THE SELF

Self is defined by the different people of different 12 PHILOSOPHERS OF THE “SELF”

times, and they came up with their own understanding, and
have explained their theories about the “self”. 1. Socrates: Life is Not Worth Living
THE SOUL AND THE SPIRIT For Socrates, life is not worth living if it is not
The concepts of "soul" and "spirit" have been central examined. For him, the Soul is synonymous with the Self. He
to various philosophical, religious, and cultural traditions believes that human beings have immortal soul that lives
throughout history. While there is often overlap and variation within the physical body.
in their definitions, there are general distinctions that can be
“THE UNEXAMINED LIFE IS NOT WORTH
made between the two:
LIVING”
Soul:
The term “philosophy” means the love of wisdom,
Definition: The concept of the soul is typically associated with and those that study philosophy attempt to gain knowledge
the idea of an immaterial, eternal, and individual essence or through rationality and reason. Socrates, the father of ancient
consciousness that resides within a person. It is often regarded philosophy, once stated “the unexamined life is not worth
as the core of one's identity and is believed to persist before living”. This is the most important part of life and it is need to
birth and after death. find purpose and value in life. If a person chooses to live their
life without examination, their life would lack value and they
Attributes: The soul is often thought to possess unique would be unhappy. They would also be ignorant to the effects
qualities, such as consciousness, self-awareness, and moral of their choices on themselves and the people around them.
agency. It may be seen as the source of emotions, desires, and
intentions. A person who lives an unexamined life may seem
content and believe they have the answers to what they need to
Religious Beliefs: Many religious traditions, such as know. Philosophical questions are irrelevant to them because
Christianity, Islam, and Hinduism, incorporate the concept of they assume that they have already answered them.
the soul into their teachings. The soul is often considered the
eternal part of a person that faces judgment in the afterlife. For example, the child of a religious family may
follow the theistic view and conclude that the meaning of life
Spirit: is following God's commandments and teachings, despite
Definition: The spirit is a more broadly used term that can never using reason to come to their own realization. If a
refer to various aspects of non-physical or transcendent person doesn't have a true, rational belief about the meaning of
existence. It is often associated with the idea of an immaterial, life, they will never be fully satisfied. Without this, a person
life-force, or animating principle that gives vitality to living will have no goals to strive towards and their life will be
beings. pointless.

Attributes: The spirit is often considered the source of According to Socrates “the unexamined life is not
consciousness, vitality, and animation in both living beings worth living”. The most important part of life is examining
and the natural world. It may be connected to notions of breath your choices and beliefs using rationality and determining if
or breath-like qualities. they are valid. If a person chooses not lead an unexamined
life, they would find that their life lacks value and they would
Religious and Cultural Variations: The concept of spirit can be unhappy. They would also lead an immoral life, as they
vary significantly across different cultures and belief systems. would be ignorant to the effects their choices have on
For example, indigenous and animistic religions often themselves and those around them.
emphasize the importance of spirits in nature, while some
philosophical traditions may use the term more metaphorically Socrates famously said, "An unexamined life is not
to describe the inner essence or disposition of a person. worth living." This statement reflects his belief in the
importance of self-awareness, critical thinking, and
While these are general distinctions, it's essential to note that philosophical inquiry as essential components of a meaningful
the precise definitions and interpretations of "soul" and "spirit" and virtuous existence. Let's break down what Socrates meant
can vary widely among different cultures, religious by this and provide some examples to illustrate his point:
denominations, and philosophical schools of thought. Some
people may use the terms interchangeably, while others may SELF-RELECTION:
attach specific meanings and beliefs to each concept. Socrates believed that individuals should regularly
Additionally, in secular or non-religious contexts, these terms examine their beliefs, values, and actions to gain a deeper
may be used metaphorically or symbolically to describe understanding of themselves and their motivations. For
aspects of human experience and consciousness. example, someone might ask themselves questions like, "Why
do I hold this belief?" or "What are the reasons behind my
actions?" This kind of self-reflection can lead to personal 1. happiness is impossible without moral virtue
growth and a more authentic life. 2. unethical actions harm the person who performs them
more than the people they victimize
QUESTIONING ASSUMPTIONS:
Socrates was known for his method of questioning, These situational examples illustrate how the concept of
called the Socratic method. He encouraged people to question "an unexamined life is not worth living" can apply to various
their assumptions and beliefs to determine whether they were aspects of life, emphasizing the importance of self-awareness,
well-founded. For instance, if someone unquestioningly critical thinking, and conscious decision-making in pursuing a
accepts a societal norm or tradition, Socrates would urge them more meaningful and fulfilling existence.:
to examine why they hold that belief and whether it aligns
with reason and morality. CAREER CHOISES:
Unexamined Life: Someone chooses a career solely because it
MORAL INTEGRITY: promises a high salary or because it's what their parents
Socrates believed that examining one's life also expect, without considering their own passions or interests.
meant assessing one's moral character. He argued that living a
life without reflecting on whether one's actions are just, Examined Life: Another person takes the time to reflect on
virtuous, or ethical is a life lacking in moral integrity. For their strengths, interests, and values before choosing a career
instance, if a person never considers the ethical consequences path, leading to a more fulfilling and meaningful professional
of their choices, they may inadvertently harm others or life.
compromise their own values.
RELATIONSHIPS:
INTELLECTUAL GROWTH: Unexamined Life: A person enters into a romantic relationship
Socrates saw the pursuit of wisdom and knowledge without thinking deeply about their own needs, values, or
as a fundamental aspect of a fulfilling life. He believed that an compatibility with their partner, leading to a tumultuous and
unexamined life is stagnant and lacks intellectual growth. unsatisfying relationship.
Individuals who engage in lifelong learning, critical thinking, Examined Life: Someone engages in self-reflection and
and philosophical inquiry are more likely to lead enriching relationship introspection, making informed decisions about
lives. their relationships, which can lead to healthier and more
fulfilling connections.
AVOIDING CONFORMITY:
Socrates cautioned against blindly conforming to societal ETHICAL DELIMMAS:
norms and peer pressure without thoughtful consideration. For Unexamined Life: Faced with an ethical dilemma at work,
example, someone who follows a particular career path someone makes a decision without considering the moral
because it's expected of them, rather than because they have implications or without questioning the company's actions,
examined their interests and passions, may find themselves potentially compromising their integrity.
living an unfulfilling life.
Examined Life: Another person takes the time to examine the
In essence, Socrates argued that living a life without ethical dimensions of the situation, considers the
introspection and critical self-examination is akin to living in consequences, and makes a principled decision that aligns
ignorance and conformity, devoid of true meaning and with their values.
purpose. To lead a life worth living, according to Socrates,
individuals must continuously question, reflect, and strive for PERSONAL GROWTH:
self-improvement and moral integrity. Unexamined Life: A person goes through life without ever
questioning their own biases, beliefs, or preconceptions,
Highlights: remaining closed to new ideas and experiences.
- an unexamined human life is deprived of the meaning
and purpose of existence. Examined Life: Someone actively engages in self-reflection,
- He believed that non-reflective people weren't really seeks out diverse perspectives, and continually grows
intellectually and emotionally, leading to a richer and more
living because being reflective is what made people
open-minded life.
human.
- Someone must think about their own life and its POLITICAL ENGAGEMENT:
purpose. It means that we must examine our lives and Unexamined Life: A citizen remains apathetic about political
we must choose a good life for ourselves through issues and never questions the actions of their government,
self-awareness thus it's worth living. contributing to the perpetuation of unjust policies.
- life is not life without tests, trials and challenges.
Examined Life: Another citizen critically evaluates political
Socrates’ major ethical claims: decisions, educates themselves on important issues, and
actively engages in the democratic process, striving for death. This suggests that the soul is an essential aspect of the
positive change. self, persisting beyond the physical body.

LIFESTYLE CHOICES: THE EXAMINATION OF LIFE:

Unexamined Life: Someone adopts unhealthy habits and Socrates is known for his method of critical self-
routines without considering the long-term consequences on examination, as seen in the Socratic dialogues. He believed
their physical and mental well-being. that individuals should engage in introspection and self-
reflection to understand themselves better. This process of
Examined Life: Another person examines their lifestyle self-examination is closely related to the nature of the soul and
choices, makes informed decisions about their health and well- its connection to the self.
being, and takes steps to lead a more balanced and fulfilling
life. VIRTUE AND THE SOUL:
Socrates often discussed the relationship between
“THE SOUL IS SYNONYMOUS WITH THE SELF” virtue (excellence of character) and the soul. He believed that
the soul's primary concern should be the development of
Socrates, one of the most influential figures in moral and intellectual virtues. This indicates that the quality of
Western philosophy, believed in the immortality of the soul the self is intimately tied to the state of the soul.
and its connection to one's true self. While Socrates did not
leave behind written texts himself, his ideas were recorded by SOCRATIC PARADOXES:
his student Plato, particularly in dialogues like the "Phaedo" Socrates was known for his paradoxical statements
and the "Phaedrus." and ideas, which often challenged conventional wisdom. For
example, he famously argued that it is better to suffer injustice
Socrates argued that the soul is synonymous with the than to commit it because the soul's integrity and moral
self in the sense that one's true essence or identity lies within character are more valuable than any external harm or gain.
the soul. He believed that the body is merely a temporary This illustrates how Socrates viewed the soul as the core of
vessel for the soul, and the soul is eternal and unchanging. one's identity and moral values.
Socrates thought that our physical bodies and material desires
distract us from understanding our true selves and achieving While these examples provide insight into Socrates'
wisdom. belief that the soul is synonymous with the self, it's important
to remember that his ideas were primarily transmitted through
According to Socrates, the pursuit of knowledge and the writings of his students, such as Plato, and may not fully
self-examination is essential for a virtuous and meaningful capture the nuances of his philosophy.
life. By examining one's beliefs, values, and actions,
individuals can come to know their true selves, which, in
Socratic philosophy, is synonymous with understanding the 2. Plato: The Self is an Immortal Soul
nature of their soul. The more one understands their soul and
strives for wisdom, the better they can lead a just and virtuous For Plato, there are three elements of the soul:
life. Reason, Physical Appetite, Spirit or Passion. Reason is the
ability of the self to think critically, and make wise decisions.
In summary, Socrates believed that the soul is Physical Appetite is the basic needs of a person, hunger, thirst
synonymous with the self because it represents the core, and sexual desires. Lastly, Spirit or Passion is composed of the
unchanging essence of a person, while the body and material basic emotions that the self-encounters.
world are transitory. Understanding one's soul through
introspection and the pursuit of wisdom was central to Plato, one of the most influential philosophers in
Socratic philosophy and self-discovery. Western philosophy, proposed a tripartite model of the soul in
his work, particularly in the "Republic." According to Plato,
Here are some examples of Socratic ideas that relate to the the soul consists of three distinct elements, each with its own
concept that the soul is synonymous with the self: functions and desires. These three elements are often referred
to as the "Tripartite Soul" or the "Three Parts of the Soul."
SOCRATIC IGNORANCE: They are:
One of Socrates' most famous statements is "I know that I am
intelligent because I know that I know nothing." This reflects Reason (Logos):
his belief that true wisdom is recognizing one's own Function: Reason is the highest and noblest part of the soul. It
ignorance. In this sense, the soul's self-awareness and pursuit represents rationality, intellect, and the capacity for logical
of knowledge are closely tied to the concept of the self. thinking. It is associated with wisdom and the pursuit of
knowledge.
THE IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL:
In Plato's "Phaedo," Socrates discusses the Desire: The rational part of the soul desires truth,
immortality of the soul. He argues that the soul is immortal understanding, and the attainment of knowledge. It seeks to
and that it existed before birth and will continue to exist after make wise and rational decisions based on objective analysis.
Example: Imagine a student preparing for a challenging final - Reason represents the rational and intellectual aspect
exam. They prioritize studying, seeking a deep understanding of decision-making, where individuals prioritize
of the subject matter, and making rational decisions about how knowledge, logic, and wisdom.
to manage their time effectively. Their reason is guiding them - Spirit relates to the emotional and assertive
to pursue knowledge and academic success. dimension, driving individuals to pursue recognition,
Spirit (Thumos): honor, and even defend their principles courageously.
Function: Spirit is the middle part of the soul and is associated - Appetite corresponds to the bodily desires and
with emotions, courage, and ambition. It is the source of an pleasures, leading individuals to seek gratification
individual's assertiveness and the drive to achieve honor and and satisfaction of their physical needs, often without
recognition. rational restraint.

Desire: The spirited part of the soul desires victory, honor, and Plato's philosophy suggests that the ideal life involves
social recognition. It is responsible for feelings of anger, pride, harmonizing these elements, with reason guiding and
and competitiveness. controlling the other two. In an ideal society, leaders should be
ruled by reason, ensuring just and rational governance, while
Example: Consider a competitive athlete who is determined to citizens should cultivate the virtues of wisdom, courage, and
win a championship. They train tirelessly, pushing themselves temperance to lead balanced and virtuous lives.
beyond their limits and displaying great courage on the field.
Their spirit drives them to achieve victory and gain
recognition among their peers.
3. Aristotle: The Soul is the Essence of the Self
Appetite (Epithumia):
For Aristotle, the main goal of the self is to lead a
Function: Appetite is the lowest and most base part of the soul.
good, flourishing, and fulfilling life.
It represents bodily desires, including those related to food,
drink, sex, and physical comfort. It is the source of our Aristotle, an ancient Greek philosopher, believed that
instinctual and hedonistic urges. the main goal of the self, or the individual, is to lead a good,
flourishing, and fulfilling life. This idea is central to his ethical
Desire: The appetitive part of the soul craves physical
philosophy, which is often referred to as virtue ethics. To
pleasures and gratification. It is often associated with lust,
understand what Aristotle meant by this statement, let's break
gluttony, and other bodily desires.
it down:
Example: Think about someone who has a strong craving for a
particular type of food, such as a delicious pizza. Despite Good Life (Eudaimonia):
knowing that they should eat a healthier meal, their appetite Aristotle's concept of a "good life" is often translated
overwhelms their judgment, and they give in to the temptation as "eudaimonia." Eudaimonia represents the highest human
to satisfy their taste buds with the pizza. good, the ultimate goal of human existence. It is not merely
happiness in the sense of fleeting pleasure but a deep and
Plato's tripartite model of the soul is central to his abiding sense of well-being and fulfillment. It is a life well-
philosophy, particularly in the context of ethics and lived-in accordance with one's true nature and potential.
governance in his ideal city-state outlined in the "Republic."
He believed that a harmonious and just individual, as well as a Flourishing (Eudaimonía):
just society, would result from the proper balance and To lead a good life or achieve eudaimonia, one must
harmony among these three elements of the soul. According to flourish as a human being. This means realizing one's full
Plato, reason should rule over spirit and appetite, with the potential, developing virtues, and striving for excellence in all
rational part of the soul guiding and controlling the other two. aspects of life. Flourishing involves personal growth, self-
This hierarchical arrangement is intended to ensure that fulfillment, and becoming the best version of oneself.
individuals make morally virtuous decisions and prioritize the
pursuit of wisdom and justice. Fulfillment:
Fulfillment, in the Aristotelian sense, comes from
In summary, Plato's three elements of the soul are living in accordance with one's virtues and values. It involves
reason, spirit, and appetite. They represent different aspects of the pursuit of moral and intellectual virtues, such as courage,
human nature and desires, with reason being the highest, wisdom, justice, and moderation. Aristotle believed that
noblest part responsible for rational thinking, spirit driving developing these virtues and practicing them consistently
courage and ambition, and appetite dealing with physical leads to a sense of fulfillment and purpose.
desires and pleasures. Plato's ethical and political philosophy
is built on the idea that a just and virtuous life involves In summary, when Aristotle spoke of the main goal of
harmonizing and prioritizing these elements correctly. the self being to lead a good, flourishing, and fulfilling life, he
was emphasizing the pursuit of eudaimonia, which involves
Highlights: striving for a life of virtue, personal growth, and moral
excellence. It is a life characterized by happiness, but a deeper Situation: Think of a person who regularly volunteers at a
and more enduring form of happiness that comes from living local food bank, donates to charitable causes, and actively
in harmony with one's true nature and fulfilling one's potential participates in community service projects. They derive a
as a rational and ethical being. sense of fulfillment from helping others in need.

Aristotle's ethical philosophy is often summarized by Aristotelian Perspective: Aristotle emphasized the importance
the idea that "the good life is the virtuous life," and it places a of moral virtues such as generosity and kindness. The person's
strong emphasis on developing and practicing moral virtues to altruistic actions align with the idea of leading a fulfilling life
achieve eudaimonia. by contributing positively to their community and practicing
moral virtues.
These situational examples illustrate how individuals
can pursue a good, flourishing, and fulfilling life according to
Aristotle's ethical philosophy by developing and practicing
virtues, striving for personal growth, and aligning their actions
with their values and potential. Aristotle's concept of
eudaimonia encourages individuals to lead a life that is 4. St. Augustine: The Self has an Immortal Soul
morally virtuous, intellectually enriching, and well-balanced
in various dimensions.: Saint Augustine noted that the body is united with the
soul as a whole and not separated. Augustine's work primarily
The Pursuit of Knowledge: focused on Christian theology, issues of faith and reason, the
Situation: Imagine a young scholar who is passionate about nature of God, and the relationship between faith and reason.
learning and has a strong desire to understand the world
deeply. They enroll in a university, study diligently, and “THE BODY IS UNITED WITH THE SOUL AS A WHOLE”
engage in philosophical discussions to expand their Saint Augustine, a prominent Christian theologian
intellectual horizons. and philosopher in the early Christian church, held the view
Aristotelian Perspective: According to Aristotle, the pursuit of that the body is united with the soul as a whole and not
knowledge is an essential aspect of leading a good life. The separated. This perspective is rooted in his Christian beliefs
scholar's dedication to learning and their commitment to and has implications for his understanding of human nature,
intellectual growth align with the goal of flourishing through the afterlife, and moral responsibility. Here's an overview of
the development of their rational and intellectual capacities. what Saint Augustine meant by this view:

Acts of Courage in a Challenging Situation: Theological Context:

Situation: Picture a firefighter who rushes into a burning Augustine's beliefs were deeply influenced by his Christian
building to rescue trapped occupants despite the obvious faith. He believed in the resurrection of the body, a core
dangers. They display exceptional bravery in the face of Christian doctrine that asserts that, at the end of time, both the
adversity. soul and the physical body will be resurrected and reunited.
This belief was in contrast to some philosophical traditions
Aristotelian Perspective: Aristotle believed that courage is a that held a dualistic view of the soul and body, where the two
moral virtue, and acting courageously in situations like this is were seen as distinct and separable entities.
a demonstration of leading a virtuous life. By facing danger to
save others, the firefighter is not only fulfilling their duty but Unity of the Person:
also realizing their potential for moral excellence. Augustine emphasized the unity of the person, which includes
both the soul and the body. He believed that human beings are
Balancing Work and Personal Life: holistic entities, and the body and soul are interwoven and
Situation: Consider a career-oriented individual who, despite inseparable during earthly life.
their professional success, recognizes the importance of
spending quality time with their family and maintaining a Moral Responsibility:
healthy work-life balance. They prioritize family gatherings, Augustine's view had implications for moral responsibility. He
vacations, and meaningful interactions with loved ones. argued that the choices and actions of individuals were made
by the whole person, which includes both the spiritual and
Aristotelian Perspective: Aristotle stressed the importance of physical aspects. Therefore, one's moral choices and actions
moderation and balance in life. The individual's choice to are embodied and have consequences not only for the soul but
prioritize both their career and their personal life demonstrates also for the body.
their commitment to a well-rounded and fulfilling life. They
are striving to flourish in both their professional and personal Resurrection:
spheres. Augustine's belief in the resurrection of the body was central
to his theology. He saw the resurrection as the ultimate
Charitable Acts and Community Involvement:
fulfillment of the person, where the body and soul would be Divine Connection and the Restless Heart:
reunited in a glorified state. This belief emphasized the
enduring importance of the physical body in the divine plan. Augustine famously wrote, "Our hearts are restless until they
rest in you," expressing his belief that the human self has an
In summary, when Saint Augustine asserted that the innate longing for God. He saw the self as incomplete without
body is united with the soul as a whole and not separated, he a connection to the divine, and he argued that true fulfillment
was articulating a Christian perspective that emphasized the could only be found in a relationship with God.
unity of the person and the ultimate reunion of the body and
soul in the resurrection. This view underscored the In summary, Saint Augustine saw the self as a
significance of the physical body in human existence and the complex and unified entity with the capacity to seek truth, but
importance of moral responsibility in both the spiritual and also as a fallen creature in need of divine grace to overcome
physical realms. Augustine's ideas continue to be influential in sin and find ultimate fulfillment in God. His theological and
Christian theology and philosophy. philosophical reflections on the self-have had a profound and
lasting impact on Christian thought and Western philosophy.
His understanding of the self was deeply influenced
by his Christian faith, personal experiences, and philosophical
reflections. Here are some key aspects of how Augustine saw 5. Rene Descartes: I think therefore I am
the self:
For Rene Descartes suggests that there are two
The Inner Self and the Search for Truth: dimensions of the self: the self as a thinking entity and the self
as a physical body. He also emphasized on the saying: I think
Augustine believed that every person has an inner self or soul therefore I am” which means that a rational thinking person
that possesses the capacity to seek and attain truth. He saw the and being self-conscious is the proof that there is a self.
journey of the self as a quest for knowledge and understanding
of God, who represents the ultimate truth. Augustine's “DIMENSIONS OF THE SELF”
autobiographical work, "Confessions," is a reflection of his René Descartes, a 17th-century philosopher and
personal journey from a life of worldly pursuits to a life mathematician, is often associated with the idea of dualism,
dedicated to the pursuit of divine truth. which posits the existence of two distinct dimensions of the
self: the self as a thinking entity (res cogitans) and the self as a
The Fall and Original Sin: physical body (res extensa). This dualistic view is a
foundational concept in Descartes' philosophy and is
Augustine's view of the self was influenced by the Christian explained as follows:
doctrine of original sin. He believed that as a result of Adam
and Eve's disobedience in the Garden of Eden, all human The Self as a Thinking Entity (Res Cogitans):
beings inherit a sinful nature. This inner struggle with sin was Meaning: The res cogitans, or thinking substance, represents
central to his understanding of the self. Augustine believed the mental or spiritual aspect of the self. It includes the
that the self-needed divine grace to overcome its fallen nature thinking, conscious mind and the realm of thoughts, ideas,
and return to God. beliefs, and mental processes.

The Self as a Unity: Nature: According to Descartes, the thinking entity is

immaterial, indivisible, and non-spatial. It cannot be extended
Augustine viewed the self as a unified whole, encompassing in space, divided into parts, or affected by physical properties.
both the intellect and the will. He argued against the dualistic It is the seat of consciousness and self-awareness.
views of his time, which posited a strict separation between
the physical body and the soul. Instead, he emphasized the The Self as a Physical Body (Res Extensa):
unity of the self, where the intellect and will are intertwined. Meaning: The res extensa, or extended substance, represents
the physical aspect of the self. It includes the body, which has
The Role of Memory: a spatial presence, occupies space, and is subject to the laws of
physics.
Augustine considered memory as a crucial aspect of the self.
He believed that the self was intimately tied to memory, as it Nature: In contrast to the res cogitans, the res extensa is
allowed individuals to recall their past experiences, reflect on material and extended in space. It consists of physical
their actions, and seek redemption through God's grace. attributes such as size, shape, location, and motion. The body
Memory played a significant role in Augustine's understanding is considered part of the physical, mechanistic world.
of the human condition.

Descartes' dualism was an attempt to address the

mind-body problem, which is the question of how the mental
and physical aspects of human experience are related. He physical body (res extensa) remains still and is not the primary
argued that the res cogitans and res extensa were distinct and focus of attention. This illustrates the separation between the
separate substances, each governed by its own set of laws. mental and physical dimensions as the individual explores
This view is known as "Cartesian dualism." their inner world.

Descartes' dualism has had a significant influence on Engaging in Physical Exercise:

the philosophy of mind and has sparked ongoing debates about Situation: An athlete is participating in a strenuous physical
the nature of consciousness, the relationship between mind workout, pushing their body to its limits to improve their
and body, and the possibility of mental causation (i.e., how performance. During this intense physical activity, they
mental events can cause physical events and vice versa). experience both physical exertion and a mental determination
It's important to note that while Descartes' dualism is to succeed.
a well-known and historically significant view, it has also Descartian Interpretation: In this scenario, the physical body
faced criticism and alternative interpretations over the (res extensa) is in action, undergoing the physical stress of
centuries, as it raises challenging questions about how the exercise. The thinking entity (res cogitans) is also engaged,
mental and physical realms interact, if at all. providing mental motivation and determination. The
interaction between the mental and physical aspects
demonstrates their separateness but also their capacity to
These situational examples illustrate how Descartes' influence each other.
dualism can be applied to everyday experiences, emphasizing
the distinction between the thinking, mental self and the
physical, bodily self, while also acknowledging their 6. John Locke: The Self is Consciousness
interconnectedness and capacity to influence each other in
various ways.: For John Locke, “conscious awareness and memory
of precious experiences are the keys to understanding his
Dreaming and Self-Identity: self”. He said that the fact that the person is a thinking entity,
Situation: Imagine a person who is having a vivid dream. In reasonable and reflecting on its identity, then there is a self.
the dream, they are engaged in a conversation with a friend
who has passed away. The person experiences thoughts,
emotions, and a sense of self-identity within the dream. “CONSCIOUS AWARENESS AND PRECIOUS MEMORY
Descartian Interpretation: In this scenario, the thinking entity EXPERIENCES”
(res cogitans) is actively engaged in the dream, experiencing John Locke, a 17th-century philosopher, is often
thoughts, emotions, and self-awareness. However, the physical associated with the idea that conscious awareness and memory
body (res extensa) lies in bed, immobile, and is not part of the of past experiences are key components of understanding the
dream experience. This situation highlights the separation self. This perspective is outlined in his famous work, "An
between the mental and physical dimensions of the self. Essay Concerning Human Understanding." Here's an
Physical Pain and Mental Distress: explanation of what Locke meant by this concept:
Situation: Consider a person who has injured their leg and is in
physical pain. The pain causes them distress, and they begin to Conscious Awareness:
worry about their health and well-being. Locke believed that consciousness is central to the self. He
argued that our sense of self, or personal identity, arises from
Descartian Interpretation: In this case, the physical body (res our continuous awareness of our own thoughts, feelings, and
extensa) is experiencing pain and injury, while the thinking experiences. In other words, it's our ability to reflect upon and
entity (res cogitans) is engaged in mental processes such as be aware of our mental states that gives rise to our sense of
worry and distress. The mental and physical dimensions of the self.
self are distinct, yet they interact as the pain leads to mental
distress. Memory of Past Experiences:
Locke proposed that memory plays a crucial role in the
Meditation and Self-Reflection: formation of personal identity. He argued that our identity is
Situation: A person sits down for a meditation session, not solely based on our physical bodies but is intimately tied
focusing on their breath and observing their thoughts. They to our ability to remember past experiences. Our memories
contemplate philosophical questions about the nature of the connect our past selves to our present selves, creating a sense
self and existence. of continuity and personal identity.

Descartian Interpretation: During meditation, the thinking Temporal Continuity:

entity (res cogitans) is actively engaged in introspection, self- Locke's theory of personal identity is often summarized by the
reflection, and the contemplation of philosophical ideas. The concept of temporal continuity. He asserted that an individual's
self is the same person over time as long as there is a Situation: Suppose a person experiences temporary amnesia
continuous chain of memories connecting their past and due to a head injury. After recovering, they gradually regain
present experiences. In other words, if you can remember their memory of their life, relationships, and personal
being a particular person at various points in your life, you are experiences. As they recall their past, they begin to rebuild
the same person. their sense of self.

Consciousness and Identity: Lockean Interpretation: This scenario illustrates Locke's idea
Locke's view contrasts with the notion of an enduring, that memory is integral to personal identity. The person's
unchanging self or soul. Instead, he proposed that our sense of conscious awareness of their regained memories allows them
self is a result of our mental experiences and consciousness. If to reconstruct their sense of self, bridging the gap created by
we were to lose the ability to remember our past experiences, the amnesia. Their identity is restored as they remember their
our sense of self, according to Locke, would become past experiences.
fragmented or even cease to exist.
Life Review in Old Age:
Situation: An elderly individual, nearing the end of their life,
takes time to reflect on their life's journey. They recall
In summary, John Locke's view on personal identity significant milestones, accomplishments, and the people who
emphasizes that conscious awareness of one's thoughts and have been important to them.
experiences, as well as the ability to remember past events, are
essential components in understanding the self. This Lockean Interpretation: In this situation, conscious awareness
perspective, often referred to as the psychological continuity and memory of past experiences become central to the
theory of personal identity, has had a significant impact on person's reflection on their life. As they review their life's
subsequent discussions of the nature of the self and personal narrative, their sense of self is shaped by their ability to
identity in philosophy and psychology. remember and make sense of their life's journey.

These situational examples demonstrate how

conscious awareness and memory of past experiences are
Certainly, let's explore situational examples that pivotal in shaping an individual's sense of self over time, as
illustrate John Locke's idea that conscious awareness and described in John Locke's theory of personal identity. Through
memory of past experiences are key to understanding the self: reflection and the continuity of memory, individuals develop a
coherent understanding of themselves as they progress through
Reunion with a Childhood Friend: life.
Situation: Imagine a person attending a high school reunion
and reconnecting with a childhood friend they haven't seen in
decades. As they reminisce about shared experiences, they
recall specific events, conversations, and adventures they had 7. David Hume: There is no Self
together as children. For David Hume, there is no self if a person carefully
Lockean Interpretation: In this situation, conscious awareness examines himself through the method of introspection. The
and memory of past experiences play a significant role in the self is just a result of the humanistic imagination and thoughts,
person's sense of self. Their ability to remember and reflect that build up a person’s characteristics.
upon these shared childhood memories helps establish a sense
of continuity between their present self and their younger self.
David Hume, an 18th-century Scottish philosopher, is
Diary Entries Over Time: known for his empiricist and skeptical views on various
Situation: Consider an individual who has maintained a diary topics, including the self or personal identity. The quote you
since their teenage years. They periodically write about their provided captures Hume's perspective on the self, which can
thoughts, emotions, and significant life events. Years later, be summarized as follows:
they revisit their diary and read through entries from different
stages of their life. No Self through Introspection:
Hume was skeptical about the existence of a permanent,
Lockean Interpretation: The act of revisiting the diary and unchanging self or "I" that could be discovered through
reading past entries exemplifies Locke's concept of personal introspection, the process of examining one's inner thoughts
identity. The individual's conscious awareness of their and experiences. He argued that when individuals engage in
thoughts and emotions at various points in their life, as introspection and try to find a distinct and enduring self, they
recorded in the diary, connects their present self with their past only find a stream of ever-changing thoughts, perceptions, and
self. The diary entries serve as a form of memory and self- experiences.
reflection.

Recovery from Amnesia:

 case, the individual's sense of self has evolved as their moral
values and actions have changed.
The Bundle Theory:
Hume's view of the self can be connected to his "bundle Reinventing One's Life:
theory" of the self. According to this theory, the self is not a Situation: Think of a person who, after experiencing a series
substantial entity but rather a bundle or collection of of setbacks and challenges, decides to make a fresh start. They
perceptions, thoughts, emotions, and sensations that are relocate to a new place, adopt a different career, and cultivate
constantly changing and flowing. There is no fixed core or self new interests. Their self-identity undergoes a significant
that underlies these experiences. transformation.

Result of Imagination: Humean Interpretation: Hume's view supports the idea that the
Hume suggested that our idea of the self is a result of human self is a construct influenced by experiences and
imagination and habit. When we reflect on our experiences circumstances. The individual's decision to reinvent their life
and the consistency of our thoughts and actions over time, we illustrates that the self is not a fixed entity but a product of
tend to create the concept of a self or personal identity as a adaptation and change in response to life events.
way to make sense of these phenomena. However, this
concept, according to Hume, is a product of our mental habits Cultural Identity Shift:
rather than a direct perception of a self. Situation: Consider an individual who was born into one
cultural and ethnic background but later in life fully embraces
In summary, David Hume's view on the self can be another culture, adopting its customs, language, and way of
characterized as a denial of the existence of a substantial and life. They no longer identify strongly with their original
unchanging self that can be discovered through introspection. cultural identity.
Instead, he argued that our idea of the self is a mental Humean Interpretation: Hume's perspective allows for the
construct created by our imagination and the regularity of our understanding that the self can be influenced by cultural and
experiences. Hume's philosophy has had a significant impact social factors. In this situation, the person's self-identity has
on discussions about personal identity and the nature of the been shaped by their cultural immersion and adoption of new
self in modern philosophy, and his views are often contrasted characteristics.
with more substantialist views of the self.
These situational examples reflect how David Hume's
philosophy challenges the notion of a fixed, unchanging self
David Hume's perspective on the self as a product of and emphasizes the dynamic and evolving nature of personal
imagination and lacking a fixed, enduring essence can be identity. According to Hume, the self is a construct that
illustrated through situational examples: emerges from our experiences, habits, and changing
characteristics, and it does not possess a permanent and
Changing Personal Beliefs: unalterable essence.
Situation: Consider a person who undergoes a significant
change in their fundamental beliefs or convictions over time.
For instance, they may transition from being a staunch atheist 8. Immanuel Kant: We construct the Self
to a devout religious believer. This change reflects a
substantial shift in their self-identity. For Immanuel Kant, the people are the ones to create
their own self. The self-constructs its own reality which
Humean Interpretation: From Hume's viewpoint, the self is not actively produces a world that is predictable to him/her.
a fixed, unchanging entity. In this situation, the person's self-
identity is fluid, adapting to new beliefs and experiences. The Immanuel Kant, an 18th-century German
sense of self is a construct that evolves as their thoughts and philosopher, is known for his complex and influential
convictions change. philosophical system. While Kant did not explicitly state that
"people create their own self" in those exact words, his
Moral Transformation: philosophy does touch upon themes related to personal
Situation: Imagine an individual who, in their youth, engaged autonomy and moral agency that can be related to this idea.
in morally questionable behavior, such as deceit and Here's an interpretation of how Kant's philosophy connects to
manipulation. Later in life, they undergo a profound moral the concept of individuals shaping their own selves:
transformation, becoming a dedicated advocate for honesty
and integrity. Moral Autonomy:
Humean Interpretation: Hume's perspective suggests that Kant's moral philosophy is centered around the concept of
personal identity is not defined by a consistent moral character moral autonomy. He argued that individuals possess the
but by the aggregate of experiences and behaviors. In this capacity for rational, autonomous moral reasoning, which
allows them to make moral decisions based on their own
principles and rational will, rather than simply following Conscious Mind:
external commands or inclinations. In this sense, individuals Meaning: The conscious mind represents the part of the mind
have the capacity to shape their moral character and determine that is currently active and aware of immediate thoughts,
their actions through rational deliberation. perceptions, sensations, and feelings. It includes our present
awareness and is associated with our everyday, conscious
Categorical Imperative: experiences.
Kant introduced the categorical imperative, a moral principle
that requires individuals to act according to maxims (personal Contents: The conscious mind contains thoughts, emotions,
principles or rules) that could be universally applied without and sensory experiences that are in our awareness at any given
contradiction. This principle emphasizes that individuals moment. These are the thoughts and feelings we can readily
should act in a way that respects the inherent worth and access and talk about.
autonomy of all rational beings, including themselves. By
adhering to the categorical imperative, individuals can shape Unconscious Mind:
their moral selves and make ethical decisions. Meaning: The unconscious mind consists of thoughts,
memories, desires, and emotions that are not currently in
Self-Legislation: conscious awareness. These are elements of the mind that are
Kant's philosophy also involves the idea of individuals as hidden from our conscious view but continue to influence our
"self-legislators" in the moral realm. This means that thoughts and behaviors.
individuals are not subject to external moral laws imposed Contents: The unconscious mind contains repressed or
upon them but rather actively participate in the creation of forgotten memories, unresolved conflicts, and deep-seated
moral principles through their rational deliberation and desires that may be too distressing or unacceptable to be
commitment to universalizable maxims. In this sense, brought into conscious awareness. Freud believed that these
individuals are seen as co-authors of their own moral unconscious elements could have a significant impact on a
principles and, by extension, their own moral selves. person's behavior.

Rational Freedom: Preconscious Mind:

Kant's notion of freedom is closely tied to rationality. He Meaning: The preconscious mind lies between the conscious
believed that individuals are truly free when they act in and unconscious layers. It represents thoughts, memories, and
accordance with rational principles that they have feelings that are not currently conscious but can be easily
autonomously adopted. This freedom allows individuals to brought into consciousness with some effort or reflection.
shape their own moral identities and make choices that align
with their rational will. Contents: The preconscious mind contains information that is
not at the forefront of our awareness but can be accessed
In summary, while Kant did not explicitly state that through deliberate thought or prompting. It includes memories
people create their own selves, his philosophy emphasizes the that are not actively recalled but can be remembered when
idea that individuals have the capacity for moral autonomy, needed.
rational self-determination, and the creation of moral
principles. Through their rational deliberation and adherence Freud's model of the mind suggests that our thoughts,
to universalizable maxims, individuals play an active role in behaviors, and emotions are influenced by all three layers of
shaping their moral character and determining their actions in consciousness. He believed that many psychological issues
accordance with their rational will. Kant's philosophy and conflicts arise from the interplay between conscious and
highlights the importance of individual agency and autonomy unconscious elements, with unconscious desires and memories
in the realm of ethics and morality. often having a powerful but hidden influence on our conscious
thoughts and actions.

9. Sigmund Freud: The Self is Multilayered

Sigmund Freud's model of the mind, which includes
For Sigmund Freud, there are three layers of the self: the conscious, unconscious, and preconscious layers, can be
Conscious, Unconscious, and Preconscious. illustrated through situational examples:

Sigmund Freud, the Austrian neurologist and founder The Dream Analysis:
of psychoanalysis, proposed a model of the human mind that Situation: A person has a recurring dream in which they are
includes three distinct layers or levels of consciousness: the being chased by a mysterious figure through a dark forest.
conscious mind, the unconscious mind, and the preconscious They find this dream unsettling and decide to seek help from a
mind. These three layers form the foundation of Freud's therapist.
psychoanalytic theory and are central to his understanding of
human behavior and mental processes. Here's an explanation Freudian Interpretation: In this situation, the conscious mind
of each of these layers: represents the person's awareness of the recurring dream and
their decision to seek therapy. The therapist may work with the approach emphasizes the role of the unconscious and
individual to explore the unconscious aspects of the dream, preconscious in shaping conscious thoughts and actions.
such as repressed fears or desires (unconscious mind).
Through psychoanalysis, the therapist helps the person bring
these hidden elements into the preconscious layer, where they 10. Gilbert Ryle: The Self is the Way People Behave
can be examined and understood. The dream analysis process
involves accessing material from the unconscious and For Gilbert Ryle, the self is best understood as a
preconscious levels to shed light on the source of the dream pattern of behavior, the capacity of a person to act and make a
and its significance. move in certain ways and conditions.

Anxiety and Repressed Memories: Gilbert Ryle, a 20th-century British philosopher, is

Situation: A person experiences unexplained anxiety and panic known for his influential critique of Cartesian dualism and his
attacks. They have no conscious understanding of the source development of the concept of "the ghost in the machine."
of their anxiety and feel overwhelmed by these emotions. Ryle's philosophy challenges the traditional mind-body
dualism and offers an alternative perspective on the nature of
Freudian Interpretation: In this scenario, the conscious mind the self. When he stated that "the self is best understood as a
represents the person's awareness of their anxiety symptoms. pattern of behavior, the capacity of a person to act and make a
Freud's theory suggests that there may be underlying, move in certain ways and conditions," he was advancing a
repressed memories or unresolved conflicts in the unconscious viewpoint known as "behaviorism" or "philosophical
mind that are contributing to the anxiety. Through behaviorism." Here's a breakdown of what he meant:
psychoanalytic therapy, the person may explore their past
experiences and emotions, bringing repressed memories and Rejecting Cartesian Dualism:
emotions to the preconscious level. This process allows the Ryle rejected the dualistic view, famously characterized by
person to gain insight into the source of their anxiety and work René Descartes, which posited a strict separation between the
toward resolution. mental (mind or soul) and the physical (body). Descartes
famously suggested that the mind and body were distinct
Slips of the Tongue (Freudian Slip): substances. Ryle challenged this notion and sought to provide
Situation: During a job interview, a candidate accidentally a more unified account of human experience.
says the wrong company name when discussing their
qualifications. They were thinking about a different company Pattern of Behavior:
earlier in the day. Ryle argued that the self, or the mental aspect of a person, is
not a separate and mysterious entity residing within the body
Freudian Interpretation: The slip of the tongue can be seen as but is, in fact, a pattern of behavior and dispositions to act in
an example of the interplay between the conscious and certain ways. In other words, the self is not an immaterial
unconscious mind. The candidate's conscious mind was "ghost" controlling the body like a machine; instead, it is the
focused on the job interview, but their unconscious thoughts sum of a person's observable actions and behaviors in various
about the other company briefly influenced their speech. The situations.
mistake reflects the influence of unconscious elements on
conscious behavior. Capacity to Act:
Ryle emphasized that understanding a person's self involves
Phobia Development: recognizing their capacity to act, make choices, and engage in
Situation: A person develops an irrational fear of dogs various behaviors. This capacity is not something separate
(cynophobia) after being bitten by a dog as a child. They have from their physical existence but is intrinsic to their
no conscious memory of the dog bite incident but are terrified embodiment and interaction with the world.
of dogs.

Freudian Interpretation: In this case, the conscious mind is "Category Mistake":

aware of the fear of dogs but lacks a conscious memory of the Ryle introduced the idea of a "category mistake" to describe
traumatic incident. Freud would suggest that the traumatic the error of treating mental and physical phenomena as if they
memory is likely repressed in the unconscious mind. Through belong to the same category. He argued that when we speak of
psychoanalysis or therapy, the individual may work to uncover the mind or the self as if they are separate entities, we are
and bring the repressed memory to the preconscious level, making a category mistake, akin to mistakenly treating
which could lead to a better understanding of the fear and its university buildings and the institution itself as two separate
origins. things. In reality, the institution is constituted by the buildings
and activities within them.
These situational examples illustrate how Freud's
model of the mind, with its three layers of consciousness, can In summary, Gilbert Ryle's view is often referred to
help explain and address various psychological phenomena, as "philosophical behaviorism," and it challenges the
including dreams, anxiety, memory, and behavior. Freud's traditional dualistic understanding of the self. He proposed
that the self should be understood as a pattern of behavior and adapt to different parenting roles and develop strategies to
dispositional capacities, emphasizing the unity of the mental meet their child's needs.
and physical aspects of human existence. Ryle's perspective
has had a significant influence on philosophy of mind and the Rylean Interpretation: In this situation, the self is evident in
philosophy of language, contributing to the rejection of the parents' patterns of behavior and their capacity to act as
Cartesian dualism in favor of a more holistic and behavior- caregivers. It encompasses their ability to provide love,
based account of the self. guidance, and support to their child, as well as their responses
to various parenting challenges and situations.
Gilbert Ryle's perspective that the self is best
understood as a pattern of behavior and a capacity to act in These situational examples demonstrate how Gilbert
certain ways and conditions can be illustrated through Ryle's perspective on the self as a pattern of behavior and a
situational examples: capacity to act can be applied to various aspects of human life.
Rather than positing a separate, immaterial self, Ryle's view
Learning a Musical Instrument: emphasizes that the self is embodied in observable actions and
Situation: A person decides to learn to play a musical behaviors within specific contexts and conditions.
instrument, such as the piano. They start taking lessons,
practice regularly, and gradually improve their skills over
time. 11. Paul Churchland: The Self is the Brain

Rylean Interpretation: In this scenario, the self is not a For Paul Churchland, the eliminative materialism or
separate entity controlling the person's actions. Instead, the the idea of the self is inseparable from the brain and the
self is the pattern of behavior exhibited by the individual as physiology of the body; the self is the brain.
they engage in learning, practicing, and playing the piano. It is
their capacity to act in specific ways, such as reading sheet Specifically, Churchland argues that the self is
music, coordinating their fingers, and producing melodies inseparable from the brain and the physiology of the body.
under certain conditions (e.g., during practice or Here's what he meant by this viewpoint:
performances).
Eliminative Materialism:
Becoming a Skilled Athlete: Churchland's position falls within the framework of
Situation: An aspiring athlete dedicates themselves to training eliminative materialism, which asserts that common-sense or
and competing in a particular sport. Over the years, they folk psychological concepts, such as beliefs, desires, and the
develop their physical abilities, strategy, and sportsmanship, self, may not accurately describe the underlying nature of
eventually becoming a skilled and accomplished athlete. mental processes. He suggests that as neuroscience advances,
we may need to eliminate or revise these folk psychological
Rylean Interpretation: In this case, the self is not a hidden or concepts in favor of a more scientific understanding of the
immaterial entity but is evident in the athlete's pattern of mind.
behavior and capacity to perform specific actions. It
encompasses their training routines, tactical decisions, The Self as Brain-Dependent:
physical conditioning, and competitive spirit, all of which Churchland's perspective implies that the self, or personal
contribute to their identity as a successful athlete. identity, is a product of the physical brain and the body's
physiological processes. He rejects the idea of a separate,
Mastering a Foreign Language: immaterial self or soul that exists independently of the
Situation: Someone decides to learn a new language and physical body. Instead, he argues that our sense of self arises
commits to studying and practicing regularly. They gradually from the complex workings of the brain and its interactions
gain fluency, improving their speaking, reading, and writing with the body.
skills.
Neuroscientific Explanation:
Rylean Interpretation: The self, according to Ryle, is Churchland contends that as neuroscience progresses, we will
manifested in the person's language-learning behavior and increasingly understand mental phenomena in terms of neural
their capacity to communicate effectively in specific ways and processes and the physical structures of the brain. This means
under certain conditions. It includes their ability to form that concepts related to the self, such as self-awareness,
sentences, engage in conversations, and adapt to various consciousness, and personal identity, will be best explained by
language-related tasks. the activities of the brain and its neural networks.

Parenting and Child Rearing: Reductionist View:

Situation: A couple becomes parents and takes on the Churchland's perspective is reductionist in the sense that it
responsibilities of caring for and nurturing their child. They seeks to reduce mental phenomena, including the self, to the
underlying physical processes of the brain. This view
challenges traditional dualistic notions that posit a separation to explain it. This perspective challenges traditional dualistic
between the mental and the physical. views and emphasizes the importance of neuroscience in
understanding the nature of the self
In summary, Paul Churchland's stance on eliminative
materialism and the inseparability of the self from the brain Paul Churchland's eliminative materialism and the
and the physiology of the body reflects a commitment to a idea that the self is inseparable from the brain and the
physicalist or materialist view of the mind. He argues that our physiology of the body can be illustrated through situational
understanding of the self should be grounded in the findings of examples:
neuroscience and the physical processes of the brain, rather
than relying on traditional folk psychological concepts that Neurological Disorders:
may not accurately capture the nature of mental phenomena. Situation: Consider a person who experiences a profound
change in their behavior and personality due to a neurological
“THE SELF IS THE BRAIN” disorder, such as frontotemporal dementia. This individual
may exhibit behaviors and traits that are markedly different
Paul Churchland's statement that "the self is the from their previous self, including impaired impulse control
brain" reflects his perspective within the framework of and social disinhibition.
materialism and the philosophy of mind. In essence,
Churchland argues that the self, or the concept of personal Churchland's Interpretation: In this scenario, Churchland's
identity, can be fully explained and understood in terms of the perspective would emphasize that the changes in the person's
physical processes of the brain. Here's a breakdown of what he self are a direct result of the alterations in their brain's
meant by "the self is the brain": physiology. The neurological disorder disrupts normal brain
functions, leading to the transformation of their personality
Identity Grounded in the Brain: and behaviors. This example underscores the idea that the self
Churchland's view posits that there is no need to appeal to is intimately linked to the physical state of the brain.
non-physical or immaterial entities, such as a soul or a
separate self, to explain personal identity or the sense of self. Effects of Brain Injury:
Instead, he contends that personal identity is entirely grounded Situation: A person sustains a traumatic brain injury in an
in the physical processes and functions of the brain. accident, resulting in damage to specific brain regions
responsible for memory and cognitive functions. As a
Physicalism or Materialism: consequence, they struggle with memory loss, cognitive
Churchland's perspective aligns with physicalism or deficits, and changes in their ability to reason and make
materialism, which asserts that all mental phenomena, decisions.
including consciousness and the self, are ultimately reducible
to and explainable by physical processes. In this case, the Churchland's Interpretation: From Churchland's viewpoint, the
brain is the physical organ responsible for generating the person's self is significantly impacted by the physical damage
experiences and qualities associated with the self. to their brain. Their loss of memory and cognitive abilities
demonstrates the inseparability of the self from the brain's
Neuroscientific Explanation: physiology. In this situation, the self is transformed due to the
Churchland's view suggests that our sense of self, self- physical alterations in the brain.
awareness, and personal identity emerge from the complex
interactions and computations occurring within the neural Psychiatric Medication and Mood Changes:
networks of the brain. These processes give rise to our Situation: An individual with clinical depression begins taking
conscious experiences and our perception of being a distinct, a prescribed psychiatric medication that alters the levels of
continuous self. neurotransmitters in their brain. Over time, they experience
significant improvements in mood and a reduction in
Rejection of Dualism: depressive symptoms.
Churchland's perspective rejects dualistic notions that posit a
separation between the mental and the physical. Instead, he Churchland's Interpretation: Churchland's eliminative
advocates for a monist view that treats mental states and the materialism would emphasize that the changes in the
self as part of the physical world, intimately connected to the individual's emotional state and overall well-being are a result
biological functioning of the brain. of the medication's impact on their brain chemistry. In this
case, the self's emotional state and mood are directly
In summary, when Paul Churchland states that "the influenced by the physiological changes occurring in the brain.
self is the brain," he is advocating for a materialistic or
physicalist view of personal identity. He asserts that the self,
along with all mental phenomena, is a product of the physical
processes and neural activities occurring in the brain, and Neuroscientific Research on Consciousness:
there is no need to invoke non-physical or immaterial entities
Situation: Neuroscientists conduct experiments using Anti-Cartesian View:
advanced brain imaging techniques to study the neural Merleau-Ponty's perspective contrasts with the
correlates of consciousness. They observe how specific brain Cartesian dualism of Descartes, which posited a sharp
regions and neural networks are active during various distinction between the thinking mind (res cogitans) and the
conscious experiences, such as perception, decision-making, extended body (res extensa). Instead, Merleau-Ponty rejected
or self-awareness. this dualism and sought to bridge the gap between mind and
body by highlighting the inseparability of the two in our lived
Churchland's Interpretation: Churchland's perspective aligns experiences.
with the idea that understanding consciousness and the self
requires an examination of the brain's physiology. These Phenomenological Reduction:
neuroscientific studies provide empirical evidence of the In his phenomenological approach, Merleau-Ponty
inseparability of the self from the brain. They highlight that advocated for a method of "phenomenological reduction,"
our conscious experiences and self-awareness can be linked to which involves suspending preconceptions and interpretations
specific patterns of brain activity. to focus on the direct phenomena of experience. By doing so,
he believed we could gain a more authentic and immediate
These situational examples illustrate how Paul understanding of the self and the world.
Churchland's eliminative materialism underscores the
interdependence of the self and the brain's physiology. Existential Concerns:
Changes in the brain, whether due to injury, neurological Beyond the epistemological aspects, Merleau-Ponty's
conditions, medication, or neuroscientific research, directly philosophy also delved into existential concerns, such as the
impact an individual's self and conscious experiences, nature of perception, embodiment, freedom, and the lived
supporting the idea that the self is intricately tied to the experiences of individuals. He explored how our experiences
physical processes occurring within the brain. shape our sense of self and contribute to our understanding of
existence.

12. Maurice Merleau-Ponty: The Self is Embodied

Subjectivity In essence, Merleau-Ponty's statement suggests that
our knowledge of the self is not derived from abstract or
For Maurice Merleau-Ponty, all the knowledge about theoretical reasoning but is grounded in our direct and
the self is based on the “phenomena” of experience. It means embodied experiences of the world. He encouraged a deep
that the self is a product of the past experiences that he had, exploration of these experiences as a way to gain insight into
and he builds up his identity through all those experiences in the nature of human consciousness, the self, and the lived
the past in which a person made decisions and such. aspects of existence. His work has had a profound influence
on phenomenology, existentialism, and the philosophy of
Maurice Merleau-Ponty, a 20th-century French mind.
phenomenologist and existentialist philosopher, emphasized
the importance of phenomenology in understanding the self Maurice Merleau-Ponty's philosophy emphasizes that
and human consciousness. When he stated that all knowledge all knowledge about the self is based on the "phenomena" of
about the self is based on the "phenomena" of experience, he experience, highlighting the significance of lived, embodied
was expressing a fundamental aspect of his philosophical experiences in understanding the self. Here are situational
approach. Here's what he meant by this statement: examples that illustrate this concept

Phenomena of Experience: Physical Pain and Personal Identity:

Merleau-Ponty believed that our knowledge of the
self and the world is rooted in the "phenomena" of our Situation: A person undergoes a severe injury and experiences
conscious experiences. Phenomena refer to the raw, intense physical pain. As they endure the pain and seek
immediate, and pre-reflective aspects of our perception and medical treatment, their sense of self is profoundly affected.
consciousness. These are the aspects of experience that we They may feel vulnerable, helpless, and acutely aware of their
encounter before we start analyzing or interpreting them. physical body.

Direct and Embodied Experience: Merleau-Ponty's Interpretation: In this scenario, the person's
Merleau-Ponty emphasized that our experience of the knowledge of their self is grounded in the immediate
world and our sense of self are not passive or detached but are phenomena of their physical pain and bodily sensations. Their
fundamentally grounded in our embodied and lived experience of pain is not an abstract concept but a lived reality
experiences. He argued that our bodies are not mere objects that shapes their self-awareness and identity during this
but are active participants in our perceptions and interactions period.
with the world.
Artistic Expression and Self-Identity:

Situation: An artist creates a painting that represents their

emotional struggles and inner turmoil. Through the act of
painting and the visual expression of their feelings, the artist
gains a deeper understanding of their own emotions and sense
of self.

Merleau-Ponty's Interpretation: Here, the artist's knowledge

about the self is rooted in the phenomena of their artistic
experience. The act of painting becomes a means of self-
exploration and self-expression, allowing them to externalize
and better comprehend their inner world.

Cultural Immersion and Identity:

Situation: An individual from one culture moves to a foreign

country and immerses themselves in a completely different
cultural environment. As they adapt to new customs, language,
and social norms, their sense of self undergoes transformation.

Merleau-Ponty's Interpretation: In this case, the person's

knowledge of their self is shaped by the phenomena of cultural
immersion and adaptation. Their sense of self is intimately tied
to the lived experiences of navigating a new cultural
landscape, leading to changes in their identity and self-
perception.

Parenting and the Sense of Responsibility:

Situation: A person becomes a parent for the first time. As they

care for their child and make decisions that impact their well-
being, they experience a heightened sense of responsibility
and an evolving sense of self as a parent.

Merleau-Ponty's Interpretation: The knowledge of the self in

this context emerges from the phenomena of parenting
experiences. The individual's identity expands to include the
role of a parent, and their sense of self is intimately connected
to the lived encounters and responsibilities associated with
raising a child.

These situational examples illustrate how Maurice Merleau-

Ponty's philosophy underscores the idea that our knowledge of
the self is deeply rooted in the immediate, lived experiences
and phenomena of our lives. It emphasizes that our sense of
self is not an abstract or detached concept but is intimately
intertwined with our embodied experiences, perceptions, and
interactions with the world.