CSC2210 OPERATING SYSTEM I

i. Introduction to Operating Systems:

a. Definition
OS is defined as a program or suite of programs that controls the entire operation of
the computer.
Can also be defined as the software responsible for allocating and managing system
resources
System Resources can be a memory, processor time, disk space, printer, scanner etc
b. Evolution and historical development.
i. 1940s - 1950s: Early Computer Systems:
Characteristics: The earliest electronic computers did not have operating
systems. Programs were loaded manually, and each task required a dedicated
machine.
Example: ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer).
ii. 1950s - 1960s: Batch Processing Systems:
Characteristics: Batch processing systems allow users to submit jobs in batches.
Operating systems were developed to automate job scheduling and resource
allocation.
Example: UNIVAC I with the UNIVAC I Operating System (UNIVAC I OS).
iii. 1960s - 1970s: Time-Sharing Systems:
Characteristics: Time-sharing systems allow multiple users to interact with the
computer simultaneously, providing each user with a share of the computer's
resources.
Example: CTSS (Compatible Time-Sharing System), MULTICS.
iv. 1970s: Rise of Microcomputers and Single-User Systems:
Characteristics: The emergence of microprocessors led to the development of
single-user operating systems for personal computers.
Example: CP/M (Control Program for Microcomputers), Apple DOS.
v. 1980s: Graphical User Interfaces (GUI) and Networking:
Characteristics: GUIs made computers more user-friendly. Networking
capabilities allowed computers to communicate and share resources.
Examples: MS-DOS, Apple Macintosh System Software, UNIX.
 vi. 1990s: Client-Server Computing and Windows Dominance:
Characteristics: Client-server architectures became popular. Microsoft Windows
gained widespread adoption in personal computing.
Examples: Windows 95/98, Windows NT, Linux.
vii. 2000s: Mobile Operating Systems and Virtualization:
Characteristics: The rise of mobile computing led to the development of mobile
operating systems. Virtualization technologies became more prominent for
server efficiency.
Examples: Windows XP, macOS, Linux, Android, iOS.
viii. 2010s - Present: Cloud Computing and Modern OS Features:
Characteristics: Cloud computing has become integral. Modern operating
systems emphasize security, virtualization, and support for diverse hardware.
Examples: Windows 10, macOS, Linux distributions, Android, iOS.

c. Functions/Roles of Operating System

i. File Management
Operating systems are responsible for managing the files on a computer. This
includes creating, opening, closing, and deleting files. The operating system is
also responsible for organizing the files on the disk.
ii. Device Management
Operating systems provide essential functions for managing devices connected
to a computer. These functions include allocating memory, processing input
and output requests, and managing storage devices. This device could be a
keyboard, mouse, printer, or any other devices you may have connected.
An operating system will provide you with options to manage how each device
behaves. For example, you can set up your keyboard to type in a specific
language or make it so that the mouse only moves one screen at a time.
You can also use an operating system to install software and updates for your
devices and manage their security settings.

iii. Process Management

The operating system’s responsibility is to manage the processes running on
your computer. This includes starting and stopping programs, allocating
resources, and managing memory usage. The operating system ensures that the
 programs running on your computer should be compatible. It’s also
responsible for enforcing program security, which helps to keep your computer
safe from potential attacks.
How do Operating systems manage all processes?
Each process is given a certain amount of time to execute, called a quantum.
Once a process has used its quantum, the operating system interrupts it and
provides another process with a turn. This ensures that each process gets a fair
share of the CPU time.
The operating system manages processes by doing the following task:
• Allocating and deallocating the resources.
• Allocates resources such that the system doesn’t run out of resources.
• Offering mechanisms for process synchronization.
Helps in process communication (inter communication).

iv. Memory Management

One of the most critical functions of an operating system is memory
management. This is the process of keeping track of all the different
applications and processes running on your computer and all the data they’re
using.
This is especially important on computers with a limited amount of memory,
as it ensures that no application or process takes up too much space and slows
down your computer. The operating system can move data around and delete
files to make more space.
Operating systems perform the following tasks-
• Allocating/deallocating memory to store programs.
• Deciding the amount of memory that should be allocated to the
program.
• Memory distribution while multiprocessing.
• Update the status in case memory is freed
• Keeps record of how much memory is used and how much is unused.
When a computer starts up, the operating system loads itself into memory and
then manages all the other running programs. It checks how much memory is
used and how much is available and makes sure that executing programs do
not interfere with each other.
 v. Job Management
An operating system’s (OS) job accounting feature is a powerful tool for
tracking how your computer’s resources are being used. This information can
help you pinpoint and troubleshoot any performance issues and identify
unauthorized software installations.
Operating systems keep track of which users and processes use how many
resources. This information can be used for various purposes, including
keeping tabs on system usage, billing users for their use of resources, and
providing information to system administrators about which users and
processes are causing problems.
The operating system does the following tasks:
• Keeps record of all the activities taking place on the system.
• Keeps record of information regarding resources, memory, errors,
resources, etc.
• Responsible for Program swapping(in and out) in memory
• Keeps track of memory usage and accordingly assigns memory
• Opening and closing and writing to peripheral devices.
• Creating a file system for organizing files and directories.

d. Objectives of an operating system.

i. Hardware Abstraction:
Objective: To provide a standardized interface between application programs
and the hardware components (CPU, memory, disk drives, etc.), abstracting the
complexity of hardware details for software developers.
ii. Resource Management:
Objective: Efficiently allocate and manage system resources, such as CPU time,
memory space, input/output devices, and network bandwidth, to ensure optimal
utilization and fair sharing among multiple processes or users.
iii. Process Management:
Objective: Create, schedule, and terminate processes, facilitating the execution
of concurrent tasks. The OS manages the execution state, communication, and
synchronization between processes.
iv. Memory Management:
Objective: Control and allocate the system's memory space to processes as
needed. This includes managing virtual memory, swapping data between RAM
and storage, and ensuring efficient memory utilization.
 v. File System Management:
Objective: Provide an organized and structured way to store, retrieve, and
manage files on storage devices. The OS handles file creation, deletion, reading,
and writing, and maintains file integrity and security.
vi. Device Management:
Objective: Control and coordinate communication with input/output devices
(e.g., printers, disk drives, network interfaces) by providing device drivers and
managing device queues, ensuring efficient and secure data transfer.
vii. User Interface:
Objective: Offer a user-friendly interface for interaction with the computer
system. This can be through a command-line interface (CLI) or a graphical user
interface (GUI), simplifying the user experience.
viii. Security and Protection:
Objective: Enforce access controls, authentication, and authorization
mechanisms to protect the system from unauthorized access and ensure data
integrity. The OS also provides isolation between processes to prevent
interference.
ix. Error Detection and Handling:
Objective: Detect, report, and handle errors or exceptional situations in the
system, preventing crashes and providing mechanisms for recovery when
possible.
x. System Performance Monitoring:
Objective: Monitor and analyze system performance, collecting data on resource
usage, bottlenecks, and other metrics. This information helps optimize system
performance and plan for future upgrades or changes.
xi. Communication and Networking:
Objective: Facilitate communication between different computers and devices in
a networked environment, managing protocols and ensuring seamless data
exchange.
xii. Support for Multi-User Environments:
Objective: Enable multiple users to interact with the system concurrently,
providing mechanisms for user authentication, session management, and
resource sharing.

e. Types of Operating System

 i. Single User
• Standard OS for a standalone computer system
• only one person can use the computer system at any one time
• can support multiple accounts but only one used at a time
• processing power of CPU dedicated to the user
• so multi-tasking can be performed i.e. running more than one program for
that user at the same time
ii. Multi-User
• More than one user accessing the system at the same time
• most commonly: network operating system
• server computer connected to a number of terminals
• client-server LAN, ATM, ticket booking
• O/S allocates a time slice to each user
• switches from user to user
• the larger the number of users the slower the system works
• can run several programs simultaneously
iii. Multi-Tasking
• CPU carries out more than one task at the same time, several programs can
be loaded and running at the same time • e.g. using a word processor whilst
browsing the Internet
• Processor switches between tasks
o completes part of one task then switches to do part of another task
o this process happens very fast
o appears that tasks are running concurrently
• true multi-tasking requires more than one processor
o many current CPUs have multiple processing cores
iv. Interactive
• Direct user interaction whilst a program is running
o accepts and responds to input from user
• “question and answer” between user and computer
• The computer gives the user an immediate response

v. Real-Time
• Must respond to events with no discernible delay
• Responds immediately to the data entered
• Used where response time by the system is critical
o where delays in processing would prove unacceptable
• Used for control systems
o traffic lights, air traffic control, aircraft navigation
• Used for embedded systems
o systems within another application,
o e.g. cars and mobile phones

vi. Batch Processing

 • Data can be collected over a period of time
• When all data collected -it is processed at the same time • as a ‘batch’
• Data is processed at an off-peak period
o when there is less demand on the processor
o less disruption to the daily work schedule
o system & peripherals available when most needed
• Does not need staff intervention
• suitable for situations where there is a lot of similar data to be processed
& the processing can wait:
o cheque processing in a bank, gas bill printing, payroll processing
•
• Not suitable where the data must be processed instantly data is not up to
date until processing completed

vii. Distributed System

• Complex tasks are split into several smaller, similar tasks
• a series of computers connected together via network
o computers can be in different physical locations
• each computer performs part of the processing
• results from individual machines are combined to achieve the overall
task
• Examples:
o film animation & CGI via “render farms”
o Modeling real-world scenarios – scientific, environmental, and
financial
o analysis of large datasets
f. Handheld devices
Handheld operating systems are available in all handheld devices like
Smartphones and tablets. It is sometimes also known as a Personal Digital
Assistant. The popular handheld device in today’s world is Android and iOS.
These operating systems need a high-processing processor and are also
embedded with various types of sensors.
Some points related to Handheld operating systems are as follows:
i. Since the development of handheld computers in the 1990s, the demand
for software to operate and run on these devices has increased.
ii. Three major competitors have emerged in the handheld PC world with
three different operating systems for these handheld PCs.
iii. Out of the three companies, the first was the Palm Corporation with their
PalmOS.
iv. Microsoft also released what was originally called Windows CE.
Microsoft’s recently released operating system for the handheld PC comes
under the name of Pocket PC.