COMPUTER NETWORKS

Introduction
Computer Network
An interconnected collection of autonomous
computers.
Two computers are said to be
interconnected if they are able to
exchange information.
A system with one control unit and many
slaves is not a network.
Computer Network (Cont.)
Distributed Systems Computer
Network
The existence of multiple autonomous User must explicitly
computers is transparent to the user. do everything.

Allocation of jobs to processor and files to disks

and all other system functions must be
automatic.
Distributed system is a software system built
on top of a network.
Overlap between distributed systems and
Computer Network
Example:
More files around System can involve the User
movement.
Computer Network (Cont.)
Uses of Computer Network
Companies People Social Issues

Resource Sharing Access to remote News-groups

information
Geography Person To Person Bulletin Boards
communication & e-
mail
High reliability: Interactive
replication Entertainment
Saving money on the flow

Client-server model

Scalability: Ability to
increase system
performance gradually
as the workload grows.
A Communications Model
Source
Generates data to be transmitted
Transmitter
Converts data into transmittable signals
Transmission system
Carries data
Receiver
Converts received signal into data
Destination
Takes incoming data
Simplified Communications Model
- Diagram
Key Communications Tasks
Transmission system utilization
Interfacing
Signal generation
Synchronization
Exchange management
Error detection and correction
Addressing and routing
Recovery
Message formatting
Security
Network management
Network Hardware
Transmission Technology
Broadcast Network Point – To – Point Network

Single communication channel that Many connections between

is shared by all the machines on individual pairs of machines
the network.

All the others receive “Packets” in A packet may have to visit one
certain contexts, sent by any or more intermediate machine.
machine.

An address field within the packet Routing algorithms play an

specifies for whom it is intended. important role in PTP networks.

Multicasting: transmission to a
subnet of the machines.
Simplified Data
Communications Model
Networking
Point to point communication not
usually practical
Devices are too far apart
Large set of devices would need
impractical number of connections
Solution is a communications network
Simplified Network Model
Local Area Networks
Smaller scope
Building or small campus
Usually owned by same organization as
attached devices
Data rates much higher
Usually broadcast systems
Now some switched systems and ATM
are being introduced
Local Area Networks (Cont.)
NETWORKS
LAN MAN WAN INTERNET

LAN CHARACTERISTICS
Size Transmission Technology Topology

Restricted in Single Cable BUS (Ethernet)

Size
10 to 100 Mbps
Ring (Token ring)
Low delay (ms)
Very few Errors
Megabits/Sec. (Unit)
MAN
Metropolitan Area Network
Support data and voice
No switching elements
Standard: DQDB
(Distributed Queue Dual Bus)
Two unidirectional buses to which all the
computers are connected.
Each bus has a head-end, a device that initiates
transmission activity.
Traffic that is destined for a computer to the right of
the sender uses the upper bus, traffics to the left
uses the lower one.
Wide Area Networks
Large geographical area
Crossing public rights of way
Rely in part on common carrier circuits
Alternative technologies
Circuit switching
Packet switching
Frame relay
Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM)
Wide Area Networks (Cont.)
Host (end system).
Subnet (communication subnet).
WANs typically have irregular
topologies.
WAN CONSISTS OF

Transmission Lines:- Circuits, Switching Elements:-

Channels or Tanks Specialized computers used to
connect two or more
transmission lines.
Internet
Collection of interconnected networks.
Example: A collection of LAN’s
connected by a WAN.
WAN : (router + hosts).
SUBNET : (only routers).
Circuit Switching
Dedicated communications path
established for the duration of the
conversation
E.G. Telephone network
Packet Switching
Data sent out of sequence
Small chunks (packets) of data at a
time
Packets passed from node to node
between source and destination
Used for terminal to computer and
computer to computer communications
Frame Relay
Packet switching systems have large
overheads to compensate for errors
Modern systems are more reliable
Errors can be caught in end system
Most overhead for error control is
stripped out
Asynchronous Transfer Mode
ATM (cell relay)
Evolution of frame relay
Little overhead for error control
Fixed packet (called cell) length
Anything from 10mbps to Gbps
Constant data rate using packet switching
technique
Offers a constant data rate channel
Integrated Services Digital Network
ISDN
Designed to replace public telecom system
Wide variety of services
Entirely digital domain
First generation ( narrowband ISDN )
64 kbps channel is the basic unit
Circuit-switching orientation
Contributed to frame relay
Second generation ( broadband ISDN )
100s of mbps
Packet-switching orientation
Contributed to ATM ( cell relay )
Protocols
Used for communications between entities in
a system
Must speak the same language
Entities
User applications
E-mail facilities
Terminals
Systems
Computer
Terminal
Remote sensor
Protocol Hierarchies
Organized as a series of layers or levels.
The purpose of each layer is to offer certain services
to the higher layers.
Layer n on one-machine carries on a conversation
with layer n on another machine.
Protocol: is an agreement between the
communicating parties on how communication is to
proceed.
Peers communicate using the protocol.
In reality, no data directly transferred from layer n
on one machine to layer n on another machine.
Protocol Hierarchies (Cont.)
Each layer passes data and control information to
the layer immediately below it.
Between each pair of adjacent layers there is an
“interface”.
The design of layers helps in:
Minimizing the amount of information that must be
passed between layers
Make it simpler to reduce the implementation of one
layer with a completely different one
Protocol stack:
A list of protocol used by a certain system, one
protocol per layer.
Key Elements of a Protocol
Syntax
Data formats
Signal levels
Semantics
Control information
Error handling
Timing
Speed matching
Sequencing
Design Issues for the Layers
Addressing.
Data transfer.
Simplex communication.
Half-duplex communication.
Full-duplex communication.
Number and priorities of the logical connection
channels. Many networks provide at least two logical
channels per connection, one for normal data and
one for urgent data.
Error control.
Error detecting code.
Error correcting code.
Design Issues (Cont.)
How to receive data in order (sequence
no.).
How to keep a fast sender from swamping
a slow receiver with data (flow control).
Size of the message: disassembling
>transmitting >reassembling messages.
Routing: multiple paths between source
and destination.
Protocol Architecture
Task of communication broken up into
modules
For example file transfer could use
three modules
File transfer application
Communication service module
Network access module
Simplified File Transfer
Architecture
A Three Layer Model
Network access layer
Transport layer
Application layer
Network Access Layer
Exchange of data between the
computer and the network
Sending computer provides address of
destination
May invoke levels of service
Dependent on type of network used
(LAN, packet switched etc.)
Transport Layer
Reliable data exchange
Independent of network being used
Independent of application
Application Layer
Support for different user applications
e.g. e-mail, file transfer
Interfaces and Services
Active elements in each layer are called ENTITIES.
Entity.
Software [example: process.].
Hardware [example: intelligent I/O chip.].
The entities in layer n implement a service used by
layer n+1.
Layer n called service provider.
Layer n + 1 called service user.
Services are available at sap’s (service access
points).
Each SAP has an address that uniquely identifies it.
Interfaces and Services (Cont.)
IDU: interface data unit.
ICI: interface control info.
SDU: service data unit.
At a typical interface, the layer n + 1 entity passes
an IDU to the layer n entity through the SAP.
In order to transfer the SDU, the layer n entity may
have to fragment it into several pieces, each of
which is given a header and send to as a separate
PDU (protocol data unit) such as a packet.
Addressing Requirements
Two levels of addressing required
Each computer needs unique network
address
Each application on a (multi-tasking)
computer needs a unique address
within the computer
The service access point or SAP
Protocol Architectures and Networks
Protocols in Simplified
Architecture
Protocol Data Units (PDU)
At each layer, protocols are used to
communicate
Control information is added to user data at
each layer
Transport layer may fragment user data
Each fragment has a transport header added
Destination SAP
Sequence number
Error detection code
This gives a transport protocol data unit
Network PDU
Adds network header
Network address for destination computer
Facilities requests
 SERVICES
Connection Oriented Connectionless

Modeled after the telephone system Modeled after posted system

Establish a connection
Use the Connection
Release the connection
Acts like a tube: receive data by the Messages could be received in
same order was sent different order than it was sent with

Reliable connection oriented service Unreliable connectionless service

(not acknowledged)
Request reply service
Sender transmits a single datagram
containing a request, the reply contains
the answer.
Used to implement communication in
the client-server model.
Operation of a Protocol
Architecture
Service Primitives
A service is formally specified by a set of primitives
(operations) available to a user or other entity to
access the service.
Primitive tells the service to
Perform some action OR
Report an action by a peer entity.
Example: Connection oriented service with 8
service primitives.
CONNECT.request – Request a connection to be
established.
CONNECT.indication – Signal the called party.
Example (Cont.)
CONNECT.response – Used by the caller to accept/reject
calls.
CONNECT.confirm – Tell the caller whether the call was
accepted.
DATA.request – Request the data be sent.
DATA.indication – Signal the arrival of data.
DISCONNECT.request – Request that a connection be
released.
DISCONNECT.indication – Signal the peer about the
request.
Service Could be.
• Confirmed (Example: CONNECT).
• Unconfirmed (Example: DISCONNECT).
Relationship of Services to
Protocols
Service: is a set of primitives (operations) that a
layer provides to the layer above it.
Protocol.
A set of rules governing the format and meaning of the
frames, packets, or messages that are exchanged by the
peer entities within a layer.
Entities use protocols in order to implement their service
definitions.
Entities are free to change their protocols, provided they
do not change the service visible to their users.
REFERENCE MODELS
OSI References Model TCP/IP Reference Model
TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
Developed by the US defense advanced
research project agency (DARPA) for its
packet switched network (ARPANET).
Used by the global internet.
No official model but a working one.
Application layer.
Host to host or transport layer.
Internet layer.
Network access layer.
Physical layer.
Physical Layer
Physical interface between data
transmission device (e.G. Computer)
and transmission medium or network
Characteristics of transmission medium
Signal levels
Data rates
Etc.
Network Access Layer
Exchange of data between end system
and network
Destination address provision
Invoking services like priority
Internet Layer (IP)
Systems may be attached to different
networks
Routing functions across multiple
networks
Implemented in end systems and
routers
Transport Layer (TCP)
Reliable delivery of data
Ordering of delivery

Application Layer
Support for user applications
e.g. http, SMPT
TCP/IP Protocol Architecture Model
OSI Model
Open systems interconnection
Developed by the international
organization for standardization (ISO)
Seven layers
A theoretical system delivered too late!
TCP/IP is the de facto standard
OSI References Model
International Standards Organization.
OSI (Open Systems Interconnection).
Reference model: deals with connecting
open systems that are; Open for
communication with other systems.
Principles
A layer should be created where a different level of
abstraction is needed.
Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
The function of each layer should be chosen with an
eye toward defining internationally standardized
protocols.
The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize
the information flow across the interfaces.
The number of layers should be large enough that
distinct functions need not be thrown together on
the same layer out of necessity.
OSI Layers
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data link
Physical
The Physical Layer
Deals with transmitting raw bits over a
communication channel.
How many volts for 1 or 0.
How many microseconds a bit lasts.
Mechanics, electrical and procedural
interfaces.
Data link Layer
Break the input data up into data frames.
Process the acknowledgement frames sent back by
the receiver.
Insert the frame delimiter.
Solve the problems caused by damaged, lost and
duplicate frames.
Flow control.
Full duplex transmission (piggybacking)
Medium access sub layer deals with how to control
access to the shared channel in broadcast networks.
Network Layer
Routing packets from source to destination.
Routes can be static or dynamic
Bottleneck, congestion
Connect heterogeneous networks (different
addressing method, larger packet service).
In broadcast networks, routing problem is
simple, so the network layer is thin.
Transport Layer
Accept data from the session layer, split it up into
smaller units if needed, pass these to the network
layer and ensure that the all pieces arrive correctly
at the other end
Under normal conditions, the transport layer creates
a distinct network connection for each transport
connection required by the session layer
If the transport connection requires a high
throughput, the transport layer might create
multiple network connections, dividing the data
among the network connections to improve
throughput
Transport Layer (Cont.)
Transport layer determines what type of service to
provide the session layer with and ultimately, the
users of the entire network
The transport layer is a true end-to-end layer, from
source to destination
Multiple connections will be entering and leaving
each host. There is a need to tell which message
belongs to which connection (transport header)
Establishing and deleting connections across the
network
Flow control between hosts (as oppose between
routers) so fast host cannot overrun a slow one
Session Layer
Allows users on different machines to establish
sessions between them
A session might be used to allow a user to log into
a remote timesharing system or to transfer a file
between two machines
Example: token management. Only the side
holding the token may perform the critical
operation.
Synchronization: insert a checkpoint.
Example: sending file for 20 hours. After a crash the
portion after the checkpoint will be resend again.
Presentation Layer
Concerned with the syntax and
semantics of the information
transmitted.
A typical example of a presentation
service is encoding data in a standard
agreed upon way. [Character strings,
integers, floating-point numbers…].
Application Layer
The application layer contains a variety of
protocols that are commonly needed.
Example: incompatible terminal type.
One way to solve this problem is to define an
abstract network virtual terminal that editor can
be written to deal with. To handle each terminal
type, a piece of s/w must be written to map the
functions of the network virtual terminal onto the
real terminal.
Other application is file transfer(ftp).
TCP/IP and OSI Protocol
Architectures
Example Of Networks
Novell NETWARE.
Client-server model.
IPX/SPX.
Network layer runs IPX (internet packet exchange).
IPX uses 10 byte address (IP uses 4 bytes) flat
addressing.
Transport protocol.
• NCP (network core protocol).
• Transport service & other services.
• SPX (sequenced packet exchange):
• Just transport service.
Example Of Networks (Cont.)
The application can choose between NCP & SPX
Transport control field counts how many networks the
packet has traversed.
About once a minute, each server broadcasts a packet
giving its address and telling what services it offers.
SAP (Service Advertising Protocol) is used for
broadcasting
Routers run some kind of special agent processes to
construct databases of which servers are running.
When a client is booted, it sends a request for a server.
The agent on the local router machine sees this request,
and matches up the request with the best server.
Example Of Networks (Cont.)
The APRANET.
Packet switched network, consisting of subnet and host
computers.
IMPS (interface message processors) connected by
transmission lines.
Each IMP would be connected to at least two other imps.
Each node consists of IMP and a host.
Host sends messages of up to 8063 bits to its IMP.
IMP breaks the message into packets of at most 1008 bits
and forwards them independently toward the destination.
56-kbps lines leased from telephone companies interconnect
the IMPS.
By 1990, the ARPANET had been overtaken by newer
networks.
Example Of Networks (Cont.)
NSFNET
By 1984 NSF Fig 1.26(the U.S. national science
Foundation) began designing a high-speed
successor to the ARPANET that would be open to
all university research groups.
By 1995 the NSFNET backbone was no longer
needed to interconnect the NSF regional networks
because numerous companies were running
commercial IP Networks.
Example Of Networks (Cont.)
The Internet.
In 1992, the internet society was set
up, to promote the use of the internet.
Four main applications.
Email.
News.
Remote login: telnet, rlogin.
File transfer: FTP.
Example Of Networks (Cont.)
Gigabit TESTBEDS.
The backbones operate at megabit speeds.
Gigabit networks provide better bandwidth but not
always much better delay.
Example: sending a 1-kbit packet from NYC to san
Francisco at (1 mbps) take.
1 msec to pump the bits out and 20 msec for the delay,
for a total of 21 msec. A 1-Gbps network can reduce this
to 20.001 msec.
For some applications, bandwidth is what counts, and
these are the applications for which gigabit networks will
make a big difference.
Examples:- telemedicine & virtual meeting.
Example Data
Communication Services
SMDS
X.25
FRAME RELAY
BROADBAND ISDN AND ATM