ENGINEERING GEOLOGY (BCV303)

MODULE 2

PETROLOGY: “Petro” is a ‘rock’ in Greek. Petrology is the branch of geology dealing with
the origin, mode of occurrence, structure of rocks and their relations to geological processes
and history. In other words, it is the science of rocks composing the earth’s crust, their
composition, and structure, mode of formation, deposition and changes under the influence of
various factors. Rock can be defined as the aggregate of one or more minerals which may be
amorphous or crystalline. For ex., Dunite is a monomineralic rock containing only one mineral
olivine, whereas the rock granite is a mixture of several minerals including quartz, feldspar,
hornblende, mica etc. Rocks are studied as definite units of the earth’s crust which documents
the earth history. However, the term rock denotes any hard solid material derived from the
earth.

The study of rocks as specimens is called as petrography and the study of origin of rocks is
called petrogenesis. Petrology includes both petrogenesis and petrography.

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS:

The rocks are broadly classified into three groups: Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic
rocks.

Igneous Rocks: Rocks formed by the consolidation of molten magma are said to be Igneous
or primary rocks. Igneous means very hot. They are usually massive, hard, compact,
unstratified (not layered), unfossiliferous (do not contain fossils) and often occupy veins and
fissures cutting across other rocks. These rocks are distinguished by the presence of crystalline
minerals set in a minute crystalline paste or in a glassy matter. e.g. Granite, Basalt.

Sedimentary Rocks: Rocks formed by the denudation (weathering and erosion) and
deposition of pre- existing rocks are said to be sedimentary rocks. The loose sediments or
fragments formed by the denudation are carried by water and wind and collected in the
depressions or basins of the crust and finally they are cemented into hard rock. The rocks
formed in these ways are called sedimentary or secondary rocks. They contain noncrystalline
matter in the form of fragments, cobbles, pebbles and fine grains. These rocks show presence
of bedding or stratification, organic remains (fossils), and other marks. e.g. Limestone, Shale.

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Metamorphic Rocks: Metamorphic rocks are formed by the alteration of pre-existing rocks
deep within the Earth by the effect of heat, pressure, and/or chemically active fluids. The
process is called as metamorphism. They often retain traces of their original structures. e.g.
Marble, Gneiss, Schist.

ROCK CYCLE

The rock cycle is a process in which rocks are continuously transformed between the three rock
types igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. The rock cycle describes transitions through
geologic time among the these three rock types. Each rock type is altered when it is forced out
of its equilibrium conditions. The rock cycle explains how the three rock types are related to
each other, and how processes change from one type to another over time.

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IGNEOUS ROCKS

Igneous rocks are formed by cooling and consolidation of magma/ lava. Magma is a hot
viscous molten rock matter, carrying crystals of various minerals in the process of formation,
and may contain water and other gasses. It is composed mainly of O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, Na
and K. Magma when it erupts out on the Earth’s surface due to volcanic activities it is called
Lava and can cool to form an igneous rock on the surface of the Earth - producing a volcanic
or extrusive igneous rock. Whereas magma when it cools beneath the surface of the Earth, - it
produces a plutonic or intrusive igneous rock. Igneous rock origin is closely associated with
the movement of tectonic plates and they play an important role in the spreading of sea floor,
the origin of mountains and evolution of continents. The volume of extrusive rock erupted
annually by volcanoes varies with plate tectonic setting.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EXTRUSIVE AND INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS:

The extrusive rocks are erupted to the surface, while intrusive rocks are irrupted into the crust.
The extrusive rocks which have been exposed to the air, have lost most of the gaseous matter,
the escape of gases produces slaggy cindery surfaces, vesicularity and other characteristics in
the upper part of the lava flow. Their rapid cooling is indicated by fine grains and the frequent
presence of glass. Flow structures are common. On the other hand intrusive rocks are coarse
grained, devoid of vesicles or glassy matter.

MODE OF OCCURRENCE OF IGNEOUS ROCKS OR FORMS OF IGNEOUS

ROCKS:

Lavas are emitted either from cones or fissures. They form tabular bodies of wide aerial extent,
and are elongated in the main direction of flow. The form of lava flow chiefly depends upon
the fluidity of magmas, which again depends on its composition and temperature of eruption.
Thus, basic lava’s (basalt) are highly mobile and flow for greater distances, whereas acidic
magmas like Rhyolitic and Trachytic are sluggish in their flow, and remain heaped up, often in
the steep sided masses about the orifice (mouth of volcano) of eruption.

Based on relationship of igneous intrusion with structure of host rock, igneous intrusions are
divided into two types. Concordant bodies are those where magma is injected and cooled along

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the stratification (layers) of intruded rock. In Discordant bodies magma break across the
structures and bedding planes. Both types are divided as following.

Type Intrusion in the region of unfolded, Intrusion in the region of highly

gently folded, or tilted strata folded and compressed rocks.
Concordant Sills, Laccoliths, Lopoliths Phacolith, Concordant Batholith
Discordant Dykes, Ring dyke, Cone-sheet, Discordant Batholith (Stocks, Bosses)
Volcanic neck

CONCORDENT FORMS:

Sills: Sills are thin tabular sheets of magma, which have Sedimentary Strata
penetrated along the horizontal bedding planes. They are
nearly parallel to the upper and lower boundaries of the bed
but may thin out. The thickness may vary from few inches
to many hundreds of feet. The distance to which the sill may
be traced depends upon the hydrostatic pressure,
temperature, fluidity of magma and weight of strata which a
sill has to lift in order to make room for itself. Sills and dykes
occur associated with each other. Sills are divided into
different types: Simple sills, Multiple sills, Composite sills,
Differentiated sills

Laccoliths: A viscous magma is injected rapidly into

stratified rocks, as it cannot spread very far; it tends to heap
itself up about the orifice of eruption. Thus a bun shaped
mass of igneous rock is formed which has a flat base and a
domed top. The strata above it are lifted up in the form of an
inverted bowl. It causes folding of the overlying rock layers.

Lopoliths: These are the massive intrusions of basic rocks

which are concordant, have a lenticular shape and are
centrally sunken like a saucer or basin [Lopas = A Basin].
Lopoliths are generally produced due to collapse of the rock
beds in a region, and consequent up rise of the magma
through the collapsing layer. Lopoliths differ in their greater
size, form and sagging of their basis.

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Phacoliths: In folding, crests and troughs of fold become Phacoliths

regions of weakness and tension whereas the middle limbs
are compressed. When the magma is under low pressure it
will not exert much pressure to make space for itself. In such
cases magma may be pushed into existing crests and troughs
of a fold, and get solidifies there. Such magmatic formations
are called as Phacoliths. They exhibit doubly convex lens
like form. These are of smaller dimensions

Concordent Batholiths: These are extremely large intrusions, intruded more or less parallel to
the bedding planes of the country rock.

DISCORDANT FORMS:

Dykes/Dikes: These are discordant igneous bodies.

The intrusion of magma into more or less vertical
fissures which cut across the bedding or other
structures of invaded rock, results in the formation of
dike. They commonly occur in the form of a wall like
masses of exactly or nearly vertical position. The
thickness may vary from few inches to many hundreds
of feet. Similarly the length of dike may vary from few
yards to several miles. Dikes are the result of filling up
of cracks in the country rocks with igneous materials.
Dike occur in groups, such groups may show radiating,
arcuate or ring type patterns.

Ring Dike: A Ring dike is a type of arcuate outcrop, Ring Dike

which would have a closed, ring shaped outcrop. Ring
dike may be arranged in concentric series. Ring dikes
are thick with coarse grained plutonic rocks.

Cone Sheets: These are the assemblages of inclined dyke like masses with arcuate outcrops, the
members of which dip at an angle of 30°-40° towards common centers. The thickness may vary
from 30 to 40 feet.

Volcanic Necks: Volcanic necks or volcanic plugs are Volcanic Neck

igneous masses, which seal up the vents or channels of
ancient volcanoes. They may be circular, semi circular
or irregular in shape, and show variation in diameter.
They show inward dipping contacts with the country
rock.

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Multiple Intrusions: Whenever magma has been

injected along a single channel, two or more
successive times having more or less same
composition, then the resulting form is known as
multiple intrusions
Composite Intrusions: The type of intrusion, when magma’s of different compositions is
injected through the same channel.

Discordant Batholiths: These are extremely large in

size, discordant, very irregular in outline, appear to
widen gradually with increasing depths. Batholiths are
found in the regions of folded rocks, and are elongated,
parallel to tectonic axis. In most cases they are of
granitic nature, having big dimensions.

Stocks: Batholiths of comparatively smaller dimension are described as stocks. They cover an
area of less than 40 square miles. Its outcrop is very irregular.

Bosses: Stocks of circular outcrop on the surface are known as bosses.

Figure showing different forms of igneous rocks.

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CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

It is difficult task to classify the igneous rocks, perfectly and general scheme of classification
acceptable to all does not seem to be available in literature. Many classifications have been
proposed by different workers depending upon the different characteristic of the igneous rocks.
The four main bases of classifications are:

1. Chemical classification

2. Textural classification

3. Classification based on mineral content

4. Tabular classification

1. Chemical Classification:

It is based on the chemical analysis of different rocks. It is essential and useful for many
purposes. This basis makes the chemical composition the most fundamental character of
igneous rocks.

In 1903 four American petrologists “CROSS, IDDINGS, PIRSSON, and WASHINGTON”

advanced the CIPW Classification. This classification is based on chemical composition of
different rocks. In this classification a standard set of minerals called ‘NORM’ is selected. The
norm is divided into salic and femic group, the most important constitution of which are:

Salic Minerals (Siliceous) Femic Minerals (Ferromagnesian)

Quartz Diopside
Albite Hypersthene
Anorthite Olivine
Leucite Magnetite
Nephaline Ilmenite
Corundum Hematite
Zircon Apatite
Another mode of chemical classification of igneous rocks is depending upon the saturation
principal, which was proposed by “Shand and Homes”. The minerals which are capable of
exiting in igneous rocks in the presence of silica are said to be saturated. On the other hand
certain minerals of low silica content are very rarely found in association with silica (Quartz)
they are termed as Unsaturated. These facts may form the basis of classification as follows:

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1. Oversaturated rocks – containing free silica of magmatic origin. Ex.: Granite.

2. Saturated rocks – containing only saturated minerals. Ex.: Syenite
3. Undersaturated rocks – containing unsaturated minerals. Ex.: Dunite & Peridotite
On the basis of their chemical composition the igneous rocks may be classified as: -

▪ Acidic rocks- contain more than 66% of silica.

▪ Intermediate rocks – silica percent lying between 55% - 66%.
▪ Basic rocks – contain between 55% - 44% of silica.
▪ Ultrabasic rocks - contain less than 44% of silica.

2. Textural Classification: Textural classification expresses the conditions under which

cooling took place, i.e. the geological occurrence. The rocks are classified as Plutonic, Volcanic
and Hypabyssal.

The Plutonic rocks are formed from magma at grater depths with slow cooling under great
pressure and with retention of volatile constituents. Hence the texture of plutonic rocks is
Holocrystalline and coarse grained. Ex.: Granite.

The Volcanic rocks are formed from the lava erupted at surface and solidified under low
pressure, with loss of volatile constituents with rapid cooling from the high temperature. The
resulting texture of the rocks is merocystalline or glassy and fined grained. Ex.: Basalt.

The Hypabyssal rocks are of intermediated type, formed at shallow depths. The hypabyssal
group include rocks of dyke, sills etc. the textures range from holocystalline to merocrystalline.
Prophyritic texture is very common in hypabyssal rocks. Granite porphyry, Syenite porphyry.

3. Classification based on mineral content: This classification is the most useful because the
minerals are actual units of rocks and the minerals can be identified quickly and easily and also
their relative quantity can be estimated.

The minerals present are classified as essential, accessory and secondary. The first two are
products of magmatic crystallization, and are therefore also primary or original minerals. The
secondary minerals are those formed by weathering or metamorphism or alteration of minerals.

Essential minerals are those which are necessary to the diagnosis of the rock type and whose
absence would cause the changing of rock to other group. The minerals which are present in
small amount and whose presence or absence is disregarded in identifying the rock are called
as accessory minerals.

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Another grouping of minerals useful in classification is into ‘Felsic’ and ‘Mafic’.

The term felsic is derived from feldspar, feldspathoid and silica. These are light coloured, have
low specific gravity & comparatively late crystallization products of magma.

Mafic is similarly derived from ferromagnesian minerals (mica, pyroxene, amphibole, olivine,
iron oxide etc.). These are dark coloured, heavier & comparatively early crystallization
products of magma.

STRUCTURES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS:

Characteristic features that give conspicuous appearance to a rock are called its “structures”.

They are large scale features. The structures of igneous rocks are broadly classified into two
ways –

1. Primary structures – these includes all those features which are developed in igneous
rocks at the time of cooling and consolidation of magma and lava.
2. Secondary structures – these include those features that have been imposed upon the
existing igneous masses.

1. Vesicular and Amygdaloidal Structure: Most lava’s are heavily charged with gases and
vapors, which escapes as soon as the pressure is diminished by their eruption at the surface.
This escape of gases in rapidly cooling lava leaves its impression with the production of cavities
or voids. These voids are spherical or irregular in shape. These are also called as vesicles. The
rocks containing such empty vesicles or voids, the structure is called as vesicular structure. The
vesicular structure is characteristic of Basaltic rocks.

The amygdaloidal structure forms in vesicular rocks. The vesicles may get filled up by
secondary minerals such as calcite, zeolite, silica and hydrated ferro-magnesium silicates.
These secondary minerals present in the vesicles resemble the shape of almond. The almond
shape grains are known as amygdales. The rock containing such structure is called as
amygdaloidal structure.

2. Blocky and ropy structure: Two different appearances may be presented by lava flows.
Lava of acidic composition is highly viscous and do not flow for greater distances. After
solidification, the surface is covered with the mass of rough, jagged,, angular blocks of all

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dimensions known as blocky lava or simply “aa” (Hawaiia name). It is characteristic of viscous
lava.

Basic lavas which are very mobile because of low viscosity, flow for a greater distance solidify
with smoother surface, often highly glazed and exhibit wrinkled, ropy, corroded form. The
surface is diversified by low domes, which show radial crakes, such structure is called as ropy
or “Pahoehoe”.

3. Columnar structure: With uniform cooling and contraction in a homogenous magma the
parting planes tend to take on a regular columnar or prismatic form, characterized by the
development of four, five, six sided prism. These columns are developed perpendicular to
cooling surface. The columnar structure is due to the development of centers of contraction at
equally spaced intervals on the cooling surface. The lines joining these centers are the
directions of greater tensile stress and when the rigidity of the rock is overcome, cracks will
appears perpendicular to these lines. These lines will intersect, so as to enclose a hexagonal
area. They extend downward or upward from the cooling surface and produce “prismatic
columns”.

4. Pillow structure (Ellipsoidal Structure): This is peculiar structure occurring mostly in

basic lava’s such as spilites (soda rich) rocks. Here the lava exhibits the appearance of a pile
of small masses which have been compared to pillows, sacks and cushions. The pillows
generally have a vesicular crust and occasionally a glassy skin. It frequently shows flow
banding, by line of vesicles concentric with its surface and are filled. The association of pillow
lava’s with marine sediments has led to the view that the structures are due to contact of molten
lava with sea water. The pillow may be connected to one another by short tubes or necks, or
along their sides.

5. Flow Structure: No lava is quite homogeneous during and after extrusion. Layers and
patches in it differ slightly in composition, gas content, viscosity, degree of crystallization.

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Subsequent to eruption of lava upon the surface the viscous varieties flow from one place to
another with great difficulty and as a result dissimilar patches are drawn out into parallel bands
or streaks and lines during cooling and crystallization of magma or lava and are parallel to the
direction of flow. Such structures are called flow structures.

6. Xenolithic Structure: Foreign rock fragments are included into magma, when it rises up
towards the earths surface, if they are not digested, they remain entrapped within the mass of
igneous rock and produce heterogeneous texture. Such entrapped fragments of foreign rocks
are called xenoliths and the structure is called as xenolithic structure.

ENGINEERING IMPORTANCE AND UTILITY OF IGNEOUS ROCKS:

Many plutonic igneous rocks like Granites, Syenites, Diorites etc. are found to possess very
high value of crushing and shearing strengths. They are therefore considered to be the most
satisfactory rocks for all types of engineering construction works and as building stones.

Volcanic or extrusive igneous rocks are good road metals. Eg. Basalt when it is not vesicular
are considered to be excellent road metals and are widely used in construction fields as crushed
stones. The rocks which are intermediate between plutonic and volcanic rocks i.e. hypabyssal
rocks such as Dolerites can be used for both the purposes.

In general, most of the igneous rocks being crystalline, compact and impervious are always
safe as foundations and abutments of dams or as sides and roofs in tunnels. Some of the igneous
rocks like pegmatite and peridotite are of special economic importance, as they contain
valuable ore minerals. Due to their impervious nature, the igneous rocks are the most unsuitable
type of rocks for holding ground water reserves.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:

Sedimentary rocks are those which have been formed out of sediments. Sediments are the rock
fragments which are the products of weathering (Process of disintegration and decomposition
of the rocks.) of pre-existing rocks. These sediments after transportation and deposition are
consolidated by the process called lithification and diagenesis to form a sedimentary rock.
These are also called as secondary rocks. The sedimentary rocks also include the rocks formed
by the accumulation of chemically precipitated or organically derived material. Sedimentary

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rocks occur in layers and frequently contain fossils. They are also called as layered rocks. These
rocks are found to occur at or near the surface of the earth and they cover 75-80% of the earth’s
crust.

FORMATION (ORIGIN) OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:

The formation of the sedimentary rock takes place in three stages

1. Weathering and erosion of pre-existing rocks.

2. Sedimentation
3. Lithification and diagenesis

1. Weathering and erosion of pre-existing rocks: During weathering and erosion, the pre-
existing rocks and their constituent minerals are broken down. The material thus produced is
called as “sediments”. These sediments are usually transported and deposited in areas of
accumulation by the action of water or less frequently by wind or glacial action. During
transportation, the sediments are roughly sorted and deposited according to size. Bigger rock
fragments such as gravels settle first, sands are next in order and clays are deposited at last.
The minerals which are dissolved in water travel in solution.

2. Sedimentation: The process of accumulation of sediments at the site of deposition is called

the sedimentation. The material carried in solution precipitates and accumulates at the site.
Sedimentation is the intermediate stage in the formation of sedimentary rock.

3. Lithification and Diagenesis: Lithification is a process by which soft and loose sediments
are converted into hard and firm rocks. This process is called as condensation. During the
process many physical and chemical changes take place within the sediments. Such changes
are called the diagenetic changes and process is described as “Diagenesis”. The diagenesis
includes three processes.

i. Compaction: Compaction occurs when the weight of overlaying layers compresses the
sediments below. As the grains of sediments are compressed, they come closer and closer
together. There is a considerable reduction in pore spaces and volume. Fine grained sediments,
such as clays are consolidated more effectively by this process.

ii. Cementation: When water circulates through the pores of coarse-grained sediments,
dissolved mineral matter is precipitated between the grains which cause cementation. This is a

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process by which, sediments get held together by a binding material. The most common
cementing materials are silica, calcium carbonate, iron oxides and clay minerals. The strength,
toughness and other characteristics achieved by sedimentary rocks so formed will depend upon
the binding material.

iii. Recrystallization: Although most sedimentary rocks are lithified by compaction,

cementation or by combination of both, some are consolidated chiefly by the recrystallization
of their constituents. Examples – chemically formed rocks, such as limestone, dolomite, salt,
gypsum.

CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:

The sediments, from which sedimentary rocks are formed, may be divided into two major
groups.

1. Clastic Sediments
2. Non-clastic sediments

1. Clastic Sediments: The word clastic means fragmental. Clastic sediments are broken
fragments of pre-existing rocks ranging in size from minute clay particles to very large
boulders. Clastic rocks are form by mechanical accumulation of grains of clastic sediments
depending upon the grain size of the constituents; the clastic rocks are classified into three
groups (Grain size classification).

a. Rudaceous rocks (Rudites): These are formed by accumulation of bigger rock fragments
such as gravels, pebbles and boulders. If the grains are rounded, the rock is called as
“conglomerate” and if the grains are angular then the rock is called as “Breccia”.

b. Arenaceous rocks (Arenites): These rocks are composed of almost entirely of sand grains.
When individual grains are rounded the rock is called as “sandstone” and if the grains are
angular, it is called as “grit”.

c. Argillaceous rocks (Lutites): These rocks are made up of very fine-grained sediments.
“Shale” and “mudstone” are typical argillaceous rocks, which are composed of clay sized
sediments.

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2. Non- clastic Sediments: Non-clastic rocks include those sedimentary rocks which are
formed by chemical precipitation of minerals from water or by accumulation of remains of
animals and plants.

They are classified into two groups.

1. Chemically formed rocks

2. Organically formed rocks

1. Chemically formed rocks: These rocks are formed when mineral matter in solution is
precipitated from water, usually because of change in water temperature or in chemical content
of water. Such chemical sediments are derived from the dissolution of minerals from older
rocks and subsequent transportation of dissolved chemical substances into a sea or lake. On the
basis of composition, the chemically formed rocks are classified as follows:

a. Carbonate rocks: Under favorable conditions, the water becomes saturated with one or
more dissolved components. This may be followed by precipitation of salts as crystalline
substances. Limestone is formed by precipitation from carbonated water due to loss of carbon
dioxide.

b. Evaporites: Evaporation is the major process involved in the deposition of chemical

precipitates. The salt deposits formed by the evaporation of saline lakes are called the
“evaporites”. The principal minerals of these deposits are chlorides and sulfates of Na, K, Mg,
rock salts(halite), gypsum, and anhydrite are the most abundant mineral of evaporates. They
commonly form massive beds.

c. Ferruginous rocks: This group includes those rocks which are formed by the chemical
precipitation of iron oxides and hydroxides. Such rocks are rich in iron bearing minerals such
as siderite, hematite and pyrite. “Ironstone is an example of ferruginous rock.

d. Siliceous rocks: These rocks are formed when silica is precipitated from water. Example –
flint, chert, jasper and agate.

2. Organically formed rocks: These rocks are composed mainly of remains of plants and
animals. Organically formed rocks are subdivided into two groups:

a. Biochemical rocks: The biochemical sediment is produced when plants or animals living
under water, extract dissolved mineral matter, such as calcite to form the shells or hard parts.

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These shells accumulate on the ocean floor in great quantities to form sedimentary rocks. Ex-
Shell limestone.

b. Organic rocks: rocks containing organic matter belongs to this group. Ex – coal. These
rocks are called as ‘carbonaceous rocks.

SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES:

Nearly all sedimentary rocks contain sedimentary structures, features that developed during or
shortly after deposition of the sediment. These structures help us understand how the sediment
was transported and deposited. The important primary sedimentary structures are stratification
or bedding, lamination, Cross-bedding, graded bedding, Ripple marks. Beside these there are
some minor structures such as Mud cracks, rain prints etc.

Stratification or Bedding: Nearly all sedimentary rocks are characterized by stratification.

Deposition of sediments into layers or beds is called stratification. The plane of junction
between different beds is called the bedding plane. The thickness of a bed may vary from few
centimeters to many meters. A single layer bounded by two bedding planes is called as a bed
or a stratum. Each bed represents a homogeneous set of conditions of sedimentation. Different
beds are distinguished from each other by the difference in the mineral composition, variation
in the grain size or texture, difference in colour and variation in thickness. Nearly all
sedimentary beds were originally horizontal because most sediment accumulates on nearly
level surfaces. The sequence of beds that characterizes sedimentary rocks is called bedding.

Lamination: Thin bedding layers, less than 1 cm in thickness are called as lamination or
lamination bedding. Lamination is usually found in very fine-grained rocks like shale. Different
sedimentary lamination layers can be set apart by grain size and composition. These differences
are caused by the different environments in place over long stretches of geologic time.

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Cross Bedding or current bedding: Cross bedding consists of small beds or laminations
laying at an angle to main sedimentary layering. Current bedding form in many environmental
conditions where wind or water transports sediments and deposits at site. Cross bedding is
common in environment such as sands deposited by wind, streams, ocean current and waves
on beaches. This structure indicates rapid changes in velocity and direction of flow of streams
or wind carrying sediments. Newer beds form at an angle to the older ones.

MajorBedding Plane

Ripple marks: Ripple marks are the wavy undulations seen on the surface of bedding planes.
They are produced by the action of waves and currents in shallow water or on the surface of
deposits formed by wind. They are like dunes and sand waves, but smaller. Ripple marks are
of two types: If the water or wind flows in a single direction, the ripple marks become
asymmetrical. The longer flank is orientated opposite to the direction of wave. In other cases,
waves move back and forth in shallow water, forming symmetrical ripple marks in bottom
sand. Symmetrical ripple marks are formed due to wave action and asymmetrical ripple marks
are formed due to current action. Ripple marks are often preserved in sandy sedimentary rocks.

a. Asymmetrical ripple marks

b. Symmetrical ripple marks

Graded bedding: In Graded bedding each bed shows a gradation in grain size. The largest
grains collect at the bottom of a layer and the grain size decreases toward the top. Graded beds
commonly form when some violent activity, such as a major flood or submarine land- slide,
mixes a range of grain sizes together in water, or when fast flowing water stops flowing. The
larger grains settle rapidly and concentrate at the base of the bed. Finer particles settle more
slowly and accumulate in the upper parts of the bed.

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Mud cracks/ Sun cracks: Mud cracks are polygonal cracks that form when mud shrinks as it
dries. They indicate that the mud accumulated in shallow water that periodically dried up. Mud
cracks are often found in the fine grained sedimentary rocks. For example, mud cracks are
common on intertidal mud flats where sediment is flooded by water at high tide and exposed
at low tide. The cracks often fill with sediment carried in by the next high tide and are
commonly well preserved in rocks. They are common in arid environments.

Rain print: Occasionally, very delicate sedimentary structures are preserved in rocks. A rain
print is a slight shallow depression rimmed by a low ridge which is raised by impact of rain
drop. The mud must have been deposited in shallow water that intermittently dried up.

Tracks and Trails: These are markings indicating the passage of some animal over soft
sediment which was able to take and retain the impression.

Concretions: Concretions are the nodules of mineral matter found within a sedimentary rock.
Their shape may be spherical, elliptical, lenticular or irregular. Concretions generally consist
of calcium carbonate or silica. Their chemical and mineralogical composition is generally
different from the enclosing rocks.

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River Delta: This is a landform formed at the mouth of a river, where the river flows into an
ocean, sea, estuary or lake. Deltas are formed from deposition of sediments carried by river as
the flow leaves the mouth of the river. Over long period of time this deposition builds
characteristic pattern of a river delta.

Other feature: Fossils are any remains or traces of a plant or animal preserved in rocks. Fossils
include remains of shells, bones, or teeth; whole bodies preserved in amber or ice; and a variety
of tracks, burrows, and chemical remains.

TEXTURES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:

Texture means the size, shape and arrangement of particles or grains in a rock. As sediments
contain particles of various sizes, grain size is an important factor for the description of
sedimentary rocks. Depending upon the size, particles of sediments are classified into Gravel,
Sand, Silt, and Clay and each of these gives rise to a particular type of rock. This classification
is shown in the table below.

Wentworth size scale

Grade Grain Size Common sediment name Rock Type
Boulder >256 mm
Cobble 64 - 256 mm Gravel Conglomerate
Pebble 2 - 64 mm
Sand 1/16 - 2 mm Sand Sandstone
Silt 1/256 - 1/16 mm Siltstone
Mud
Clay <1/256 mm Shale

A sedimentary rock may be composed of clastic grains, or chemically or organically evolved

components giving it contrasting textures. Thus, rock rich in clastic grains of any size, shape
and composition are said to show Clastic Texture whereas others show Nonclastic Textures
and these form two principle types of sedimentary textures.

The shapes of constituent grains of sedimentary rocks are of considerable significance in the
study of texture. The grains of rock may be rounded or angular. Grains which have been
transported to considerable distances commonly show a high degree of rounding whereas
grains that have resulted from disintegration, volcanic explosion or glacial action are

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commonly angular. In conglomerate the rock fragments are rounded while in breccias they are
angular.

The chemically formed rocks may contain rounded concretions. If they are of the size of 1mm,
the texture is said to be oolitic, and if they are of a pea size, the texture is described as pisolitic.
The texture and mineral composition of sedimentary rocks are of great value in determining
the nature of the environment at the time when the sediment was deposited.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS

The new rocks which are formed from alteration of pre-existing rocks (igneous, sedimentary
or metamorphic) of any type, by the process of metamorphism are called metamorphic rocks.
The word metamorphism means change of form. (Meta = change and morph = form).
Metamorphism is a natural process which is responsible for all the changes that take place in
an original rock under the influence of changes in the surrounding conditions of temperature,
pressure and chemically active fluids.

The igneous and sedimentary rocks, when subjected to metamorphism, undergo changes that
are physical, chemical or both. Physical changes are reflected as changes produced in the
texture of the old rocks, whereas chemical changes produce the formation of new minerals,
thus giving rise to new group of rock, called metamorphic rocks. For example – Granite to
Gneiss, Peridotite to Talc Schist, Sandstone to Quartzite, Limestone to Marble, shale to Slate
to Phyllite and finally to Schist.

Under certain limited conditions a metamorphic rock may sometimes be subjected to over
powering stress and heat, which may cause melting of rocks giving rise to magma and new
igneous rocks. This process of melting and rebirth of magma is called anatexis or ultra
metamorphism.

AGENTS OF METAMORPHISM:

Metamorphism is due to the operation of the three factors – temperature/heat, pressure and
chemically active fluids. These three factors upset the physical and chemical equilibrium of a
mineral assemblage; and metamorphism results to establish a new equilibrium.

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Temperature: The temperature is governed by the following factors:

1. The internal heat of the earth, which is due to geothermal gradient, i.e., increase of
temperature with depth.
2. Magmatic heat, which is governed by the heat liberated by igneous intrusives of
volcanism, and
3. The temperature due to radio-active heat due to the heavy elements like U238. It is
believed that most of metamorphic changes take place within 350 to 850° C range of
temperature.

In any case, whatever may be the source, heat is a very effective agent of metamorphism.
Besides producing its direct action, it greatly increases the solvent action of fluids or solutions,
which promotes the formation of new minerals.

Pressure: It is another important agent of metamorphism, which brings widespread changes

with association of chemically active fluids and with or without much heat. Many metamorphic
changes are induced solely because of pressure factor. Any given rock within the earth’s crust
is subject to the pressure from two sources - firstly, because of the load of the overlying
material, and secondly, because of the crustal disturbances during the orogenic or mountain
building activity. The first type of pressure generally acts vertically in all directions, which
leads to the change in the volume; whereas the pressure from orogenic movements is lateral or
horizontal. It is termed as directed pressure or stress which leads to change in shape or
distortion in the rocks/minerals.

Chemically active fluids: Presence or absence of chemically active fluids beneath the surface
is regarded as playing a most important role in the process of metamorphism. In the vicinity of
magmas in particular, and in many other rocks also, certain kinds of liquids and gases may be
present entrapped within the pores of the rocks or may be flowing in the cracks and crevices.
Water is an important fluid, which may be present in liquid or vapor phase. At very high
temperature water becomes chemically active and acts as a solvent of nearly all rock forming
minerals, which helps in recrystallization of the rock minerals. Some gases like carbon dioxide,
hydrofluoric acid, bromine, fluorine etc., are also present and they are responsible for many
important changes in some rocks during the metamorphism.

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KINDS OF METAMORPHISM:

Depending upon, as to which of the three agents of metamorphism are dominating in a

particular metamorphic change, the metamorphism may be divided into following types:

Thermal Metamorphism: All those metamorphic processes, in which heat is the chief agent
of metamorphism, and pressure and fluids play a secondary role, are included under the term
thermal metamorphism. It includes pyrometamorphism, contact metamorphism. However,
these classes are not sharply marked off, and pass by insensible graduations one into the other.

Pyrometamorphism includes intense localized changes produced at very high temperature

without actual fusion, acting under dry conditions. A part of the country rock may actually get
entrapped within a magmatic body. A burning or baking effect may be produced on the rocks.
The original minerals are forced to re-crystallize and re-arrange themselves in accordance with
the conditions imposed by rise in temperature.

Contact metamorphism occurs adjacent to igneous intrusions and results from high
temperatures associated with the igneous intrusion. It is caused due to local heating of rocks
by the intrusion of hot igneous bodies (magma) nearby and the region around igneous body
within which such metamorphism is in operation is known as contact aureole. It takes place at
lower temperatures, and mineral transformations are facilitated by abundance of rock moisture
aided by magmatic emanations. As the temperature decreases away from the intrusive, the outer
rocks in the aureoles are less intensely metamorphosed than that of innermost rocks. In this
type of metamorphism there is little or no change in the bulk composition of the rock.

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Dynamic Or Cataclastic Metamorphism: All those metamorphic changes in which the

dynamic or high pressure caused by earths movement is dominating agent of metamorphism
and heat and chemically active fluids play a secondary role, are included under the term
dynamic metamorphism. It results from the crushing and granulation of minerals and rocks
(cataclasis), through the application of stress under small load and at low temperatures, with
little or no formation new mineral. When only static pressure due to overburden is dominantly
responsible for producing metamorphic changes, it is called load metamorphism. This is very
weak type of metamorphism.

Cataclastic metamorphism is not very common and is restricted to a narrow zone along which
the sliding occurred. Cataclasis is much more prominent in the hard, brittle, resistant rocks such
as granites and arenaceous sediments.

Dynamothermal Metamorphism: This is the most important of all the types of

metamorphisms, and cause widespread regional metamorphic changes. It is due to the co-
operation of directed pressure and heat. The heat element facilitates recrystallization, but the
stress element not only promotes recrystallization, but it is powerful in deforming the rocks,
and producing new structures. The new parallel textures and structures are usually orientated
perpendicular to the direction of greatest stress, and parallel to that of minimum stress. The
production of schistose and gneissose structure is most noteworthy feature of this regional
metamorphism. The heat from interior of the earth causes widespread metamorphic changes in
the surrounding rocks at sufficient depths producing regional metamorphism.

Plutonic Metamorphism: Plutonic metamorphism generally shows changes in rocks at great

depths below the earth’s surface by high temperature and static pressure. The metamorphism
caused by these two factors is called the plutonic metamorphism. As the influence of directed
pressure is at most feeble in this type of metamorphism, oriented parallel structures are not
important and give rise to even grained granulose directionless structures. The formation of
antistress minerals of small volume and high density are favored in these conditions but no new
textures and structures are formed.

Metasomatism: It is a type of thermal metamorphism in which liquids and gases (at high
temperature) attack the surrounding rocks, thus inducing certain metamorphic changes in them.
When the rocks are attacked by chemically active liquids or solutions, it is called
‘Hydrothermal metamorphism’ and when the rocks are attacked by chemically active gases

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or vapors, it is called ‘Pneumatolytic metamorphism’. This results in formation of new

minerals.

When high temperature metamorphic mineral assemblages are changed to low temperature
mineral assemblages, the process is called the ‘Retrogressive or Retrograde
metamorphism’. In all these different types of metamorphisms, generally no melting of rocks
takes place, and no foreign matter is added or subtracted from the original rocks and thus no
change in the bulk chemical composition of the rock is expected.

STRUCTURES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS:

Metamorphic structures are grouped into schistose, granulose and gneissose, cataclastic,
maculose structures.

1. Schistose structure: It is due to the predominance of flaky, lamellar, tabular, rod like and
highly cleavable minerals, such as mica chlorite, talc and amphiboles which under the dominant
influence of directed pressure in dynamo-thermal metamorphism, form layers, and folia
arranged in more or less parallel bands. This arrangement of inequidimensional minerals is
called foliation. e.g. Schist. The foliation of schist is called schistosity.

2. Granulose structure: It is due to the predominance of equidimensional minerals such as

quartz, felspar, pyroxene, calcite etc., in a metamorphic rock. The cleavable lamellar or rod
like minerals are either absent or present only in subordinate amount; and granulose rocks,
therefore do not possess the property of schistosity. e.g. Marble, Quartzite.

3. Gneissose structure: It is a composite structure due to the alteration of schistose and

granulose bands and lenticles, which are dissimilar both in mineral composition and in texture.

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The light and dark minerals may be segregated into alternate bands parallel to schistosity. Such
banded appearance is called gneissose structure. The light coloured bands are composed of
quartz and feldspar while dark coloured bands contain ferromagnesian minerals. e.g. banded
gneiss.

4. Cataclastic structures: These are those of the broken and fragmented rocks developed by
shearing stress upon hard, brittle materials in the upper zones of the earth’s crust. Soft rocks
like shale or tuffs develop cleavage, harder rocks are shattered and finally crushed to powder,
forming crush breccias and mylonites.

5. Maculose structures: These are those in which porphyroblasts (andalusite, chloritoid,

biotite etc.,) are well developed or in which spotting appears as the result of incipient
(beginning) crystallization of these minerals, and of the segregation of carbonaceous matter.
Maculose structure is typically developed in argillaceous rocks under contact or thermal
metamorphism.

6. Slaty structure: This structure commonly develops in shales that have undergone slight
metamorphism. These rocks are fine grained composed of mica. The rock splits into thin sheets.
e.g. Slate.

CLASSIFICATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS:

Metamorphic rocks can be subdivided into foliated and nonfoliated types. This is determined
by the presence of minerals that are aligned parallel to each other. This results in a layered
appearance. A nonfoliated metamorphic rock generally consists of equaldimensional grains.

A rock can also be identified by its metamorphic grade. This is simply a description of the
overall intensity of metamorphism the rock was subjected to. What this implies is that a low-
grade metamorphic rock shows textural or mineralogical evidence of having been subjected to
low pressures and/or temperatures.

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