System Role Management

When you use operating system managed roles, it is important to note that database
roles are being granted to an operating system user. Any database user to which the
OS user is able to connect will have the authorized database roles enabled. For this
reason, you should consider defining all Oracle users as IDENTIFIED

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 Granting Roles Using the Operating System or Network

EXTERNALLY if you are using OS_ROLES = TRUE, so that the database accounts
are tied to the OS account that was granted privileges.

Granting and Revoking Roles When OS_ROLES=TRUE

If OS_ROLES is set to TRUE, the operating system completely manages the grants
and revokes of roles to users. Any previous grants of roles to users via GRANT
statements do not apply; however, they are still listed in the data dictionary. Only the role
grants made at the operating system level to users apply. Users can still grant privileges
to roles and users.

Note: If the operating system grants a role to a user with the

ADMIN OPTION, the user can grant the role only to other roles.

Enabling and Disabling Roles When OS_ROLES=TRUE

If OS_ROLES is set to TRUE, any role granted by the operating system can be
dynamically enabled using the SET ROLE command. If the role was defined to
require a password or operating system authorization, that still applies. However,
any role not identified in a user’s operating system account cannot be specified in a
SET ROLE statement, even if a role has been granted using a GRANT statement
when OS_ROLES = FALSE. (If you specify such a role, Oracle ignores it.)
When OS_ROLES = TRUE, a user can enable as many roles as specified by the
parameter MAX_ENABLED_ROLES.

Using Network Connections with Operating System Role Management

If you want to have the operating system manage roles, by default users cannot
connect to the database through the multi-threaded server. This restriction is the
default because a remote user could impersonate another operating system user
over a non-secure connection.
If you are not concerned with this security risk and want to use operating system
role management with the multi-threaded server, or any other network connection,
set the parameter REMOTE_OS_ROLES in the database’s parameter file to TRUE.
The change will take effect the next time you start the instance and mount the
database. (The default setting of this parameter is FALSE.)

Managing User Privileges and Roles 24-19

Listing Privilege and Role Information

Listing Privilege and Role Information

To list the grants made for objects, a user can query the following data dictionary
views:
■ ALL_COL_PRIVS, USER_COL_PRIVS, DBA_COL_PRIVS
■ ALL_COL_PRIVS_MADE, USER_COL_PRIVS_MADE
■ ALL_COL_PRIVS_RECD, USER_COL_PRIVS_RECD
■ ALL_TAB_PRIVS, USER_TAB_PRIVS, DBA_TAB_PRIVS
■ ALL_TAB_PRIVS_MADE, USER_TAB_PRIVS_MADE
■ ALL_TAB_PRIVS_RECD, USER_TAB_PRIVS_RECD
■ DBA_ROLES
■ USER_ROLE_PRIVS, DBA_ROLE_PRIVS
■ USER_SYS_PRIVS, DBA_SYS_PRIVS
■ COLUMN_PRIVILEGES
■ ROLE_ROLE_PRIVS, ROLE_SYS_PRIVS, ROLE_TAB_PRIVS
■ SESSION_PRIVS, SESSION_ROLES
See Also: See the Oracle8i Reference for a detailed description of these data dictionary
views.

Listing Privilege and Role Information: Examples

For the following examples, assume the following statements are issued:
CREATE ROLE security_admin IDENTIFIED BY honcho;

GRANT create profile, alter profile, drop profile,

create role, drop any role, grant any role, audit any,
audit system, create user, become user, alter user, drop user
TO security_admin WITH ADMIN OPTION;

GRANT SELECT, DELETE ON sys.aud$ TO security_admin;

GRANT security_admin, create session TO swilliams;

GRANT security_admin TO system_administrator;

GRANT create session TO jward;

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 Listing Privilege and Role Information

GRANT SELECT, DELETE ON emp TO jward;

GRANT INSERT (ename, job) ON emp TO swilliams, jward;

Listing All System Privilege Grants

The following query indicates all system privilege grants made to roles and users:
SELECT * FROM sys.dba_sys_privs;

GRANTEE PRIVILEGE ADM

-------------- --------------------------------- ---
SECURITY_ADMIN ALTER PROFILE YES
SECURITY_ADMIN ALTER USER YES
SECURITY_ADMIN AUDIT ANY YES
SECURITY_ADMIN AUDIT SYSTEM YES
SECURITY_ADMIN BECOME USER YES
SECURITY_ADMIN CREATE PROFILE YES
SECURITY_ADMIN CREATE ROLE YES
SECURITY_ADMIN CREATE USER YES
SECURITY_ADMIN DROP ANY ROLE YES
SECURITY_ADMIN DROP PROFILE YES
SECURITY_ADMIN DROP USER YES
SECURITY_ADMIN GRANT ANY ROLE YES
SWILLIAMS CREATE SESSION NO
JWARD CREATE SESSION NO

Listing All Role Grants

The following query returns all the roles granted to users and other roles:
SELECT * FROM sys.dba_role_privs;

GRANTEE GRANTED_ROLE ADM

------------------ ------------------------------------ ---
SWILLIAMS SECURITY_ADMIN NO

Listing Object Privileges Granted to a User

The following query returns all object privileges (not including column-specific
privileges) granted to the specified user:
SELECT table_name, privilege, grantable FROM sys.dba_tab_privs
WHERE grantee = ’JWARD’;

TABLE_NAME PRIVILEGE GRANTABLE

----------- ------------ ----------
EMP SELECT NO

Managing User Privileges and Roles 24-21

Listing Privilege and Role Information

EMP DELETE NO

To list all the column-specific privileges that have been granted, use the following
query:
SELECT grantee, table_name, column_name, privilege
FROM sys.dba_col_privs;

GRANTEE TABLE_NAME COLUMN_NAME PRIVILEGE

----------- ------------ ------------- --------------
SWILLIAMS EMP ENAME INSERT
SWILLIAMS EMP JOB INSERT
JWARD EMP NAME INSERT
JWARD EMP JOB INSERT

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 Listing Privilege and Role Information

Listing the Current Privilege Domain of Your Session

The following query lists all roles currently enabled for the issuer:
SELECT * FROM session_roles;

If SWILLIAMS has enabled the SECURITY_ADMIN role and issues this query,
Oracle returns the following information:
ROLE
------------------------------
SECURITY_ADMIN

The following query lists all system privileges currently available in the issuer’s
security domain, both from explicit privilege grants and from enabled roles:
SELECT * FROM session_privs;

If SWILLIAMS has the SECURITY_ADMIN role enabled and issues this query,
Oracle returns the following results:
PRIVILEGE
----------------------------------------
AUDIT SYSTEM
CREATE SESSION
CREATE USER
BECOME USER
ALTER USER
DROP USER
CREATE ROLE
DROP ANY ROLE
GRANT ANY ROLE
AUDIT ANY
CREATE PROFILE
ALTER PROFILE
DROP PROFILE

If the SECURITY_ADMIN role is disabled for SWILLIAMS, the first query would
have returned no rows, while the second query would only return a row for the
CREATE SESSION privilege grant.

Listing Roles of the Database

The DBA_ROLES data dictionary view can be used to list all roles of a database and
the authentication used for each role. For example, the following query lists all the
roles in the database:
SELECT * FROM sys.dba_roles;

Managing User Privileges and Roles 24-23

Listing Privilege and Role Information

ROLE PASSWORD
---------------- --------
CONNECT NO
RESOURCE NO
DBA NO
SECURITY_ADMIN YES

Listing Information About the Privilege Domains of Roles

The ROLE_ROLE_PRIVS, ROLE_SYS_PRIVS, and ROLE_TAB_PRIVS data
dictionary views contain information on the privilege domains of roles.
For example, the following query lists all the roles granted to the SYSTEM_ADMIN
role:
SELECT granted_role, admin_option
FROM role_role_privs
WHERE role = ’SYSTEM_ADMIN’;
GRANTED_ROLE ADM
---------------- ----
SECURITY_ADMIN NO

The following query lists all the system privileges granted to the
SECURITY_ADMIN role:
SELECT * FROM role_sys_privs WHERE role = ’SECURITY_ADMIN’;

ROLE PRIVILEGE ADM

----------------------- ----------------------------- ---
SECURITY_ADMIN ALTER PROFILE YES
SECURITY_ADMIN ALTER USER YES
SECURITY_ADMIN AUDIT ANY YES
SECURITY_ADMIN AUDIT SYSTEM YES
SECURITY_ADMIN BECOME USER YES
SECURITY_ADMIN CREATE PROFILE YES
SECURITY_ADMIN CREATE ROLE YES
SECURITY_ADMIN CREATE USER YES
SECURITY_ADMIN DROP ANY ROLE YES
SECURITY_ADMIN DROP PROFILE YES
SECURITY_ADMIN DROP USER YES
SECURITY_ADMIN GRANT ANY ROLE YES

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 Listing Privilege and Role Information

The following query lists all the object privileges granted to the
SECURITY_ADMIN role:
SELECT table_name, privilege FROM role_tab_privs
WHERE role = ’SECURITY_ADMIN’;

TABLE_NAME PRIVILEGE
--------------------------- ----------------
AUD$ DELETE
AUD$ SELECT

Managing User Privileges and Roles 24-25

Listing Privilege and Role Information

24-26 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 25
Auditing Database Use

This chapter describes how to use the Oracle auditing facilities, and includes the
following topics:
■ Guidelines for Auditing
■ Creating and Deleting the Database Audit Trail Views
■ Managing Audit Trail Information
■ Viewing Database Audit Trail Information
■ Auditing Through Database Triggers

Auditing Database Use 25-1

Guidelines for Auditing

Guidelines for Auditing

This section describes guidelines for auditing and includes the following topics:
■ Audit via the Database or Operating System
■ Keep Audited Information Manageable

Audit via the Database or Operating System

The data dictionary of every database has a table named SYS.AUD$, commonly
referred to as the database audit trail.
Either the database or operating system audit trail can store all audit records
generated as the result of statement, privilege, or object auditing.
Your operating system may or may not support database auditing to the operating
system audit trail. If this option is available, consider the advantages and
disadvantages of using either the database or operating system auditing trail to
store database audit records.
Using the database audit trail offers the following advantages:
■ You can view selected portions of the audit trail with the predefined audit trail
views of the data dictionary.
■ You can use Oracle tools (such as Oracle Reports) to generate audit reports.
Alternatively, your operating system audit trail may allow you to consolidate audit
records from multiple sources including Oracle and other applications. Therefore,
examining system activity might be more efficient because all audit records are in
one place.
See Also: Your operating system may also contain an audit trail that stores audit
records generated by the operating system auditing facility. However, this facility is
operating system-dependent. See your operating system-specific Oracle
documentation.

Keep Audited Information Manageable

Although auditing is relatively inexpensive, limit the number of audited events as
much as possible. This will minimize the performance impact on the execution of
statements that are audited, and minimize the size of the audit trail.
Use the following general guidelines when devising an auditing strategy:
■ Evaluate your purpose for auditing.

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 Guidelines for Auditing

After you have a clear understanding of the reasons for auditing, you can
devise an appropriate auditing strategy and avoid unnecessary auditing.
For example, suppose you are auditing to investigate suspicious database
activity. This information by itself is not specific enough. What types of
suspicious database activity do you suspect or have you noticed? A more
focused auditing purpose might be to audit unauthorized deletions from
arbitrary tables in the database. This purpose narrows the type of action being
audited and the type of object being affected by the suspicious activity.
■ Audit knowledgeably.
Audit the minimum number of statements, users, or objects required to get the
targeted information. This prevents unnecessary audit information from
cluttering the meaningful information and consuming valuable space in the
SYSTEM tablespace. Balance your need to gather sufficient security information
with your ability to store and process it.
For example, if you are auditing to gather information about database activity,
determine exactly what types of activities you are tracking, audit only the
activities of interest, and audit only for the amount of time necessary to gather
the information you desire. Do not audit objects if you are only interested in
each session’s logical I/O information.

Auditing Suspicious Database Activity

When you audit to monitor suspicious database activity, use the following
guidelines:
■ Audit generally, then specifically.
When starting to audit for suspicious database activity, it is common that not
much information is available to target specific users or schema objects.
Therefore, audit options must be set more generally at first. Once preliminary
audit information is recorded and analyzed, the general audit options should be
turned off and more specific audit options enabled. This process should
continue until enough evidence is gathered to make concrete conclusions about
the origin of the suspicious database activity.
■ Protect the audit trail.
When auditing for suspicious database activity, protect the audit trail so that
audit information cannot be added, changed, or deleted without being audited.
See Also: For more information about the audit trail, see "Protecting the Audit
Trail" on page 25-16.

Auditing Database Use 25-3

Creating and Deleting the Database Audit Trail Views

Auditing Normal Database Activity

When your purpose for auditing is to gather historical information about particular
database activities, use the following guidelines:
■ Audit only pertinent actions.
To avoid cluttering meaningful information with useless audit records and
reduce the amount of audit trail administration, only audit the targeted
database activities.
■ Archive audit records and purge the audit trail.
After you have collected the required information, archive the audit records of
interest and purge the audit trail of this information.

Creating and Deleting the Database Audit Trail Views

This section describes how to create and delete database audit trail views, and
includes the following topics:
■ Creating the Audit Trail Views
■ Deleting the Audit Trail Views
The database audit trail (SYS.AUD$) is a single table in each Oracle database’s data
dictionary. To help you view meaningful auditing information in this table, several
predefined views are provided. They must be created for you to use auditing; you
can later delete them if you decide not to use auditing.
Audit trail views are created automatically when you run the script
CATALOG.SQL.

Creating the Audit Trail Views

If you decide to use auditing, create the auditing views by connecting as SYS and
running the script CATAUDIT.SQL. This script creates the following views:
■ STMT_AUDIT_OPTION_MAP
■ AUDIT_ACTIONS
■ ALL_DEF_AUDIT_OPTS
■ DBA_STMT_AUDIT_OPTS
■ USER_OBJ_AUDIT_OPTS, DBA_OBJ_AUDIT_OPTS
■ USER_AUDIT_TRAIL, DBA_AUDIT_TRAIL

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 Managing Audit Trail Information

■ USER_AUDIT_SESSION, DBA_AUDIT_SESSION
■ USER_AUDIT_STATEMENT, DBA_AUDIT_STATEMENT
■ USER_AUDIT_OBJECT, DBA_AUDIT_OBJECT
■ DBA_AUDIT_EXISTS
■ USER_AUDIT_SESSION, DBA_AUDIT_SESSION
■ USER_TAB_AUDIT_OPTS
See Also: For information about these views, see the Oracle8i Reference.
For examples of audit information interpretations, see "Viewing Database Audit
Trail Information" on page 25-17.

Deleting the Audit Trail Views

If you disable auditing and no longer need the audit trail views, delete them by
connecting to the database as SYS and running the script file CATNOAUD.SQL.
The name and location of the CATNOAUD.SQL script are operating system-
dependent.

Managing Audit Trail Information

This section describes various aspects of managing audit trail information, and
includes the following topics:
■ Events Audited by Default
■ Setting Auditing Options
■ Enabling and Disabling Database Auditing
■ Controlling the Growth and Size of the Audit Trail
■ Protecting the Audit Trail
Depending on the events audited and the auditing options set, the audit trail
records can contain different types of information. The following information is
always included in each audit trail record, provided that the information is
meaningful to the particular audit action:
■ user name
■ session identifier
■ terminal identifier

Auditing Database Use 25-5

Managing Audit Trail Information

■ name of the object accessed

■ operation performed or attempted
■ completion code of the operation
■ date and time stamp
Audit trail records written to the operating system audit trail contain some
encodings that are not readable. These can be decoded as follows:

Action Code
This describes the operation performed or attempted. The AUDIT_ACTIONS data
dictionary table contains a list of these codes and their descriptions.

Privileges Used
This describes any system privileges used to perform the operation. The
SYSTEM_PRIVILEGE_MAP table lists all of these codes, and their descriptions.

Completion Code
This describes the result of the attempted operation. Successful operations return a
value of zero, while unsuccessful operations return the Oracle error code describing
why the operation was unsuccessful.

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 Managing Audit Trail Information

Events Audited by Default

Regardless of whether database auditing is enabled,Oracle will always audit certain
database-related actions into the operating system audit trail. These events include
the following:
instance startup An audit record is generated that lists the OS user
starting the instance, the user’s terminal identifier, the
date and time stamp, and whether database auditing
was enabled or disabled. This is stored in the OS audit
trail because the database audit trail is not available
until after startup has successfully completed.
Recording the state of database auditing at startup
also prevents an administrator from restarting a
database with database auditing disabled (so they can
perform unaudited actions).
instance shutdown An audit record is generated that lists the OS user
shutting down the instance, the user’s terminal
identifier, the date and time stamp.
connections to the An audit record is generated that lists the OS user
database with connecting to Oracle as SYSOPER or SYSDBA, to
administrator provide accountability of users with administrator
privileges privileges.

On operating systems that do not make an audit trail accessible to Oracle, these
audit trail records are placed in an Oracle audit trail file in the same directory as
background process trace files.

Setting Auditing Options

Depending on the auditing options set, audit records can contain different types of
information. However, all auditing options generate the following information:
■ the user that executed the audited statement
■ the action code (a number) that indicates the audited statement executed by the
user
■ the object or objects referenced in the audited statement
■ the date and time that the audited statement was executed
The audit trail does not store information about any data values that might be
involved in the audited statement. For example, old and new data values of
updated rows are not stored when an UPDATE statement is audited. However, this

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Managing Audit Trail Information

specialized type of auditing can be performed on DML statements involving tables

by using database triggers.
Oracle allows you to set audit options at three levels:

statement audits on the type of SQL statement used, such as any

SQL statement on a table (which records each CREATE,
TRUNCATE, and DROP TABLE statement)

privilege audits use of a particular system privilege, such as

CREATE TABLE

object audits specific statements on specific objects, such as

ALTER TABLE on the EMP table

See Also: For examples of trigger usage for this specialized type of auditing, see
"Auditing Through Database Triggers" on page 25-20.

Statement Audit Options

Valid statement audit options that can be included in AUDIT and NOAUDIT
statements are listed in the Oracle8i SQL Reference.

Shortcuts for Statement Audit Options Shortcuts are provided so that you can specify
several related statement options with one word.
Shortcuts are not statement options themselves; rather, they are ways of specifying
sets of related statement options with one word in AUDIT and NOAUDIT
statements. Shortcuts for system privileges and statement options are detailed in the
Oracle8i SQL Reference.

Auditing Connections and Disconnections

The SESSION statement option (and CONNECT shortcut) is unique because it does
not generate an audit record when a particular type of statement is issued; this
option generates a single audit record for each session created by connections to an
instance. An audit record is inserted into the audit trail at connect time and updated
at disconnect time. Cumulative information about a session such as connection
time, disconnection time, logical and physical I/Os processed, and more is stored in
a single audit record that corresponds to the session.
See Also: The Oracle8i SQL Reference also lists additional audit options not covered
by the shortcuts.

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 Managing Audit Trail Information

Privilege Audit Options

Privilege audit options exactly match the corresponding system privileges. For
example, the option to audit use of the DELETE ANY TABLE privilege is DELETE
ANY TABLE. To turn this option on, you would use a statement similar to the
following example:
AUDIT DELETE ANY TABLE
BY ACCESS
WHENEVER NOT SUCCESSFUL;

Oracle’s system privileges are listed in "System Privileges" on page 24-2.

Object Audit Options

The Oracle8i SQL Reference lists valid object audit options and the schema object
types for which each option is available.

Shortcut for Object Audit Options The ALL shortcut can be used to specify all available
object audit options for a schema object. This shortcut is not an option itself; rather,
it is a way of specifying all object audit options with one word in AUDIT and
NOAUDIT statements.

Enabling Audit Options

The SQL statement AUDIT turns on statement and privilege audit options, and
object audit options. To use it to set statement and privilege options, you must have
the AUDIT SYSTEM privilege. To use it to set object audit options, you must own
the object to be audited or have the AUDIT ANY privilege. Audit statements that
set statement and privilege audit options can include a BY clause to specify a list of
users or application proxies to limit the scope of the statement and privilege audit
options.
You can set any auditing option, and specify the following conditions for auditing:
■ WHENEVER SUCCESSFUL/WHENEVER NOT SUCCESSFUL
■ BY SESSION/BY ACCESS
A new database session picks up auditing options from the data dictionary when
the session is created. These auditing options remain in force for the duration of the
database connection. Setting new system or object auditing options causes all

Auditing Database Use 25-9

Managing Audit Trail Information

subsequent database sessions to use these options; existing sessions will continue
using the audit options in place at session creation.

WARNING: The AUDIT statement only specifies auditing

options; it does not enable auditing as a whole. To turn auditing
on and control whether Oracle generates audit records based on
the audit options currently set, set the parameter AUDIT_TRAIL
in the database’s parameter file.

See Also: For a complete description of the AUDIT command, see the Oracle8i SQL
Reference.
For more information about enabling and disabling auditing, see "Enabling and
Disabling Database Auditing" on page 25-13.

Enabling Statement Privilege Auditing To audit all successful and unsuccessful

connections to and disconnections from the database, regardless of user, BY
SESSION (the default and only value for this option), enter the following statement:
AUDIT SESSION;

You can set this option selectively for individual users also, as in the next example:
AUDIT SESSION
BY scott, lori;

To audit all successful and unsuccessful uses of the DELETE ANY TABLE system
privilege, enter the following statement:
AUDIT DELETE ANY TABLE;

To audit all unsuccessful SELECT, INSERT, and DELETE statements on all tables
and unsuccessful uses of the EXECUTE PROCEDURE system privilege, by all
database users, and by individual audited statement, issue the following statement:
AUDIT SELECT TABLE, INSERT TABLE, DELETE TABLE,
EXECUTE PROCEDURE
BY ACCESS
WHENEVER NOT SUCCESSFUL;

The AUDIT SYSTEM system privilege is required to set any statement or privilege
audit option. Normally, the security administrator is the only user granted this
system privilege.

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 Managing Audit Trail Information

Enabling Object Auditing To audit all successful and unsuccessful DELETE statements
on the SCOTT.EMP table, BY SESSION (the default value), enter the following
statement:
AUDIT DELETE ON scott.emp;

To audit all successful SELECT, INSERT, and DELETE statements on the DEPT table
owned by user JWARD, BY ACCESS, enter the following statement:
AUDIT SELECT, INSERT, DELETE
ON jward.dept
BY ACCESS
WHENEVER SUCCESSFUL;

To set the default object auditing options to audit all unsuccessful SELECT
statements, BY SESSION (the default), enter the following statement:
AUDIT SELECT
ON DEFAULT
WHENEVER NOT SUCCESSFUL;

A user can set any object audit option for the objects contained in the user’s schema.
The AUDIT ANY system privilege is required to set an object audit option for an
object contained in another user’s schema or to set the default object auditing
options; normally, the security administrator is the only user granted this system
privilege.

Disabling Audit Options

The NOAUDIT command turns off the various audit options of Oracle. Use it to
reset statement and privilege audit options, and object audit options. A NOAUDIT
statement that sets statement and privilege audit options can include the BY USER
option to specify a list of users to limit the scope of the statement and privilege
audit options.
You can use a NOAUDIT statement to disable an audit option selectively using the
WHENEVER clause. If the clause is not specified, the auditing option is disabled
entirely, for both successful and unsuccessful cases.

Auditing Database Use 25-11

Managing Audit Trail Information

The BY SESSION/BY ACCESS option pair is not supported by the NOAUDIT

command; audit options, no matter how they were turned on, are turned off by an
appropriate NOAUDIT statement.

WARNING: The NOAUDIT statement only specifies auditing

options; it does not disable auditing as a whole. To turn auditing
off and stop Oracle from generating audit records, even though
you have audit options currently set, set the parameter
AUDIT_TRAIL in the database’s parameter file.

See Also: For a complete syntax listing of the NOAUDIT command, see the Oracle8i
SQL Reference.
Also see "Enabling and Disabling Database Auditing" on page 25-13.

Disabling Statement and Privilege Auditing

The following statements turn off the corresponding audit options:
NOAUDIT session;
NOAUDIT session BY scott, lori;
NOAUDIT DELETE ANY TABLE;
NOAUDIT SELECT TABLE, INSERT TABLE, DELETE TABLE,
EXECUTE PROCEDURE;

The following statements turn off all statement (system) and privilege audit
options:
NOAUDIT ALL;
NOAUDIT ALL PRIVILEGES;

To disable statement or privilege auditing options, you must have the AUDIT
SYSTEM system privilege.

Disabling Object Auditing The following statements turn off the corresponding
auditing options:
NOAUDIT DELETE
ON emp;
NOAUDIT SELECT, INSERT, DELETE
ON jward.dept;

Furthermore, to turn off all object audit options on the EMP table, enter the
following statement:
NOAUDIT ALL

25-12 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Managing Audit Trail Information

ON emp;

Disabling Default Object Audit Options To turn off all default object audit options, enter
the following statement:
NOAUDIT ALL
ON DEFAULT;

Note that all schema objects created before this NOAUDIT statement is issued
continue to use the default object audit options in effect at the time of their creation,
unless overridden by an explicit NOAUDIT statement after their creation.
To disable object audit options for a specific object, you must be the owner of the
schema object. To disable the object audit options of an object in another user’s
schema or to disable default object audit options, you must have the AUDIT ANY
system privilege. A user with privileges to disable object audit options of an object
can override the options set by any user.

Enabling and Disabling Database Auditing

Any authorized database user can set statement, privilege, and object auditing
options at any time, but Oracle does not generate and store audit records in the
audit trail unless database auditing is enabled. The security administrator is
normally responsible for this operation.
Database auditing is enabled and disabled by the AUDIT_TRAIL initialization
parameter in the database’s parameter file. The parameter can be set to the
following values:

DB enables database auditing and directs all

audit records to the database audit trail
OS enables database auditing and directs all
audit records to the operating system
audit trail

NONE disables auditing (This value is the

default.)

After you have edited the parameter file, restart the database instance to enable or
disable database auditing as intended.

Auditing Database Use 25-13

Managing Audit Trail Information

See Also: For more information about editing parameter files, see the Oracle8i
Reference.

Controlling the Growth and Size of the Audit Trail

If the audit trail becomes completely full and no more audit records can be inserted,
audited statements cannot be successfully executed until the audit trail is purged.
Warnings are returned to all users that issue audited statements. Therefore, the
security administrator must control the growth and size of the audit trail.
When auditing is enabled and audit records are being generated, the audit trail
grows according to two factors:
■ the number of audit options turned on
■ the frequency of execution of audited statements
To control the growth of the audit trail, you can use the following methods:
■ Enable and disable database auditing. If it is enabled, audit records are
generated and stored in the audit trail; if it is disabled, audit records are not
generated.
■ Be very selective about the audit options that are turned on. If more selective
auditing is performed, useless or unnecessary audit information is not
generated and stored in the audit trail.
■ Tightly control the ability to perform object auditing. This can be done two
different ways:
– A security administrator owns all objects and the AUDIT ANY system
privilege is never granted to any other user. Alternatively, all schema
objects can belong to a schema for which the corresponding user does not
have CREATE SESSION privilege.
– All objects are contained in schemas that do not correspond to real database
users (that is, the CREATE SESSION privilege is not granted to the
corresponding user) and the security administrator is the only user granted
the AUDIT ANY system privilege.
In both scenarios, object auditing is controlled entirely by the security
administrator.
The maximum size of the database audit trail (SYS.AUD$ table) is predetermined
during database creation. By default, up to 99 extents, each 10K in size, can be
allocated for this table.

25-14 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Managing Audit Trail Information

You cannot move SYS.AUD$ to another tablespace as a means of controlling the

growth and size of the audit trail. However, you can modify the default storage
parameters (except INITIAL) in SYS.AUD$.
See Also: If you are directing audit records to the operating system audit trail, see
your operating system-specific Oracle documentation for more information about
managing the operating system audit trail.
For more details on the SYS.AUD$ storage parameters, see the Oracle8i Reference.

Purging Audit Records from the Audit Trail

After auditing is enabled for some time, the security administrator may want to
delete records from the database audit trail both to free audit trail space and to
facilitate audit trail management.
For example, to delete all audit records from the audit trail, enter the following
statement:
DELETE FROM sys.aud$;

Alternatively, to delete all audit records from the audit trail generated as a result of
auditing the table EMP, enter the following statement:
DELETE FROM sys.aud$
WHERE obj$name=’EMP’;

If audit trail information must be archived for historical purposes, the security
administrator can copy the relevant records to a normal database table (for
example, using "INSERT INTO table SELECT ... FROM sys.aud$ ...") or export the
audit trail table to an operating system file.
Only the user SYS, a user who has the DELETE ANY TABLE privilege, or a user to
whom SYS has granted DELETE privilege on SYS.AUD$ can delete records from the
database audit trail.

Note: If the audit trail is completely full and connections are being
audited (that is, if the SESSION option is set), typical users cannot
connect to the database because the associated audit record for the
connection cannot be inserted into the audit trail. In this case, the
security administrator must connect as SYS (operations by SYS are
not audited) and make space available in the audit trail.

See Also: For information about exporting tables, see Oracle8i Utilities.

Auditing Database Use 25-15

Managing Audit Trail Information

Reducing the Size of the Audit Trail

As with any database table, after records are deleted from the database audit trail,
the extents allocated for this table still exist.
If the database audit trail has many extents allocated for it, but many of them are
not being used, the space allocated to the database audit trail can be reduced using
the following steps:
1. If you want to save information currently in the audit trail, copy it to another
database table or export it using the EXPORT utility.
2. Connect as with administrator privileges.
3. Truncate SYS.AUD$ using the TRUNCATE command.
4. Reload archived audit trail records generated from Step 1.
The new version of SYS.AUD$ is allocated only as many extents as are necessary to
contain current audit trail records.

Note: SYS.AUD$ is the only SYS object that should ever be

directly modified.

Protecting the Audit Trail

When auditing for suspicious database activity, protect the integrity of the audit
trail’s records to guarantee the accuracy and completeness of the auditing
information.
To protect the database audit trail from unauthorized deletions, grant the DELETE
ANY TABLE system privilege to security administrators only.
To audit changes made to the database audit trail, use the following statement:
AUDIT INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE
ON sys.aud$
BY ACCESS;

Audit records generated as a result of object audit options set for the SYS.AUD$
table can only be deleted from the audit trail by someone connected with
administrator privileges, which itself has protection against unauthorized use. As a
final measure of protecting the audit trail, any operation performed while
connected with administrator privileges is audited in the operating system audit
trail, if available.

25-16 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Viewing Database Audit Trail Information

See Also: For more information about the availability of an operating system audit
trail and possible uses, see your operating system-specific Oracle documentation.

Viewing Database Audit Trail Information

This section offers examples that demonstrate how to examine and interpret the
information in the audit trail, and includes the following topics:
■ Listing Active Statement Audit Options
■ Listing Active Privilege Audit Options
■ Listing Active Object Audit Options for Specific Objects
■ Listing Default Object Audit Options
■ Listing Audit Records
■ Listing Audit Records for the AUDIT SESSION Option
You may have to audit a database for the following suspicious activities:
■ Passwords, tablespace settings, and quotas for some database users are being
altered without authorization.
■ A high number of deadlocks are occurring, most likely because of users
acquiring exclusive table locks.
■ Rows are arbitrarily being deleted from the EMP table in SCOTT’s schema.
As an example, say that you suspect the users JWARD and SWILLIAMS of several
of these detrimental actions. The database administrator may then issue the
following statements (in order):
AUDIT ALTER, INDEX, RENAME ON DEFAULT
BY SESSION;
CREATE VIEW scott.employee AS SELECT * FROM scott.emp;
AUDIT SESSION BY jward, swilliams;
AUDIT ALTER USER;
AUDIT LOCK TABLE
BY ACCESS
WHENEVER SUCCESSFUL;
AUDIT DELETE ON scott.emp
BY ACCESS
WHENEVER SUCCESSFUL;

The following statements are subsequently issued by the user JWARD:

ALTER USER tsmith QUOTA 0 ON users;
DROP USER djones;

Auditing Database Use 25-17

Viewing Database Audit Trail Information

The following statements are subsequently issued by the user SWILLIAMS:

LOCK TABLE scott.emp IN EXCLUSIVE MODE;
DELETE FROM scott.emp WHERE mgr = 7698;
ALTER TABLE scott.emp ALLOCATE EXTENT (SIZE 100K);
CREATE INDEX scott.ename_index ON scott.emp (ename);
CREATE PROCEDURE scott.fire_employee (empid NUMBER) AS
BEGIN
DELETE FROM scott.emp WHERE empno = empid;
END;
/

EXECUTE scott.fire_employee(7902);

The following sections show the information that can be listed using the audit trail
views in the data dictionary.

Listing Active Statement Audit Options

The following query returns all the statement audit options that are set:
SELECT * FROM sys.dba_stmt_audit_opts;

USER_NAME AUDIT_OPTION SUCCESS FAILURE

-------------------- ------------------- ---------- ---------
JWARD SESSION BY SESSION BY SESSION
SWILLIAMS SESSION BY SESSION BY SESSION
LOCK TABLE BY ACCESS NOT SET

Notice that the view reveals the statement audit options set, whether they are set for
success or failure (or both), and whether they are set for BY SESSION or BY
ACCESS.

Listing Active Privilege Audit Options

The following query returns all the privilege audit options that are set:
SELECT * FROM sys.dba_priv_audit_opts;

USER_NAME PRIVILEGE SUCCESS FAILURE

------------------- -------------------- --------- ----------
ALTER USER BY SESSION BY SESSION

25-18 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Viewing Database Audit Trail Information

Listing Active Object Audit Options for Specific Objects

The following query returns all audit options set for any objects contained in
SCOTT’s schema:
SELECT * FROM sys.dba_obj_audit_opts
WHERE owner = ’SCOTT’ AND object_name LIKE ’EMP%’;

OWNER OBJECT_NAME OBJECT_TY ALT AUD COM DEL GRA IND INS LOC ...
----- ----------- --------- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ...
SCOTT EMP TABLE S/S -/- -/- A/- -/- S/S -/- -/- ...
SCOTT EMPLOYEE VIEW -/- -/- -/- A/- -/- S/S -/- -/- ...

Notice that the view returns information about all the audit options for the specified
object. The information in the view is interpreted as follows:
■ The character "-" indicates that the audit option is not set.
■ The character "S" indicates that the audit option is set, BY SESSION.
■ The character "A" indicates that the audit option is set, BY ACCESS.
■ Each audit option has two possible settings, WHENEVER SUCCESSFUL and
WHENEVER NOT SUCCESSFUL, separated by "/". For example, the DELETE
audit option for SCOTT.EMP is set BY ACCESS for successful delete statements
and not set at all for unsuccessful delete statements.

Listing Default Object Audit Options

The following query returns all default object audit options:
SELECT * FROM all_def_audit_opts;

ALT AUD COM DEL GRA IND INS LOC REN SEL UPD REF EXE
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
S/S -/- -/- -/- -/- S/S -/- -/- S/S -/- -/- -/- -/-

Notice that the view returns information similar to the USER_OBJ_AUDIT_OPTS

and DBA_OBJ_AUDIT_OPTS views (see previous example).

Listing Audit Records

The following query lists audit records generated by statement and object audit
options:
SELECT * FROM sys.dba_audit_object;

Auditing Database Use 25-19

Auditing Through Database Triggers

Listing Audit Records for the AUDIT SESSION Option

The following query lists audit information corresponding to the AUDIT SESSION
statement audit option:
SELECT username, logoff_time, logoff_lread, logoff_pread,
logoff_lwrite, logoff_dlock
FROM sys.dba_audit_session;

USERNAME LOGOFF_TI LOGOFF_LRE LOGOFF_PRE LOGOFF_LWR LOGOFF_DLO

---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
JWARD 02-AUG-91 53 2 24 0
SWILLIAMS 02-AUG-91 3337 256 630 0

Auditing Through Database Triggers

You can use triggers to supplement the built-in auditing features of Oracle.
Although you can write triggers to record information similar to that recorded by
the AUDIT command, do so only when you need more detailed audit information.
For example, you can use triggers to provide value-based auditing on a per-row
basis for tables.

Note: In some fields, the Oracle AUDIT command is considered a

security audit facility, while triggers can provide a financial audit
facility.

When deciding whether to create a trigger to audit database activity, consider the
advantages that the standard Oracle database auditing features provide compared
to auditing by triggers:
■ Standard auditing options cover DML and DDL statements regarding all types
of schema objects and structures.
■ All database audit information is recorded centrally and automatically using
the auditing features of Oracle.
■ Auditing features enabled using the standard Oracle features are easier to
declare and maintain and less prone to errors than are auditing functions
defined through triggers.
■ Any changes to existing auditing options can also be audited to guard against
malicious database activity.

25-20 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Auditing Through Database Triggers

■ Using the database auditing features, you can generate records once every time
an audited statement is issued (BY ACCESS) or once for every session that
issues an audited statement (BY SESSION). Triggers cannot audit by session; an
audit record is generated each time a trigger-audited table is referenced.
■ Database auditing can audit unsuccessful data access. In comparison, any audit
information generated by a trigger is rolled back if the triggering statement is
rolled back.
■ Connections and disconnections, as well as session activity (such as physical
I/Os, logical I/Os, and deadlocks), can be recorded by standard database
auditing.
When using triggers to provide sophisticated auditing, normally use AFTER
triggers. By using AFTER triggers, you record auditing information after the
triggering statement is subjected to any applicable integrity constraints, preventing
cases where audit processing is carried out unnecessarily for statements that
generate exceptions to integrity constraints.
When you should use AFTER row as opposed to AFTER statement triggers
depends on the information being audited. For example, row triggers provide
value-based auditing on a per-row basis for tables. Triggers can also allow the user
to supply a "reason code" for issuing the audited SQL statement, which can be
useful in both row and statement-level auditing situations.
The following trigger audits modifications to the EMP table on a per-row basis. It
requires that a "reason code" be stored in a global package variable before the
update. The trigger demonstrates the following:
■ how triggers can provide value-based auditing
■ how to use public package variables
Comments within the code explain the functionality of the trigger.
CREATE TRIGGER audit_employee
AFTER INSERT OR DELETE OR UPDATE ON emp
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
/* AUDITPACKAGE is a package with a public package
variable REASON. REASON could be set by the
application by a command such as EXECUTE
AUDITPACKAGE.SET_REASON(reason_string). Note that a
package variable has state for the duration of a
session and that each session has a separate copy of
all package variables. */
IF auditpackage.reason IS NULL THEN
raise_application_error(-20201,’Must specify reason with ’,

Auditing Database Use 25-21

Auditing Through Database Triggers

’AUDITPACKAGE.SET_REASON(reason_string)’);
END IF;

/* If the above conditional evaluates to TRUE, the

user-specified error number and message is raised,
the trigger stops execution, and the effects of the
triggering statement are rolled back. Otherwise, a
new row is inserted into the pre-defined auditing
table named AUDIT_EMPLOYEE containing the existing
and new values of the EMP table and the reason code
defined by the REASON variable of AUDITPACKAGE. Note
that the "old" values are NULL if triggering
statement is an INSERT and the "new" values are NULL
if the triggering statement is a DELETE. */
INSERT INTO audit_employee VALUES
(:old.ssn, :old.name, :old.job_classification, :old.sal,
:new.ssn, :new.name, :new.job_classification, :new.sal,
auditpackage.reason, user, sysdate );
END;

Optionally, you can also set the reason code back to NULL if you want to force the
reason code to be set for every update. The following AFTER statement trigger sets
the reason code back to NULL after the triggering statement is executed:
CREATE TRIGGER audit_employee_reset
AFTER INSERT OR DELETE OR UPDATE ON emp
BEGIN
auditpackage.set_reason(NULL);
END;

The previous two triggers are both fired by the same type of SQL statement.
However, the AFTER row trigger is fired once for each row of the table affected by
the triggering statement, while the AFTER statement trigger is fired only once after
the triggering statement execution is completed.

25-22 Oracle8i Administrator’s Guide

 Index
A revoking, 24-12
admin_tables procedure, 19-3, 19-11
abort AFTER triggers
shutting down an instance, 3-12 auditing and, 25-21
access ALERT file
data about, 4-10
managing, 24-1 location of, 4-11
system privileges, 24-2 session high water mark in, 23-7
database size of, 4-11
controling, 23-1 using, 4-10
database administrator account, 1-4 when written, 4-12
granting privileges, 24-9 ALL_INDEXES view
restricting, 3-4 filling with data, 20-5
revoking privileges, 24-12 ALL_TAB_COLUMNS view
object filling with data, 20-5
granting privileges, 24-10 ALL_TABLES view
privilege types, 24-3 filling with data, 20-5
revoking privileges, 24-12 allocation
accounts extents, 14-11
operating-system extents for clusters, 17-9
database administrator, 1-4 minimizing extents for rollback segments, 21-13
role identification, 24-17 temporary space, 14-6
user alphanumeric datatypes, 12-17
SYS and SYSTEM, 1-5 ALTER CLUSTER command
active destination state ALLOCATE EXTENT option, 17-9
for archived redo logs, 7-14 MAXTRANS option, 12-9
ADD LOGFILE MEMBER option using for hash clusters, 18-8
ALTER DATABASE command, 6-12 using for index clusters, 17-9
ADD LOGFILE option ALTER DATABASE command
ALTER DATABASE command, 6-11 ADD LOGFILE MEMBER option, 6-12
ADD PARTITION clause ADD LOGFILE option, 6-11
ALTER TABLE command, 13-11 ARCHIVELOG option, 7-7
ADMIN OPTION CLEAR LOGFILE option, 6-17
about, 24-10 CLEAR UNARCHIVED LOGFILE option, 6-7

Index-1
 database partially available to users, 3-7 SET MTS_DISPATCHERS option, 4-7
DATAFILE...OFFLINE DROP option, 10-8 SET MTS_SERVERS option, 4-6
DROP LOGFILE MEMBER option, 6-15 SET RESOURCE_LIMIT option, 23-21
DROP LOGFILE option, 6-14 SWITCH LOGFILE option, 6-16
MOUNT option, 3-7 ALTER SYSTEM RESUME, 3-13
NOARCHIVELOG option, 7-7 ALTER SYSTEM SUSPEND, 3-8
OPEN option, 3-7 ALTER TABLE command
RENAME FILE option ADD PARTITION clause, 13-11
datafiles for multiple tablespaces, 10-10 ALLOCATE EXTENT option, 14-11
UNRECOVERABLE DATAFILE option, 6-17 DISABLE ALL TRIGGERS option, 20-13
ALTER FUNCTION command DISABLE integrity constraint option, 20-20
COMPILE option, 20-25 DROP integrity constraint option, 20-21
ALTER INDEX COALESCE, 16-7 DROP PARTITION clause, 13-12
ALTER INDEX command, 13-18 ENABLE ALL TRIGGERS option, 20-12
about, 16-13 ENABLE integrity constraint option, 20-20
MAXTRANS option, 12-9 example, 14-11
MOVE PARTITION clause, 13-11 MAXTRANS option, 12-9
REBUILD PARTITION clause, 13-11, 13-20 MODIFY PARTITION clause, 13-10
ALTER PACKAGE command SPLIT PARTITION clause, 13-11, 13-17
COMPILE option, 20-25 TRUNCATE PARTITION clause, 13-15
ALTER PROCEDURE command ALTER TABLESPACE command
COMPILE option, 20-25 ADD DATAFILE parameter, 10-5
ALTER PROFILE command ONLINE option
altering resource limits, 23-19 example, 9-10
COMPOSITE_LIMIT option, 23-19 READ ONLY option, 9-12
ALTER RESOURCE COST command, 23-20 READ WRITE option, 9-14
ALTER ROLE command RENAME DATA FILE option, 10-10
changing authorization method, 24-8 ALTER TRIGGER command
ALTER ROLLBACK SEGMENT command DISABLE option, 20-13
changing storage parameters, 21-9 ENABLE option, 20-12
OFFLINE option, 21-12 ALTER USER privilege, 23-15
ONLINE option, 21-11, 21-12 ALTER VIEW command
PUBLIC option, 21-9 COMPILE option, 20-25
STORAGE clause, 21-9 altering
ALTER SEQUENCE command, 15-11 cluster indexes, 17-9
ALTER SESSION command clustered tables, 17-9
SET SQL_TRACE parameter, 4-10 clusters, 17-8
ALTER SYSTEM command database status, 3-7
ARCHIVE LOG ALL option, 7-10 hash clusters, 18-8
ARCHIVE LOG option, 7-10 indexes, 16-13
ENABLE RESTRICTED SESSION option, 3-9 public rollback segments, 21-9
SET LICENSE_MAX_SESSIONS option, 23-4 rollback segment storage parameters, 21-9
SET LICENSE_MAX_USERS option, 23-6 sequences, 15-10
SET LICENSE_SESSIONS_WARNING storage parameters, 14-10
option, 23-4 tables, 14-10, 14-11

Index-2
 tablespace storage, 9-8 failed destinations and, 7-16
users, 23-15 multiplexing, 7-11
ANALYZE command normal transmission of, 7-14
CASCADE option, 20-8 specifying destinations for, 7-11
COMPUTE STATISTICS option, 20-7 standby transmission of, 7-14
ESTIMATE STATISTICS SAMPLE option, 20-7 status information, 7-24
LIST CHAINED ROWS option, 20-9 transmitting, 7-14
shared SQL and, 20-8 tuning, 7-20
STATISTICS option, 20-4 ARCHIVELOG mode, 7-4, 7-6
VALIDATE STRUCTURE option, 20-8 advantages, 7-5
ANALYZE TABLE VALIDATE STRUCTURE, 19-3 archiving, 7-4
analyzing archived redo logs, 7-25 automatic archiving in, 7-5
analyzing objects definition of, 7-4
about, 20-3 distributed databases, 7-6
privileges, 20-3 enabling, 7-7
application administrator, 1-3 manual archiving in, 7-5
database administrator versus, 22-11 running in, 7-4
application developers switching to, 7-7
privileges for, 22-9 taking datafiles offline and online in, 10-8
roles for, 22-10 archiving
application development advantages, 7-4
security for, 22-10 automatic
applications disabling, 7-9
quiescing during maintenance operations, 13-21 disabling at instance startup, 7-9
ARCH process enabling, 7-8
specifying multiple processes, 7-20 enabling after instance startup, 7-9
archive buffer parameters, 7-22 enabling at instance startup, 7-9
ARCHIVE LOG command changing archiving mode, 7-7
LIST option, 6-14 destination states, 7-13
ARCHIVE LOG option active/inactive, 7-14
ALTER SYSTEM command, 7-10 enabled/disabled, 7-13
archived redo logs, 7-2 valid/invalid, 7-13
analyzing, 7-25 destinations
archiving modes, 7-7 failure, 7-16
automatic archiving, 7-8 disabling, 7-7
destination states, 7-13 disadvantages, 7-4
active/inactive, 7-14 enabling, 7-7, 7-9
bad param, 7-14 increasing speed of, 7-23
deferred, 7-14 manual, 7-10
enabled/disabled, 7-13 minimizing impact on system performance, 7-
valid/invalid, 7-13 23
destinations multiple ARCH processes, 7-20
re-archiving to failed, 7-19 privileges
sample scenarios, 7-18 disabling, 7-9
enabling automatic archiving, 7-8 enabling, 7-8

Index-3
 for manual archiving, 7-10 privileges required for system, 25-10
setting archive buffer parameters, 7-22 schema objects, 25-11
setting initial mode, 7-7 session level, 25-8
to failed destinations, 7-19 shortcuts for object, 25-9
tuning, 7-20 shortcuts for system, 25-8
viewing information on, 7-24 statement, 25-10
AUDIT command, 25-9 statement level, 25-8
schema objects, 25-11 suspicious activity, 25-3
statement auditing, 25-10 system privileges, 25-10
system privileges, 25-10 triggers and, 25-20
audit trail, 25-14 using the database, 25-2
archiving, 25-15 viewing
auditing changes to, 25-16 active object options, 25-19
controlling size of, 25-14 active privilege options, 25-18
creating and deleting, 25-4 active statement options, 25-18
deleting views, 25-5 defauly object options, 25-19
interpreting, 25-17 views, 25-4
maximum size of, 25-14 authentication
protecting integrity of, 25-16 database managed, 23-8
purging records from, 25-15 operating system, 1-7
recording changes to, 25-16 password file, 1-9
records in, 25-7 password policy, 22-4
reducing size of, 25-16 specifying when creating a user, 23-12
table that holds, 25-2 users, 22-2, 23-7, 23-9
views on, 25-4 authorization
AUDIT_TRAIL parameter changing for roles, 24-8
setting, 25-13 omitting for roles, 24-8
auditing, 25-2 operating-system role management and, 24-7
AUDIT command, 25-9 roles
audit option levels, 25-8 about, 24-6
audit trail records, 25-5 multi-threaded server and, 24-7
default options, 25-11 automatic archiving
disabling default options, 25-13 archive log destination, 7-8
disabling options, 25-11, 25-12, 25-13
disabling options versus auditing, 25-12
enabling options, 25-9, 25-13
B
enabling options versus auditing, 25-10 background processes
guidelines, 25-2 Oracle8i processes, 4-9
historical information, 25-4 BACKGROUND_DUMP_DEST parameter, 4-11
keeping information manageable, 25-2 backups
managing the audit trail, 25-4 after creating new databases
operating-system audit trails, 25-7 full backups, 2-7
policies for, 22-18 guidelines, 1-20
privilege audit options, 25-9 before database creation, 2-4
privileges required for object, 25-11 effects of archiving on, 7-4

Index-4
bad param destination state, 7-14 CLEAR LOGFILE option
bitmapped tablespaces, 9-5 ALTER DATABASE command, 6-17
bringing online clearing redo log files, 6-7, 6-17
tablespaces, 9-10 restrictions, 6-17
broken jobs cluster keys
about, 8-12 columns for, 17-4
marking, 8-13 SIZE parameter, 17-5
running, 8-13 clustered tables, 17-10
buffers clusters
buffer cache in SGA, 2-11 allocating extents, 17-9
bug fixes, 1-21 altering, 17-8
analyzing statistics, 20-3
choosing data, 17-4
C columns for cluster key, 17-4
CASCADE option creating, 17-6
integrity constraints, 17-11 dropped tables and, 14-13
when dropping unique or primary keys, 20-20 dropping, 17-10
cascading revokes, 24-14 estimating space, 17-5, 17-6
CATAUDIT.SQL guidelines for managing, 17-4
running, 25-4 hash
CATBLOCK.SQL script, 4-8 contrasted with index, 18-2
CATNOAUD.SQL hash clusters, 18-1
running, 25-5 index
change vectors, 6-2 contrasted with hash, 18-2
CHAR datatype index creation, 17-8
increasing column length, 14-10 indexes and, 16-2
space use of, 12-17 keys, 17-2
character sets location, 17-5
multi-byte characters managing, 17-1
in role names, 24-5 overview of, 17-2
in role passwords, 24-7 privileges
user passwords and, 23-12 for creating, 17-6
parameter file and, 3-14 for dropping, 17-10
specifying when creating a database, 2-2 specifying PCTFREE for, 12-4
supported by Oracle, 12-17 storage parameters, 12-10
CHECK constraint, 20-19 truncating, 20-9
check_object procedure, 19-3, 19-7 validating structure, 20-8
checkpoint process (CKPT) columns
starting, 4-12 displaying information about, 20-31
CHECKPOINT_PROCESS parameter granting privileges for selected, 24-10
setting, 4-12 granting privileges on, 24-11
checksums increasing length, 14-10
for data blocks, 10-12 INSERT privilege and, 24-11
redo log blocks, 6-16 listing users granted to, 24-21
CKPT, 4-12 privileges, 24-11

Index-5
 revoking privileges on, 24-13 requirement of one, 5-3
commands, SQL size of, 5-3
CREATE DATABASE, 6-10 specifying names before database creation, 2-10
commands, SQL*Plus unavailable during startup, 3-3
ARCHIVE LOG, 6-14 CONTROL_FILES parameter
HOST, 6-13 overwriting existing control files, 2-10
committing transactions setting
writing redo log buffer and, 6-2 before database creation, 2-10, 5-4
composite limits, 23-19 names for, 5-2
costs and, 23-20 costs
service units, 23-19 resource limits and, 23-20
COMPUTE STATISTICS option, 20-7 CREATE CLUSTER command
configuring an instance example, 17-7
with dedicated server processes, 4-2 for hash clusters, 18-4
CONNECT role, 24-5 HASH IS option, 18-6
connecting HASHKEYS option, 18-7
administrator privileges, 3-10 SIZE option, 18-6
connections CREATE CONTROLFILE command
auditing, 25-8 about, 5-5
dedicated servers, 4-2 checking for inconsistencies, 5-8
during shutdown, 3-9 NORESETLOGS option, 5-7
control files RESETLOGS option, 5-7
adding, 5-5 CREATE DATABASE command
changing size, 5-4 CONTROLFILE REUSE option, 5-4
conflicts with data dictionary, 5-8 example, 2-7
creating MAXLOGFILES option, 6-10
about, 5-3 MAXLOGMEMBERS option, 6-10
additional control files, 5-5 CREATE INDEX command
initially, 5-4 explicitly, 16-8
new files, 5-5 ON CLUSTER option, 17-8
default name, 2-10, 5-4 UNRECOVERABLE, 16-5
dropping, 5-9 with a constraint, 16-8
errors during creation, 5-9 CREATE PROFILE command
guidelines for, 5-2 about, 23-18
importance of mirrored, 5-2 COMPOSITE_LIMIT option, 23-19
location of, 5-3 CREATE ROLE command
log sequence numbers, 6-5 IDENTIFIED BY option, 24-7
managing, 5-1 IDENTIFIED EXTERNALLY option, 24-7
mirroring, 2-10 CREATE ROLLBACK SEGMENT command
moving, 5-5 about, 21-8
names, 5-2 tuning guidelines, 2-15
number of, 5-3 CREATE SCHEMA command
overwriting existing, 2-10 multiple tables and views, 20-2
relocating, 5-5 privileges required, 20-2
renaming, 5-5 CREATE SEQUENCE command, 15-10

Index-6
CREATE SYNONYM command, 15-12 specifying storage parameters, 21-8
CREATE TABLE command sequences, 15-10
about, 14-9 synonyms, 15-12
CLUSTER option, 17-7 tables, 14-9
PARTITION clause, 13-9 tablespaces, 9-3
UNRECOVERABLE, 14-4 rollback segments required, 9-5
CREATE TABLESPACE command views, 15-2
datafile names in, 9-4
example, 9-4
CREATE USER command
D
IDENTIFIED BY option, 23-12 data
IDENTIFIED EXTERNALLY option, 23-12 security of, 22-3
CREATE VIEW command data blocks
about, 15-2 altering size of, 2-11
OR REPLACE option, 15-9 managing space usage of, 12-2
WITH CHECK OPTION, 15-3 managing space use of, 12-2
creating operating system blocks versus, 2-11
audit trail, 25-4 PCTFREE storage parameter, 12-3
cluster index, 17-6 PCTUSED storage parameter, 12-5
clustered tables, 17-6 shared in clusters, 17-2
clusters, 17-6 size of, 2-11
control files, 5-3 verifying, 10-12
database, 1-19, 2-1 data dictionary
backing up the new database, 2-7 changing storage parameters, 20-29
during installation, 2-3 conflicts with control files, 5-8
executing CREATE DATABASE, 2-6 dropped tables and, 14-12
migration from different versions, 2-3 schema object views, 20-29
preparing to, 2-2 segments in the, 20-27
prerequisites for, 2-3 setting storage parameters of, 20-26
problems encountered while, 2-8 V$DBFILE view, 2-8
databases, 7-7 V$DISPATCHER view, 4-7
datafiles, 9-3, 10-5 V$LOGFILE view, 2-8
hash clustered tables, 18-4 V$QUEUE view, 4-7
hash clusters, 18-4 data integrity, 20-19
indexes integrity constraints, 20-19
explicitly, 16-8 database administrator, 1-2
multiple objects, 20-2 application administrator versus, 22-11
online redo log groups, 6-11 initial priorities, 1-17
parameter file, 2-4 operating-system account, 1-4
partitioned objects, 13-9 password files for, 1-7
partitioned tables, 13-9 responsibilities of, 1-2
profiles, 23-18 roles
redo log members, 6-11 about, 1-6
rollback segments for security, 22-8
about, 21-8 security and privileges of, 1-4

Index-7
 security for, 22-7 specifying control files, 2-10
security officer versus, 1-3, 22-2 starting up
usernames, 1-5 before database creation, 2-6
utilities for, 1-17 general procedures for, 3-2
database links restricting access, 3-4
job queues and, 8-9 structure of
Database Resource Manager, 11-1 distributed database, 1-19
databases test, 22-9
administering, 1-1 tuning
auditing, 25-1 archiving large databases, 7-20
availability, 3-7 responsibilities for, 1-20
backing up user responsibilities, 1-3
after creation of, 1-20 viewing datafiles and redo log files, 2-8
full backups, 2-7 datafiles
control files of, 5-2 adding to a tablespace, 10-5
CREATE DATABASE command, 2-7 bringing online and offline, 10-7
creating checking associated tablespaces, 9-31
opening and, 1-19 creating, 9-3
trouble-shooting problems, 2-8 database administrators access, 1-4
design of default directory, 10-5
implementing, 1-20 dropping, 9-14
dropping, 2-8 NOARCHIVELOG mode, 10-8
exclusive mode, 3-6 fully specifying filenames, 10-5
global database name identifying filenames, 10-11
about, 2-9 location, 10-4
global database names managing, 10-1
in a distributed system, 2-9 maximum number of, 10-2
hardware evaluation, 1-18 minimum number of, 10-2
logical structure of, 1-19 MISSING, 5-8
managing monitoring, 10-13
size of, 10-1 online, 10-8
migration of, 2-3 privileges to rename, 10-9
mounting a database, 3-4 privileges to take offline, 10-8
mounting to an instance, 3-7 relocating, 10-9, 10-10
names relocating, example, 10-11
about, 2-9 renaming, 10-9, 10-10
conflicts in, 2-9 renaming for single tables, 10-9
opening reusing, 10-5
a closed database, 3-7 size of, 10-4
parallel mode, 3-6 storing separately from redo log files, 10-4
physical structure of, 1-19 unavailable when database is opened, 3-3
planning, 1-18 verifying data blocks, 10-12
production, 22-9, 22-11 viewing
renaming, 5-5 general status of, 10-13
restricting access to, 3-4, 3-8 V$DBFILE and V$LOGFILE views, 2-8

Index-8
datatypes DBMS_LOGMNR_D.BUILD package, 7-28
character, 12-17 DBMS_LOGMNR.ADD_LOGFILE package
DATE, 12-18 LogMiner, 7-29
individual type names, 12-17 DBMS_LOGMNR.START_LOGMNR package
LONG, 12-18 LogMiner, 7-30
NUMBER, 12-17 DBMS_REPAIR package, 19-1
space use of, 12-17 DBMS_RESOURCE_MANAGER package, 11-3
summarized, 12-19 DBMS_RESOURCE_MANAGER_PRIVS
DATE datatype, 12-18 package, 11-10
DB_BLOCK_BUFFERS parameter DBMS_SESSION package, 11-11
setting before database creation, 2-11 DBMS_UTILITY.ANALYZE_SCHEMA()
DB_BLOCK_CHECKING parameter, 19-3 running, 20-8
DB_BLOCK_CHECKSUM, 10-12 dedicated server processes
DB_BLOCK_SIZE parameter configuring, 4-2
database buffer cache size and, 2-11 connecting with, 4-2
setting before creation, 2-11 trace files for, 4-10
DB_DOMAIN parameter dedicated servers
setting before database creation, 2-9 multi-threaded servers contrasted with, 4-3
DB_NAME parameter default
setting before database creation, 2-9 audit options, 25-11
DB_VERIFY utility, 19-3 disabling, 25-13
DBA, 1-2 profile, 23-18
DBA role, 1-6, 24-5 role, 23-16
DBA_DATA_FILES, 9-31, 10-13 tablespace quota, 23-13
DBA_EXTENTS, 10-13 temporary tablespace, 23-13
DBA_FREE_SPACE, 9-31, 10-13 user tablespaces, 23-12
DBA_FREE_SPACE_COALESCED view, 9-9 DEFAULT_CONSUMER_GROUP, 11-9
DBA_INDEXES view deferred destination state, 7-14
filling with data, 20-5 deleting
DBA_ROLLBACK_SEGS view, 21-14 table statistics, 20-4
DBA_SEGMENTS, 9-31, 10-13 dependencies
DBA_TAB_COLUMNS view displaying, 20-32
filling with data, 20-5 destination states for archived redo logs, 7-13
DBA_TABLES view destinations
filling with data, 20-5 archived redo logs
DBA_TABLESPACES, 9-31, 10-13 sample scenarios, 7-18
DBA_TABLESPACES view, 9-15 developers, application, 22-9
DBA_TS_QUOTAS, 9-31, 10-13 dictionary files
DBA_USERS, 9-31, 10-13 LogMiner and the, 7-27
DBMS_JOB package disabled destination state
altering a job, 8-11 for archived redo logs, 7-13
forcing jobs to execute, 8-14 disabling
job queues and, 8-3 archiving, 7-7, 7-9
REMOVE procedure and, 8-11 audit options, 25-11, 25-12
submitting jobs, 8-4 auditing, 25-13

Index-9
 integrity constraints, 20-18 clusters, 17-10
effects on indexes, 16-7 control files, 5-9
resource limits, 23-21 databases, 2-8
triggers, 20-12 datafiles, 9-14
disconnections hash clusters, 18-9
auditing, 25-8 index partition, 13-14
dispatcher processes indexes, 16-15
number to start, 4-5 integrity constraints
privileges to change number of, 4-7 about, 20-21
removing, 4-7 effects on indexes, 16-7
setting the number of, 4-7 online redo log groups, 6-14
spawning new, 4-7 online redo log members, 6-14
distributed databases profiles, 23-21
running in ARCHIVELOG mode, 7-6 roles, 24-8
running in NOARCHIVELOG mode, 7-6 rollback segments, 21-11, 21-13
starting a remote instance, 3-6 sequences, 15-11
distributed processing synonyms, 15-12
parameter file location in, 3-15 table partitions, 13-12
distributing I/O, 2-15 tables, 14-12
DROP CLUSTER command tablespaces
CASCADE CONSTRAINTS option, 17-11 about, 9-14
dropping required privileges, 9-15
cluster with no tables, 17-11 users, 23-16
hash cluster, 18-9 views, 15-9
INCLUDING TABLES option, 17-11 dump_orphan_keys procedure, 19-6, 19-9
DROP LOGFILE MEMBER option dynamic performance tables
ALTER DATABASE command, 6-15 using, 4-9
DROP LOGFILE option
ALTER DATABASE command, 6-14
DROP PARTITION clause
E
ALTER TABLE command, 13-12 enabled destination state
DROP PROFILE command, 23-21 for archived redo logs, 7-13
DROP ROLE command, 24-8, 24-9 enabling
DROP ROLLBACK SEGMENT command, 21-14 archiving, 7-7
DROP SYNONYM command, 15-12 auditing options
DROP TABLE command about, 25-9
about, 14-12 privileges for, 25-13
CASCADE CONSTRAINTS option, 14-12 integrity constraints
for clustered tables, 17-10 at creation, 20-18
DROP TABLESPACE command, 9-15 example, 20-19
DROP USER command, 23-17 reporting exceptions, 20-21
DROP USER privilege, 23-17 when violations exist, 20-15
dropping resource limits, 23-21
audit trail, 25-4 triggers, 20-12
cluster indexes, 17-10 encryption

Index-10
 Oracle passwords, 23-8 extents
enroll allocating
database users, 1-20 clusters, 17-9
Enterprise Manager index creation, 16-6
operating system account, 1-4 tables, 14-11
environment of a job, 8-6 data dictionary views for, 20-30
errors displaying free extents, 20-33
ALERT file and, 4-10 displaying information on, 20-32
ORA-00028, 4-16 dropped tables and, 14-12
ORA-01090, 3-9
ORA-01173, 5-9
ORA-01176, 5-9
F
ORA-01177, 5-9 failures
ORA-1215, 5-9 media
ORA-1216, 5-9 multiplexed online redo logs, 6-5
ORA-1547, 20-29 files
ORA-1628 through 1630, 20-29 OS limit on number open, 9-2
snapshot too old, 21-5 fix_corrupt_blocks procedure, 19-5, 19-7
trace files and, 4-10 forcing a log switch, 6-16
when creating a database, 2-8 with the ALTER SYSTEM command, 6-16
when creating control file, 5-9 FOREIGN KEY constraint
while starting an instance, 3-5 enabling, 20-19
ESTIMATE STATISTICS option, 20-7 free space
estimating size coalescing, 9-8
hash clusters, 18-4 listing free extents, 20-33
tables, 14-5 tablespaces and, 9-32
evaluating function-based indexes, 16-9
hardware for the Oracle8i, 1-18 functions
example recompiling, 20-25
creating constraints, 20-19
examples G
altering an index, 16-13
exceptions global database name, 2-9
integrity constraints, 20-21 global index
exclusive mode dropping partition with, 13-12, 13-15
of the database, 3-6 splitting partition in, 13-18
rollback segments and, 21-3 global user, 23-10
terminating remaining user sessions, 4-16 GRANT command
EXP_FULL_DATABASE role, 24-5 ADMIN option, 24-10
Export utility GRANT option, 24-11
about, 1-17 object privileges, 24-10
restricted mode and, 3-4 SYSOPER/SYSDBA privileges, 1-13
exporting jobs, 8-7 system privileges and roles, 24-9
exports when takes effect, 24-15
modes, 7-14, 7-18, 7-19 GRANT OPTION

Index-11
 about, 24-11 restricted mode and, 3-4
revoking, 24-13 importing
granting privileges and roles jobs, 8-7
listing grants, 24-19 inactive destination state
shortcuts for object privileges, 24-3 for archived redo logs, 7-14
SYSOPER/SYSDBA privileges, 1-13 index partition
groups dropping, 13-14
redo log files moving, 13-11
LOG_FILES initialization parameter, 6-10 rebuilding, 13-20
Guidelines, 10-2 splitting, 13-18
guidelines indexes
for managing rollback segments, 21-2 adding partition, 13-12
altering, 16-13
analyzing statistics, 20-3
H cluster
hardware altering, 17-9
evaluating, 1-18 creating, 17-6
hash clusters dropping, 17-10
altering, 18-8 managing, 17-1
choosing key, 18-6 correct tables and columns, 16-8
clusters, 18-1 creating
controlling space use of, 18-6 after inserting table data, 16-3
creating, 18-4 explicitly, 16-8
dropping, 18-9 unrecoverably, 16-5
estimating storage, 18-4 disabling and dropping constraints and, 16-7
example, 18-7 dropped tables and, 14-12
managing, 18-1 dropping, 16-15
usage, 18-2 estimating size, 16-5
high water mark extent allocation for, 16-6
for a session, 23-3 guidelines for managing, 16-2
historical table INITRANS for, 16-4
moving time window in, 13-20 limiting per table, 16-3
HOST command managing, 16-1, 16-15
SQL*Plus, 6-13 MAXTRANS for, 16-4
monitoring space use of, 16-14
I overview of, 16-2
parallelizing index creation, 16-5
I/O PCTFREE for, 16-4
distributing, 2-15 PCTUSED for, 16-4
identification privileges
users, 23-7 for altering, 16-13
IMP_FULL_DATABASE role, 24-5 for dropping, 16-15
implementing database design, 1-20 separating from a table, 14-6
Import utility setting storage parameters for, 16-5
about, 1-17 SQL*Loader and, 16-3

Index-12
 storage parameters, 12-10 dropping, 20-21
tablespace for, 16-4 dropping and disabling, 16-7
temporary segments and, 16-3 dropping tablespaces and, 9-15
validating structure, 20-8 enabling, 20-14
index-organized table, 14-14 enabling on creation, 20-18
in-doubt transactions enabling when violations exist, 20-15
rollback segments and, 21-11 exceptions to, 20-21
initial managing, 20-15
passwords for SYS and SYSTEM, 1-5 violations, 20-15
INITIAL storage parameter, 12-7 when to disable, 20-15
altering, 14-11 INTERNAL
initialization parameters alternatives to, 1-8
affecting sequences, 15-11 connecting for shutdown, 3-10
LOG_ARCHIVE_BUFFER_SIZE, 7-22, 7-23 OSOPER and OSDBA, 1-8
LOG_ARCHIVE_BUFFERS, 7-22, 7-23 security for, 22-8
LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_n, 7-11 INTERNAL date function
LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_STATE_n, 7-13 executing jobs and, 8-8
LOG_ARCHIVE_MAX_PROCESSES, 7-20 invalid destination state
LOG_ARCHIVE_MIN_SUCCEED_DEST, 7-17 for archived redo logs, 7-13
LOG_ARCHIVE_START, 7-9, 7-14
LOG_BLOCK_CHECKSUM, 6-16
LOG_FILES, 6-10
J
multi-threaded server and, 4-4 Job, 8-3
INITRANS storage parameter job queues, 8-2, 8-3
altering, 14-11 executing jobs in, 8-9
default, 12-9 locks, 8-9
guidelines for setting, 12-9 privileges for using, 8-4
transaction entries and, 12-9 removing jobs from, 8-11
INSERT privilege scheduling jobs, 8-3
granting, 24-11 viewing, 8-15
revoking, 24-13 jobs
installation altering, 8-11
and creating a database, 2-3 broken, 8-12
Oracle8i, 1-18 database links and, 8-9
tuning recommendations for, 2-14 executing, 8-9
instance menu exporting, 8-7
prevent Connections option, 3-9 forcing to execute, 8-14
instances importing, 8-7
aborting, 3-12 INTERNAL date function and, 8-8
shutting down immediately, 3-11 job definition, 8-7
starting, 3-2 job number, 8-7
starting before database creation, 2-6 killing, 8-14
integrity constraints managing, 8-3
disabling, 20-14, 20-19 marking broken jobs, 8-13
disabling on creation, 20-18 ownership of, 8-7

Index-13
 removing from job queue, 8-11 privileges for changing named user limits, 23-6
running broken jobs, 8-13 privileges for changing session limits, 23-5
scheduling, 8-3 session-based, 23-2
submitting to job queue, 8-4 viewing limits, 23-6
trace files, 8-10 limits
troubleshooting, 8-10 composite limits, 23-19
join view, 15-4 concurrent usage, 23-2
DELETE statements, 15-7 resource limits, 23-19
key-preserved tables in, 15-5 session, high water mark, 23-3
mergeable, 15-5 LIST CHAINED ROWS option, 20-9
modifying location
rule for, 15-6 rollback segments, 21-7
when modifiable, 15-4 locks
JQ locks, 8-9 job queue, 8-9
monitoring, 4-8
log sequence number
K control files, 6-5
key-preserved tables log switches
in join views, 15-5 description, 6-5
keys forcing, 6-16
cluster, 17-2 log sequence numbers, 6-5
killing multiplexed redo log files and, 6-7
jobs, 8-14 privileges, 6-16
waiting for archiving to complete, 6-7
L log writer process (LGWR)
multiplexed redo log files and, 6-6
LGWR, 4-11 online redo logs available for use, 6-3
LICENSE_MAX_SESSIONS parameter trace file monitoring, 4-11
changing while instance runs, 23-4 trace files and, 6-6
setting, 23-4 writing to online redo log files, 6-2, 6-3
setting before database creation, 2-12 LOG_ARCHIVE_BUFFER_SIZE initialization
LICENSE_MAX_USERS parameter parameter, 7-23
changing while database runs, 23-6 LOG_ARCHIVE_BUFFERS initialization
setting, 23-6 parameter, 7-23
setting before database creation, 2-12 LOG_ARCHIVE_BUFFERS parameter
LICENSE_SESSION_WARNING parameter setting, 7-23
setting before database creation, 2-12 LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST initialization parameter
LICENSE_SESSIONS_WARNING parameter specifying destinations using, 7-11
changing while instance runs, 23-4 LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_n initialization
setting, 23-4 parameter, 7-11
licensing REOPEN option, 7-19
complying with license agreement, 2-12, 23-2 LOG_ARCHIVE_DUPLEX_DEST initialization
concurrent usage, 23-2 parameter
named user, 23-2, 23-5 specifying destinations using, 7-11
number of concurrent sessions, 2-13 LOG_ARCHIVE_MAX_PROCESSES initialization

Index-14
 parameter, 7-20 MAXDATAFILES parameter
LOG_ARCHIVE_MIN_SUCCEED_DEST changing, 5-5
initialization parameter, 7-17 MAXEXTENTS storage parameter
LOG_ARCHIVE_START initialization about, 12-8
parameter, 7-9 setting for the data dictionary, 20-27
bad param destination state, 7-14 MAXINSTANCES parameter
setting, 7-9 changing, 5-5
LOG_BLOCK_CHECKSUM initialization parameter MAXLOGFILES option
enabling redo block checking with, 6-16 CREATE DATABASE command, 6-10
LOG_FILES initialization parameter MAXLOGFILES parameter
number of log files, 6-10 changing, 5-5
logical structure of a database, 1-19 MAXLOGHISTORY
LogMiner, 7-25 changing, 5-5
LogMiner utility, 7-25, 7-31 MAXLOGMEMBERS option
dictionary file, 7-27 CREATE DATABASE command, 6-10
using the, 7-29, 7-30 MAXLOGMEMBERS parameter
using to analyze archived redo logs, 7-25 changing, 5-5
LONG datatype, 12-18 MAXTRANS storage parameter
altering, 14-11
default, 12-9
M guidelines for setting, 12-9
maintenance release number, 1-21 transaction entries and, 12-9
managing media recovery
auditing, 25-1 effects of archiving on, 7-4
cluster indexes, 17-1 memory
clustered tables, 17-1 viewing per user, 23-25
clusters, 17-1 migration
indexes, 16-1, 16-15 database migration, 2-3
jobs, 8-3 MINEXTENTS storage parameter
object dependencies, 20-23 about, 12-8
profiles, 23-17 altering, 14-11
roles, 24-4 mirrored control files
rollback segments, 21-1 importance of, 5-2
sequences, 15-9 mirrored files
synonyms, 15-11 online redo log, 6-6
tables, 14-1 location, 6-9
users, 23-11 size, 6-9
views, 15-1, 15-9 mirroring
manual archiving control files, 2-10
in ARCHIVELOG mode, 7-10 modes
marked user session, 4-17 exclusive, 3-6
MAX_DUMP_FILE_SIZE parameter, 4-11 parallel, 3-6
MAX_ENABLED_ROLES parameter restricted, 3-4, 3-8
default roles and, 24-8 modifiable join view
enabling roles and, 24-8 definition of, 15-4

Index-15
MODIFY PARTITION clause NEXT storage parameter, 12-8
ALTER TABLE command, 13-10 setting for the data dictionary, 20-27
modifying NOARCHIVELOG mode
a join view, 15-4 archiving, 7-4
monitoring definition, 7-4
datafiles, 10-13 media failure, 7-4
locks, 4-8 no hot backups, 7-4
performance tables, 4-9 running in, 7-4
processes of an instance, 4-8 switching to, 7-7
rollback segments, 21-6 taking datafiles offline in, 10-8
tablespaces, 10-13 NOAUDIT command
mounting a database, 3-4 disabling audit options, 25-11
exclusive mode, 3-6 privileges, 25-12
parallel mode, 3-6 schema objects, 25-12
MOVE PARTITION clause statements, 25-12
ALTER TABLE command, 13-11 normal transmission mode
moving definition, 7-15
control files, 5-5 NOT NULL constraint, 20-19
index partitions, 13-11 NUMBER datatype, 12-17
relocating, 10-9
table partition, 13-10
MTS_DISPATCHERS parameter
O
setting initially, 4-5 objects, schema
multiplexing cascading effects on revoking, 24-14
archived redo logs, 7-11 default tablespace for, 23-13
redo log files, 6-5 granting privileges, 24-10
groups, 6-6 in a revoked tablespace, 23-14
multi-threaded server owned by dropped users, 23-16
configuring dispatchers, 4-5 privileges with, 24-3
database startup and, 3-2 revoking privileges, 24-12
dedicated server contrasted with, 4-3 offline rollback segments
enabling and disabling, 4-6 about, 21-10
OS role management restrictions, 24-19 bringing online, 21-11
restrictions on OS role authorization, 24-7 when to use, 21-10
starting, 4-4 offline tablespaces
altering, 9-10
priorities, 9-10
N rollback segments and, 21-10
named user limits, 23-5 online index, 16-7
setting initially, 2-13 online redo log, 6-2
Net8 creating
service names in, 7-15 groups and members, 6-11
transmitting archived logs via, 7-15 creating members, 6-11
network protocol do not back up, 7-3
dispatcher for each, 4-5 dropping groups, 6-14

Index-16
 dropping members, 6-14 Oracle8i
forcing a log switch, 6-16 installing, 1-18
guidelines for configuring, 6-5 Oracle8i Server
INVALID members, 6-15 complying with license agreement, 23-2
location of, 6-9 identifying releases, 1-21
managing, 6-1 processes
moving files, 6-13 checkpoint (CKPT), 4-12
number of files in the, 6-9 monitoring, 4-8
optimum configuration for the, 6-9 operating-system names, 4-9
privileges trace files fpr, 4-10
adding groups, 6-11 Oracle8i Server processes
dropping groups, 6-14 processes
dropping members, 6-15 dedicated server processes, 4-2
forcing a log switch, 6-16 identifying and managing, 4-7
renaming files, 6-13 ORAPWD utility, 1-9
renaming members, 6-12 OS authentication, 1-7
STALE members, 6-15 OS_ROLES parameter
storing separately from datafiles, 10-4 operating-system authorization and, 24-7
unavailable when database is opened, 3-3 REMOTE_OS_ROLES and, 24-19
viewing information about, 6-18 using, 24-17
online rollback segments owner of a queued job, 8-7
about, 21-10
bringing rollback segments online, 21-11
taking offline, 21-12
P
when new, 21-8 packages
online tablespaces DBMS_LOGMNR_D.BUILD, 7-28
altering, 9-10 DBMS_LOGMNR.ADD_LOGFILE, 7-29
opening a database DBMS_LOGMNR.START_LOGMNR, 7-30
after creation, 1-19 privileges for recompiling, 20-25
mounted database, 3-7 recompiling, 20-25
operating system parallel mode
accounts, 24-17 of the database, 3-6
auditing with, 25-2 parallel query option
authentication, 24-16 number of server processes, 4-13
database administrators requirements for, 1-4 parallelizing index creation, 16-5
deleting datafiles, 9-15 parallelizing table creation, 14-4
enabling and disabling roles, 24-19 query servers, 4-13
limit of number of open files, 10-2 Parallel Server
Oracle8i process names, 4-9 ALTER CLUSTER..ALLOCATE EXTENT, 17-10
renaming and relocating files, 10-9 datafile upper bound for instances, 10-3
role identification, 24-17 licensed session limit and, 2-13
roles and, 24-16 limits on named users and, 23-5
security in, 22-3 named users and, 2-13
OPTIMAL storage parameter, 21-5 own rollback segments, 21-3
Oracle blocks, 2-11 sequence numbers and, 15-10

Index-17
 session and warning limits, 23-4 creating, 1-9
specifying thread for archiving, 7-11 OS authentication, 1-7
threads of online redo log, 6-2 relocating, 1-16
V$THREAD view, 6-18 removing, 1-16
PARALLEL_MAX_SERVERS parameter, 4-13 state of, 1-16
PARALLEL_MIN_SERVERS parameter, 4-13 privileges for changing for roles, 24-6
PARALLEL_SERVER_IDLE_TIME parameter, 4-13 privileges to alter, 23-15
parameter files roles, 24-7
character set of, 3-14 security policy for users, 22-4
creating for database creation, 2-4 setting REMOTE_LOGIN_PASSWORD
editing before database creation, 2-5 parameter, 1-11
individual parameter names, 2-9 user authentication, 23-8
location of, 3-15 patch release number, 1-22
minimum set of, 2-9 PCTFREE storage parameter
number of, 3-14 altering, 14-10
sample of, 3-14 block overhead and, 12-6
partition clustered tables, 12-4
adding to index, 13-12 default, 12-3
dropping from index, 13-14 guidelines for setting, 12-3
PARTITION clause how it works, 12-2
CREATE TABLE command, 13-9 indexes, 12-4
partitioned index non-clustered tables, 12-4
rebuilding partitions, 13-20 PCTUSED and, 12-6
partitioned objects, 13-1 to 13-21 PCTINCREASE storage parameter
adding, 13-11 about, 12-8
creating, 13-9 altering, 12-11
definition, 13-2 setting for the data dictionary, 20-27
maintaining, 13-9 to 13-21 PCTUSED storage parameter
merging, 13-18 altering, 14-10
moving, 13-10 block overhead and, 12-6
quiescing applications during maintenance default, 12-5
of, 13-21 guidelines for setting, 12-5
splitting partition, 13-17 how it works, 12-4
truncating, 13-15 PCTFREE and, 12-6
partitioned table pending area, 11-5
adding partitions, 13-11 performance
converting to non-partitioned, 13-18 location of datafiles and, 10-4
splitting partition, 13-17 tuning archiving, 7-20
partitioned view performance tables
converting to partitioned table, 13-18 dynamic performance tables, 4-9
passwords physical structure of a database, 1-19
authentication file for, 1-9 PL/SQL program units
changing for roles, 24-8 dropped tables and, 14-12
initial for SYS and SYSTEM, 1-5 replaced views and, 15-9
password file, 1-12 planning

Index-18
 database creation, 2-2 creating
relational design, 1-19 roles, 24-4
the database, 1-18 rollback segments, 21-7
precedence of storage parameters, 12-11 sequences, 15-10
predefined roles, 1-6 synonyms, 15-12
prerequisites tables, 14-9
for creating a database, 2-3 tablespaces, 9-4
PRIMARY KEY constraint users, 23-11
disabling, 20-19 views, 15-2
dropping associated indexes, 16-15 database administrator, 1-4
enabling, 20-19 disabling automatic archiving, 7-9
enabling on creation, 16-8 dropping
foreign key references when dropped, 20-20 clusters, 17-10
indexes associated with, 16-8 indexes, 16-15
storage of associated indexes, 16-8 online redo log members, 6-15
private redo log groups, 6-14
rollback segments, 21-8 roles, 24-9
taking offline, 21-12 rollback segments, 21-14
synonyms, 15-11 sequences, 15-11
privileges, 24-2, 24-3 synonyms, 15-12
adding datafiles to a tablespace, 10-5 tables, 14-12
adding redo log groups, 6-11 views, 15-9
altering dropping profiles, 23-21
default storage parameters, 9-8 enabling and disabling resource limits, 23-21
dispatcher privileges, 4-7 enabling and disabling triggers, 20-12
indexes, 16-13 enabling automatic archiving, 7-8
named user limit, 23-6 for changing session limits, 23-5
passwords, 23-16 forcing a log switch, 6-16
role authentication, 24-6 granting
rollback segments, 21-9 about, 24-9
sequences, 15-10 object privileges, 24-10
tables, 14-10 required privileges, 24-10
users, 23-15 system privileges, 24-9
analyzing objects, 20-3 grouping with roles, 24-4
application developers and, 22-9 individual privilege names, 24-2
audit object, 25-11 job queues and, 8-4
auditing system, 25-10 listing grants, 24-20
auditing use of, 25-9 manually archiving, 7-10
bringing datafiles offline and online, 10-8 object, 24-3
bringing tablespaces online, 9-10 on selected columns, 24-13
cascading revokes, 24-14 operating system
cluster creation, 17-6 required for database administrator, 1-4
coalescing tablespaces, 9-9 policies for managing, 22-5
column, 24-11 recompiling packages, 20-25
CREATE SCHEMA command, 20-2 recompiling procedures, 20-25

Index-19
 recompiling views, 20-25 public
renaming synonyms, 15-11
datafiles of a tablespace, 10-9 public rollback segments
datafiles of several tablespaces, 10-10 making available for use, 21-10
objects, 20-2 taking offline, 21-12
redo log members, 6-12 PUBLIC user group
replacing views, 15-8 granting and revoking privileges to, 24-15
RESTRICTED SESSION system privilege, 3-4, procedures and, 24-15
3-8 PUBLIC_DEFAULT profile
revoking, 24-12 dropping profiles and, 23-21
ADMIN OPTION, 24-12 using, 23-18
GRANT OPTION, 24-13
object privileges, 24-14
system privileges, 24-12
Q
revoking object, 24-12 query server process
revoking object privileges, 24-12 about, 4-13
setting resource costs, 23-20 quotas
system, 24-2 listing, 23-22
taking tablespaces offline, 9-10 revoking from users, 23-14
truncating, 20-10 setting to zero, 23-14
procedures tablespace, 23-13
recompiling, 20-25 tablespace quotas, 9-3
processes, 4-1 temporary segments and, 23-14
SNP background processes, 8-2 unlimited, 23-14
PROCESSES parameter viewing, 23-24
setting before database creation, 2-12
profiles, 23-17 R
altering, 23-19
assigning to users, 23-18 read-only database open, 3-8
composite limit, 23-19 read-only tablespaces
creating, 23-18 altering to writable, 9-14
default, 23-18 creating, 9-12
disabling resource limits, 23-21 datafiles, 10-8
dropping, 23-21 on a WORM device, 9-14
enabling resource limits, 23-21 REBUILD PARTITION clause
listing, 23-22 ALTER INDEX command, 13-11, 13-20
managing, 23-17 rebuild_freelists procedure, 19-6, 19-10
privileges for dropping, 23-21 recompiling
privileges to alter, 23-19 automatically, 20-24
privileges to set resource costs, 23-20 functions, 20-25
PUBLIC_DEFAULT, 23-18 packages, 20-25
setting a limit to null, 23-19 procedures, 20-25
viewing, 23-24 views, 20-25
program global area (PGA) recovery
effect of MAX_ENABLED_ROLES on, 24-8 creating new control files, 5-5

Index-20
 startup with automatic, 3-5 multiplexing, 6-5
redo entries groups, 6-6
content of, 6-2 if some members inaccessible, 6-7
See redo records online, 6-2
redo log buffers recovery use of, 6-2
writing of, 6-2 requirement of two, 6-3
redo log files threads of, 6-2
active (current), 6-4 online redo log, 6-1
archived planning the, 6-5 to 6-10
advantages of, 7-2 privileges
contents of, 7-2 adding groups and members, 6-11
log switches and, 6-5 redo entries, 6-2
archived redo log files, 7-7 requirements, 6-7
archived redo logs, 7-4 verifying blocks, 6-16
available for use, 6-3 viewing, 2-8
circular use of, 6-3 redo records, 6-2
clearing, 6-7, 6-17 REFERENCES privilege
restrictions, 6-17 CASCADE CONSTRAINTS option, 24-13
contents of, 6-2 revoking, 24-13
creating referential integrity constraints
groups and members, 6-11 dropping table partition with, 13-13
creating members, 6-11 truncating table partition with, 13-16
distributed transaction information in, 6-3 relational design
groups, 6-6 planning, 1-19
creating, 6-11 releases
decreasing number, 6-10 checking the release number, 1-22
dropping, 6-14 identifying for Oracle8i, 1-21
LOG_FILES initialization parameter, 6-10 maintenance release number, 1-21
members, 6-6 patch release number, 1-22
threads, 6-2 port-specific release number, 1-22
how many in redo log, 6-9 versions of other Oracle software, 1-22
inactive, 6-4 relocating
legal and illegal configurations, 6-7 control files, 5-5
LGWR and the, 6-3 datafiles, 10-9, 10-10
log sequence numbers of, 6-5 remote connections, 1-16
log switches, 6-5 connecting as SYSOPER/SYSDBA, 1-14
members, 6-6 password files, 1-9
creating, 6-11 REMOTE_LOGIN_PASSWORDFILE parameter, 1-
dropping, 6-14 11
maximum number of, 6-10 REMOTE_OS_AUTHENT parameter
mirrored setting, 23-10
log switches and, 6-7 REMOTE_OS_ROLES parameter
multiplexed setting, 24-8, 24-19
diagrammed, 6-6 RENAME command, 20-2
if all inaccessible, 6-7 renaming

Index-21
 control files, 5-5 privileges and roles
datafiles, 10-9, 10-10 SYSOPER/DBA privileges, 1-13
datafiles with a single table, 10-9 revoking privileges and roles
online redo log members, 6-12 on selected columns, 24-13
schema objects, 20-2 REVOKE command, 24-12
REOPEN option shortcuts for object privileges, 24-3
LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_n initialization when using operating-system roles, 24-18
parameter, 7-19 roles
replacing ADMIN OPTION and, 24-10
views, 15-8 application developers and, 22-10
resource allocation methods, 11-2 authorization, 24-6
resource consumer groups, 11-2 backward compatibility, 24-5
resource limits changing authorization for, 24-8
altering in profiles, 23-19 changing passwords, 24-8
assigning with profiles, 23-18 CONNECT role, 24-5
composite limits and, 23-19 database authorization, 24-7
costs and, 23-20 DBA role, 1-6, 24-5
creating profiles and, 23-18 default, 23-16
disabling, 23-21 dropping, 24-8
enabling, 23-21 EXP_FULL_DATABASE, 24-5
privileges to enable and disable, 23-21 GRANT command, 24-19
privileges to set costs, 23-20 GRANT OPTION and, 24-11
profiles, 23-17 granting
PUBLIC_DEFAULT profile and, 23-18 about, 24-9
service units, 23-19 grouping with roles, 24-4
setting to null, 23-19 IMP_FULL_DATABASE, 24-5
resource plan directives, 11-2 listing, 24-22
resource plans, 11-2 listing grants, 24-21
RESOURCE role, 24-5 listing privileges and roles in, 24-23
RESOURCE_LIMIT parameter management using the operating system, 24-16
enabling and disabling limits, 23-21 managing, 24-4
resources multi-byte characters
profiles, 23-17 in names, 24-5
responsibilities multi-byte characters in passwords, 24-7
of a database administrator, 1-2 multi-threaded server and, 24-7
of database users, 1-3 operating system granting of, 24-17, 24-19
RESTRICTED SESSION privilege operating-system authorization, 24-7
instances in restricted mode, 3-8 OS management and the multi-threaded
restricted mode and, 3-4 server, 24-19
session limits and, 23-3 passwords for enabling, 24-7
restricting access to database predefined, 1-6, 24-5
starting an instance, 3-4 privileges
REVOKE command, 24-12 changing authorization method, 24-6
when takes effect, 24-15 changing passwords, 24-6
revoking for creating, 24-4

Index-22
 for dropping, 24-9 managing, 21-1
granting system privileges or roles, 24-9 monitoring, 21-6
RESOURCE role, 24-5 OFFLINE, 21-11
REVOKE command, 24-19 offline rollback segments, 21-10
revoking, 24-12 offline status, 21-12
revoking ADMIN OPTION, 24-12 online rollback segments, 21-10
security and, 22-6 online status, 21-12
SET ROLE command, 24-19 PARTLY AVAILABLE, 21-11
unique names for, 24-4 PENDING OFFLINE, 21-12
without authorization, 24-8 privileges
rollback segments for dropping, 21-14
acquiring automatically, 21-3, 21-11 required to alter, 21-9
acquiring on startup, 2-12 required to create, 21-7
allocating, 2-14 setting size of, 21-4
altering public, 21-9 status for dropping, 21-13
altering storage parameters, 21-9 status or state, 21-11
AVAILABLE, 21-11 storage parameters, 21-8
bringing storage parameters and, 21-8
online, 21-11 taking offline, 21-12
online automatically, 21-11 taking tablespaces offline and, 9-12
online when new, 21-8 transactions and, 21-13
PARTLY AVAILABLE segment online, 21-11 using multiple, 21-2
checking if offline, 21-12 ROLLBACK_SEGMENTS parameter
choosing how many, 2-14 adding rollback segments to, 21-8
choosing size for, 2-14 setting before database creation, 2-12
creating, 21-8 rows
creating after database creation, 21-3 chaining across blocks, 12-4, 20-8
creating public and private, 21-3 violating integrity constraints, 20-15
decreasing size of, 21-10
deferred, 21-16
displaying
S
all deferred rollback segments, 21-16 schema objects
deferred rollback segments, 21-16 creating multiple objects, 20-2
information on, 21-14 default audit options, 25-11
PENDING OFFLINE segments, 21-15 dependencies between, 20-23
displaying names of all, 21-15 disabling audit options, 25-12
dropping, 21-13 enabling audit options on, 25-11
equally sized extents, 21-5 listing by type, 20-31
explicitly assigning transactions to, 21-13 listing information, 20-29
guidelines for managing, 21-2 privileges to access, 24-3
initial, 21-2 privileges to rename, 20-2
invalid status, 21-14 renaming, 20-2, 20-3
listing extents in, 20-32 SCN, 10-14
location of, 21-7 security
making available for use, 21-10 accessing a database, 22-2

Index-23
 administrator of, 22-2 composite limits and, 23-19
application developers and, 22-9 servers
auditing policies, 22-18 dedicated
authentication of users, 22-2 multi-threaded contrasted with, 4-3
data, 22-3 multi-threaded
database security, 22-2 dedicated contrasted with, 4-3
database users and, 22-2 session limits, license
establishing policies, 22-1 setting initially, 2-13
general users, 22-4 session monitor, 4-8
multi-byte characters session, user
in role names, 24-5 active, 4-16
in role passwords, 24-7 inactive, 4-17
in user passwords, 23-12 marked to be terminated, 4-17
operating-system security and the terminating, 4-15
database, 22-3 viewing terminated sessions, 4-17
policies for database administrators, 22-7 sessions
privilege management policies, 22-5 auditing connections and disconnections, 25-8
privileges, 22-2 limits per instance, 23-2
protecting the audit trail, 25-16 listing privilege domain of, 24-22
REMOTE_OS_ROLES parameter, 24-19 number of concurrent sessions, 2-13
roles to force security, 22-6 Parallel Server session limits, 2-13
security officer, 1-3 setting maximum for instance, 23-4
sensitivity, 22-3 setting warning limit for instance, 23-4
segments viewing current number and high water
data and index mark, 23-6
default storage parameters, 12-10 viewing memory use, 23-25
data dictionary, 20-27 SET ROLE command
displaying information on, 20-32 how password is set, 24-7
monitoring, 21-15 when using operating-system roles, 24-19
rollback, 21-1 SET TRANSACTION command
temporary storage parameters, 12-12 USE ROLLBACK SEGMENT option, 21-13
sensitivity setting archive buffer parameters, 7-22
security, 22-3 SGA
SEQUENCE_CACHE_ENTRIES parameter, 15-11 determing buffers in cache, 2-11
sequences shared mode
altering, 15-10 rollback segments and, 21-3
creating, 15-10 shared pool
dropping, 15-11 ANALYZE command and, 20-8
initialization parameters, 15-11 shared server processes
managing, 15-9 changing the minimum number of, 4-6
Parallel Server and, 15-10 privileges to change number of, 4-6
privileges for altering, 15-10 trace files for, 4-10
privileges for creating, 15-10 shared SQL areas
privileges for dropping, 15-11 ANALYZE command and, 20-8
server units shortcuts

Index-24
 CONNECT, for auditing, 25-8 ALTER INDEX command, 13-18
object auditing, 25-9 ALTER TABLE command, 13-11, 13-17
object privileges, 24-3 SQL statements
statement level auditing options, 25-8 disabling audit options, 25-12
Shut Down menu enabling audit options on, 25-10
Abort Instance option, 3-12 SQL trace facility
Immediate option, 3-11 when to enable, 4-12
SHUTDOWN command SQL*Loader
ABORT option, 3-12 about, 1-17
IMMEDIATE option, 3-11 indexes and, 16-3
NORMAL option, 3-11 SQL*Plus commands
shutting down a database, 3-1 See commands, SQL*Plus
shutting down an instance SQL_TRACE parameter
aborting the instance, 3-12 trace files and, 4-10
connecting and, 3-9 STALE status
connecting as INTERNAL, 3-10 of redo log members, 6-15
example of, 3-11 standby transmission mode
immediately, 3-11 definition of, 7-15
normally, 3-10 Net8 and, 7-15
size RFS processes and, 7-15
datafile, 10-4 Start Up Instance dialog box, 3-2
hash clusters, 18-4 starting a database
rollback segments, 21-4 about, 3-1
skip_corrupt_blocks procedure, 19-5, 19-11 general procedures, 3-2
snapshot logs starting an instance
storage parameters, 12-10 at database creation, 3-3
snapshots automatically at system startup, 3-6
storage parameters, 12-10 database closed and mounted, 3-4
too old database name conflicts and, 2-9
OPTIMAL storage parameter and, 21-5 dispatcher processes and, 4-5
SNP background processes enabling automatic archiving, 7-9
about, 8-2 examples of, 3-6
software versions, 1-21 exclusive mode, 3-6
SORT_AREA_SIZE parameter forcing, 3-5
index creation and, 16-3 general procedures, 3-2
space mounting and opening the database, 3-4
adding to the database, 9-4 multi-threaded server and, 3-2
used by indexes, 16-14 normally, 3-4
space management parallel mode, 3-6
PCTFREE, 12-2 problems encountered while, 3-5
PCTUSED, 12-4 recovery and, 3-5
specifying destinations remote instance startup, 3-6
for archived redo logs, 7-11 restricted mode, 3-4
specifying multiple ARCH processes, 7-20 with multi-threaded servers, 4-4
SPLIT PARTITION clause, 13-18 without mounting a database, 3-3

Index-25
STARTUP command, 3-2 dropping, 15-12
FORCE option, 3-5 managing, 15-11
MOUNT option, 3-4 private, 15-11
NOMOUNT option, 2-6, 3-3 privileges for creating, 15-12
RECOVER option, 3-5 privileges for dropping, 15-12
specifying database name, 3-3 public, 15-11
statistics SYS
updating, 20-4 initial password, 1-5
Step, 1-18, 1-20 objects owned, 1-5
storage policies for protecting, 22-7
altering tablespaces, 9-8 privileges, 1-5
quotas and, 23-14 user, 1-5
revoking tablespaces and, 23-14 SYS.AUD$
unlimited quotas, 23-14 audit trail, 25-2
storage parameters creating and deleting, 25-4
applicable objects, 12-7 SYSOPER/SYSDBA privileges
changing settings, 12-11 adding users to the password file, 1-12
data dictionary, 20-26 connecting with, 1-14
default, 12-7 determining who has privileges, 1-13
for the data dictionary, 20-27 granting and revoking, 1-13
INITIAL, 12-7, 14-11 SYSTEM
INITRANS, 12-9, 14-11 initial password, 1-5
MAXEXTENTS, 12-8 objects owned, 1-5
MAXTRANS, 12-9, 14-11 policies for protecting, 22-7
MINEXTENTS, 12-8, 14-11 user, 1-5
NEXT, 12-8 System Change Number (SCN)
OPTIMAL (in rollback segments), 21-5 checking for a datafile, 10-14
PCTFREE, 14-10 system change number (SCN)
PCTINCREASE, 12-8 when determined, 6-2
PCTUSED, 14-10 System Global Area, 2-11
precedence of, 12-11 System Global Area (SGA), 2-11
rollback segments, 21-8 system privileges, 24-2
SYSTEM rollback segment, 21-9 SYSTEM rollback segment
temporary segments, 12-12 altering storage parameters of, 21-9
stored procedures SYSTEM tablespace
privileges for recompiling, 20-25 cannot drop, 9-15
using privileges granted to PUBLIC, 24-15 initial rollback segment, 21-2
stream non-data dictionary tables and, 14-3
tape drive, 7-23 restrictions on taking offline, 10-7
SWITCH LOGFILE option when created, 9-4
ALTER SYSTEM command, 6-16
synonyms
creating, 15-12
T
displaying dependencies of, 20-32 table partition
dropped tables and, 14-12 containing global index, 13-12

Index-26
 creating, 13-9 UNRECOVERABLE, 14-4
dropping, 13-12 validating structure, 20-8
exchanging, 13-18 tablespace set, 9-20
splitting, 13-17 tablespaces
truncating, 13-15 adding datafiles, 10-5
tables altering availability, 9-10
adding partitions, 13-11 altering storage settings, 9-8
allocating extents, 14-11 assigning defaults for users, 23-12
altering, 14-10, 14-11 assigning user quotas, 9-3
analyzing statistics, 20-3 bringing online, 9-10
clustered, 17-2 checking default storage parameters, 9-31
clustered tables coalescing, 9-8
altering, 17-9 creating, 9-3
creating, 17-6 creating additional, 9-4
dropping, 17-10 default quota, 23-13
managing, 17-1 default storage parameters for, 12-10
privileges to drop, 17-10 default temporary, 23-13
creating, 14-9 dropping
designing before creating, 14-2 about, 9-14
dropping, 14-12 required privileges, 9-15
estimating size, 14-5 guidelines for managing, 9-2
guidelines for managing, 14-1, 14-6 listing files of, 9-31
hash clustered listing free space in, 9-32
creating, 18-4 location, 10-4
managing, 18-1 managing, 10-1
increasing column length, 14-10 monitoring, 10-13
indexes and, 16-2 privileges for creating, 9-4
key-preserved, 15-5 privileges to take offline, 9-10
limiting indexes on, 16-3 quotas
location, 14-10 assigning, 9-3
location of, 14-3 quotas for users, 23-13
managing, 14-1 read-only, 9-12
parallelizing creation of, 14-4 revoking from users, 23-14
privileges for creation, 14-9 rollback segments required, 9-5
privileges for dropping, 14-12 setting default storage parameters for, 9-3
privileges to alter, 14-10 SYSTEM tablespace, 9-4
schema of clustered, 17-7 taking offline normal, 9-10
separating from indexes, 14-6 taking offline temporarily, 9-11
specifying PCTFREE for, 12-4 temporary, 23-13
specifying tablespace, 14-3, 14-10 unlimited quotas, 23-14
storage parameters, 12-10 using multiple, 9-2
SYSTEM tablespace and, 14-3 viewing quotas, 23-24
temporary space and, 14-6 writable, 9-14
transaction parameters, 14-3 taking offline
truncating, 20-9 tablespaces, 9-10

Index-27
tape drives transmitting archived redo logs, 7-14
streaming for archiving, 7-23 in normal transmission mode, 7-14
temporary segments in standby transmission mode, 7-14
index creation and, 16-3 transportable tablespaces, 9-18
temporary space triggers
allocating, 14-6 auditing, 25-20
terminating disabling, 20-12
a user session, 4-15 dropped tables and, 14-12
terminating sessions enabling, 20-12
active sessions, 4-16 examples, 25-20
identifying sessions, 4-16 privileges for enabling and disabling, 20-12
inactive session, example, 4-17 TRUNCATE command, 20-9
inactive sessions, 4-17 DROP STORAGE option, 20-11
test REUSE STORAGE option, 20-11
security for databases, 22-9 TRUNCATE PARTITION clause
threads ALTER TABLE command, 13-15
online redo log, 6-2 truncating
time window clusters, 20-9
moving, in historical table, 13-20 partitioned objects, 13-15
tip privileges for, 20-10
object privilege shortcut, 24-3 tables, 20-9
shortcuts for auditing objects, 25-9 tuning
statement auditing shortcut, 25-8 archiving, 7-20
TNSNAMES.ORA file, 7-12 databases, 1-20
To, 10-5, 21-12 initially, 2-14
trace files
job failures and, 8-10
location of, 4-11
U
log writer, 4-11 UNIQUE key constraints
log writer process and, 6-6 disabling, 20-19
size of, 4-11 dropping associated indexes, 16-15
using, 4-10, 4-11 enabling, 20-19
when written, 4-12 enabling on creation, 16-8
transaction entries foreign key references when dropped, 20-20
guidelines for storage, 12-9 indexes associated with, 16-8
transactions storage of associated indexes, 16-8
assigning to specific rollback segment, 21-13 UNLIMITED TABLESPACE privilege, 23-14
committing unrecoverable
writing redo log buffers and, 6-2 tables, 14-4
rollback segments and, 21-13 UNRECOVERABLE DATAFILE option
TRANSACTIONS parameter ALTER DATABASE command, 6-17
using, 21-2 unrecoverable indexes
TRANSACTIONS_PER_ROLLBACK_SEGMENT indexes, 16-5
parameter UPDATE privilege
using, 21-2 revoking, 24-13

Index-28
Use, 10-10, 23-10 privileges for dropping, 23-17
USER_DUMP_DEST parameter, 4-11 PUBLIC group, 24-15
USER_EXTENTS, 10-13 security and, 22-2
USER_FREE, 9-31, 10-13 security for general users, 22-4
USER_INDEXES view session, terminating, 4-17
filling with data, 20-5 specifying user names, 23-12
USER_SEGMENTS, 9-31, 10-13 tablespace quotas, 23-13
USER_TAB_COLUMNS view unique user names, 2-13, 23-5
filling with data, 20-5 viewing information on, 23-23
USER_TABLES view viewing memory use, 23-25
filling with data, 20-5 viewing tablespace quotas, 23-24
USER_TABLESPACES, 9-31, 10-13 utilities
usernames Export, 1-17
SYS and SYSTEM, 1-5 for the database administrator, 1-17
users Import, 1-17
altering, 23-15 SQL*Loader, 1-17
assigning profiles to, 23-18 UTLCHAIN.SQL, 20-8
assigning tablespace quotas, 9-3 UTLLOCKT.SQL script, 4-8
assigning unlimited quotas for, 23-14
auhentication
database authentication, 23-8
V
authentication V$ARCHIVE view, 7-23
about, 22-2, 23-7 V$ARCHIVE_DEST view
changing default roles, 23-16 obtaining destination status, 7-14
composite limits and, 23-19 V$DATABASE view, 7-24
default tablespaces, 23-12 V$DATAFILE, 9-31, 10-13
dropping, 23-16 V$DBFILE view, 2-8
dropping profiles and, 23-21 V$DISPATCHER view
dropping roles and, 24-8 controlling dispatcher process load, 4-7
end-user security policies, 22-5 V$LICENSE view, 23-6
enrolling, 1-20 V$LOG view, 7-23
identification, 23-7 displaying archiving status, 7-23
in a newly created database, 2-14 online redo log, 6-18
limiting number of, 2-13 viewing redo data with, 6-18
listing, 23-22 V$LOGFILE view, 2-8
listing privileges granted to, 24-20 logfile status, 6-15
listing roles granted to, 24-21 viewing redo data with, 6-18
managing, 23-11 V$LOGMNR_CONTENTS view, 7-31
multi-byte characters using to analyze archived redo logs, 7-25
in passwords, 23-12 V$PWFILE_USERS view, 1-13
objects after dropping, 23-16 V$QUEUE view
password security, 22-4 controlling dispatcher process load, 4-7
policies for managing privileges, 22-5 V$ROLLNAME
privileges for changing passwords, 23-15 finding PENDING OFFLINE segments, 21-15
privileges for creating, 23-11 V$ROLLSTAT

Index-29
 finding PENDING OFFLINE segments, 21-15 W
V$SESSION, 8-14
V$SESSION view, 4-17 warning
V$THREAD view, 6-18 changing data dictionary storage
viewing redo data with, 6-18 parameters, 20-27
valid destination state creating a rollback segment, 2-12
for archived redo logs, 7-13 disabling audit options, 25-12
VALIDATE STRUCTURE option, 20-8 enabling auditing, 25-10
VARCHAR2 datatype, 12-17 setting the CONTROL_FILES parameter, 2-10
space use of, 12-17 use mirrored control files, 5-2
verifying blocks wildcards
redo log files, 6-16 in views, 15-4
versions, 1-21 WORM devices
of other Oracle software, 1-22 and read-only tablespaces, 9-14
view writable tablespaces, 9-14
partitioned
converting to partitioned table, 13-18
views
creating, 15-2
creating with errors, 15-4
displaying dependencies of, 20-32
dropped tables and, 14-12
dropping, 15-9
FOR UPDATE clause and, 15-3
managing, 15-1, 15-9
ORDER BY clause and, 15-3
privileges, 15-2
privileges for dropping, 15-9
privileges for recompiling, 20-25
privileges to replace, 15-8
recompiling, 20-25
replacing, 15-8
V$ARCHIVE, 7-23
V$ARCHIVE_DEST, 7-14
V$DATABASE, 7-24
V$LOG, 6-18, 7-23
V$LOGFILE, 6-15, 6-18
V$LOGMNR_CONTENTS, 7-25, 7-31
V$THREAD, 6-18
wildcards in, 15-4
WITH CHECK OPTION, 15-3
violating integrity constraints, 20-15

Index-30