First-Order Circuits (Part 2)

Singularity Functions, Step Response of an RC

Circuit, Step Response of an RL Circuit
 Singularity Functions

Singularity functions (also called switching functions) are very useful in circuit
analysis. They serve as good approximations to the switching signals that
arise in circuits with switching operations. They are helpful in the neat,
compact description of some circuit phenomena, especially the step response
of RC or RL circuits.

The three most widely used singularity functions in circuit analysis are the unit
step, the unit impulse, and the unit ramp functions.
Unit Step Function

The unit step function is undefined at 𝑡 = 0 where it changes abruptly from

0 to 1. It is dimensionless.
If the abrupt change occurs at 𝑡 = 𝑡0 (where 𝑡0 > 0)

If the change is at 𝑡 = −𝑡0

We use the step function to represent an abrupt change in voltage or current.

For example, the voltage

may be expressed in terms of the unit step function as

Voltage source of 𝑉0 𝑢(𝑡)

Current source of 𝐼0 𝑢(𝑡)

Unit Impulse Function
The derivative of the unit step function 𝑢(𝑡) is the unit impulse function 𝛿(𝑡)
The unit impulse may be regarded as an applied or resulting shock. It may be
visualized as a very short duration pulse of unit area. This may be expressed
mathematically as

For this reason, it is customary to write 1 (denoting unit area) beside the arrow
that is used to symbolize the unit impulse function. The unit area is known as the
strength of the impulse function.

Example
Unit Ramp Function
Integrating the unit step function 𝑢(𝑡) results in the unit ramp function 𝑟(𝑡)

or
Example

Express the voltage pulse in figure below in terms of the unit step. Calculate its
derivative and sketch it.
Solution
 Step Response of an RC Circuit

When the dc source of an RC circuit is suddenly applied, the voltage or

current source can be modeled as a step function, and the response is known
as a step response.
Consider the RC circuit in previous slide. We assume an initial voltage 𝑉0 on
the capacitor.

For 𝑡 > 0

Rearranging terms gives

or

Integrating both sides and introducing the initial conditions,

or
Taking the exponential of both sides

or

Thus

This is known as the complete response (or total response) of the RC circuit to a
sudden application of a dc voltage source, assuming the capacitor is initially
charged.
Assuming that 𝑉𝑠 > 𝑉0 a plot of 𝑣(𝑡) is
Rather than going through the derivations above, there is a systematic approach —
or rather, a short-cut method — for finding the step response of an RC or RL circuit.
Let us reexamine equation, It is evident that 𝑣(𝑡) has two components. Classically
there are two ways of decomposing this into two components. The first is to break it
into a “natural response and a forced response’’ and the second is to break it into
a “transient response and a steady-state response.’’
Rather than going through the derivations above, there is a systematic approach —
or rather, a short-cut method — for finding the step response of an RC or RL circuit.
Let us reexamine equation, It is evident that 𝑣(𝑡) has two components. Classically
there are two ways of decomposing this into two components. The first is to break it
into a “natural response and a forced response’’ and the second is to break it into
a “transient response and a steady-state response.’’

The forced is produced by the circuit when an external “force’’ (a voltage source in
this case) is applied. It represents what the circuit is forced to do by the input
excitation. The natural response eventually dies out along with the transient
component of the forced response, leaving only the steady state component of the
forced response.
The first decomposition of the complete response is in terms of the source of the
responses, while the second decomposition is in terms of the permanency of the
responses. Under certain conditions, the natural response and transient
response are the same. The same can be said about the forced response and
steady-state response.
The complete response RC Circuit may be written as

Where 𝑣(0) is the initial voltage at 𝑡 = 0+ and 𝑣(∞) is the final or

steady state value.

Thus, to find the step response of an RC circuit requires three things:

Example

The switch in circuit has been in position A for a long time. At 𝑡 = 0 the switch
moves to B. Determine 𝑣(𝑡) for 𝑡 > 0 and calculate its value at 𝑡 = 1 s and 4 s

Solution

the capacitor voltage cannot change instantaneously,

For 𝑡 > 0 the switch is in position B. The Thevenin resistance connected to the
capacitor is 𝑅Th = 4kΩ and the time constant is

Since the capacitor acts like an open circuit to dc at steady state, 𝑣 ∞ = 30 V.

Thus,

At 𝑡 = 1 s

At 𝑡 = 4 s
Step Response of an RL Circuit

Let the response be the sum of the transient

response and the steady-state response

We know that the transient response is

always a decaying exponential, that is

where 𝐴 is a constant to be determined

the steady-state response is
The complete response is

We now determine the constant 𝐴 from the initial value of 𝑖. Let 𝐼0 be the
initial current through the inductor, which may come from a source other than
𝑉𝑠 . Since the current through the inductor cannot change instantaneously,

Thus, at 𝑡 = 0

Finally
In general

where 𝑖(0) and 𝑖(∞) are the initial and final values of 𝑖, respectively. Thus, to
find the step response of an RL circuit requires three things:
Example

Find 𝑖(𝑡) in the circuit for 𝑡 > 0. Assume that the switch has been closed for a
long time

Solution

When 𝑡 < 0

Since the inductor current cannot

change instantaneously
When 𝑡 > 0 the switch is open. The resistors are in series, so that

The Thevenin resistance across the inductor terminals is

the time constant is

Thus
 Problems
Express 𝑖(𝑡) in terms of singularity functions.

Find 𝑖 𝑡 and 𝑣(𝑡) for all time.

Calculate 𝑖(𝑡) for all 𝑡. Find 𝑖(1) and 𝑖(3)