C- 14 Isotope

Cosmic Rays
When high energetic cosmic rays collide with the atoms
in the earths uppermost atmosphere they give birth to energy particles.
1. Cosmic rays are high
new particles. These newly created particles are high
travel with the nearly same speed as
energy neutrons and the nucleus of the nitrogen atom. 2. They
These high energetic neutrons and nitrogen nuclei [N,"J light.
in the uppermost
produce a new isotope of carbon. This new isotope of
carbon is a radioactive and is known as C-14. 3. They are found mostlyatmosphere.
layer of the earth's
rays
continuous shower of cosmic
N4 C14
,H' (proton) +
There isa lower
4. earth's
(fast neutron)
in alldirections towards the
This radioactive carbon 14 (C-14) combines with oxygen atmosphere.
from the atmosphere to form carbon dioxide molecules rays is still aquestion
(gas). 5 The sources of cosmic
to the scientist.
Green plants use carbon dioxide for manufacturing their (large numbers),
own food. Man and animal feed on plants. Thus, they 6 They consist of protons
numbers) and nuclei
derive energy that is trapped by the plants. In other word, alpha particles (small numbers).
(small
energy is transferred from the plant kingdom to the ani of many elements
mal kingdom.
Due to the intake of radioactive carbon, plants and ani
Nuclear reaction for C-14 decay
mals also become slightly radioactive. When they die,
their metabolic processes stop and their bodies begin to Cl4 N4 +,e' (Beta particle)
decay. During this process, the C-14 also decays and 6

nitrogen is returned to the atmosphere with the emission

of beta particles.
Thus, the cycle from the generation of C14
6 to nitrogen
back to the atmosphere is complete.
Carbon Dating
developed
A technique called radiometric dating has been frame of
which has made it possible to determine the time
measuring
prehistoricevents. It helps find the age of rocks by
radioactive decay.
carbon that
Radiocarbon C-14 is a radioactive form of
organisms absorb
occurs in traces in the atmosphere. Living the radio
radiocarbon from the atmosphere. When they die,
carbon decays at a known rate. By measuring as the quantity of
bone, wood,
radiocarbon remains in organic material such Half the radiocarbon in anobject decays by releasing
calculate how long
shell andother plant material, scientists can particles about every 5700 years. This period is the
ago death occurred. half life of radiocarbon.
up to70,000 years
This method can be used for dating objects
Newly cut wood retains nost of its radiocarbon. After
other techniques such as 5700 years, half the radiocarbon disappears. After
old. Scientists combine several million years about ll,400 yeas, a fourth remains.
uraniun-lead dating(for rocks older than 20
(forrocks older than 50 mnillion
old) and thorium-leaddating the range of radiocarbon.
years old)to date events beyond

387
 Radiation Hazards
Nuclear reactions such as a. B., y-ravs and
damage the human body, The radiations neutrons Can
burns on the human body., For example, produce severe
when gamma
rays pass through a living organism, they knock out
trons from the organic molecules. As a result, the elec
ecules may break up. The distortion of the molecules ham mol
pers the normal functioning of the living
result in the death of organism. system and may
All these radiations cause two types of
damages:
1. Pathological damages: If an organism is exposed to high Precautions while handling
dose of radiation, it might lead to the death of organism. radioactive substances
Such a damage is called pathological damage. Worker is shielded The cap and coat prevent
2. Genetical damage: This type of damages are not evi from the radiation by radioactivity from clinging
dent immediately but appear in the next generation. leaded glass walls. to clothes and hair.

Precautions while handling radioactive substances

The following safety precautions must be observed while
handling radioactive substances.
1. Any nuclear material should be handled with mechani
cal tongs.
2. The workers must wear special film badges. These
badges can absorb nuclear radiation and can be tested
to find the amount of radiation to which a particular
worker is exposed.
3. The nuclear reactor should be embedded in thick con
crete walls so as to prevent a leakage of gaseous ra
diations or neutrons.
4. The nuclear material must be kept in thick lead con
tainers with narrow mouth and plugged with thick lead
corks.

5. Workers in nuclear establishments must wear lead lined

aprons and gloves and special lead glasses to protect
their eyes.
6. A periodic compulsory medical check up should be
done.
Background Radiations
Radioactive radiations like alpha, beta and gamma are known as Background radiations.
Sources of Background radiations are:
(i) Cosmicrays present in the uppermost layer of the Earth's atmosphere.
etc..
(ii) Radioactive substances such as radium, carbon-14, potassium-40,
(ii) Radioactive rocks in the Earth's crust.
 Nuclear Nuclear Fission
fisssion is the process in
comparable masses) by which a heavy nucleus is broken into two roughly equal nuclei (of nearly
"fission fragments''. Thebombardingof heavy nucleus with slow neutrons. The resultant nuclei are called
process fission is
92
U235
on' represented thus:
U230 ’ Ba141 + Kr92 +
symbolically represented asn'. implving one unit of 3n' energy
A neutron is 92
56 36 +

Source of Energy in Nuclear mass and zero cnarg.

Fission
During nuclear (fission)
ucts is always less thanreaction the total mass of the
difference in mass is
the mass of original nucleus. prod
The
Note
with the Einstein converted into energy in accordance
E= mc² where m is mass mass-energyequivalence
1 Natural uranium, U35 is more fissionable
of light.. Since the value of cdifference and c is theequation than its isotope. U28.
a 3x 10 ms-1 is velocity 2, In nuclear fission ’ mass energy changes
tremendous amount of energy is released in thevery large,
of nuclear fission. into radiant energy i.e., gamma-radiation.
process
(i) When (,Uz38) a heavy
nucleus is bombarded with fast
moving neutrons it undergoes Fission of Uranium atom
a disintegration as
shown
92U38+ n' seBa 08 t Kr + 3,n' + 200 MeV Neutron
(fast moving) (Nuclear fission) Uranlum atom
(ii) When (,U23) aheavy nucleus is bombarded with slow
moving neutrons it captures aneutron and changes into
a uranium isotope Urz36, This isotope is unstable and
splits into two nearly equal fragments Bal41 and 36Krsz Enera Uranlum atomn

sU+n'’Ur36sBa'4"
(slow) (unstable)
+aKr2 + 3,n' + 190 Mev Neutron
(Nuclear fission)
Neutron
Neutron
Forl mol of oU235 the typical loss of matter is 2.1544 x 10-4 kg.
.:: Energy released in the fission of 92U238 = E = mc? Uranlum atom
=
2.1544x 10-4x (3 x 108)2 Uranlum atom

1.94 x 1013 J 1.94 x 101° kJ/mol

Thus, when 1 mole uranium -235 is fissioned, the energy Note

released is 1.94 x 101° kJ/mol. It is not necessary that in a nuclear fissiononly
does not break barium and krypton are formed.
U-235 is a very useful nucleus for nuclear fission. It
can absorb
lUself, but if aneutron comes to it with a smallspeed, it Example
neutron, When it does, a nucleus of U-236 is formed.
he
forms, its shape starts USn'’. Balo+,Kr+3,n'+200 MeV
U-236 is highly unstable. As soon as it directions. From a (fast moving) (nuclear fission)
OSCillating violentlyand stretching in different
that a neck is formed and it oU30 ’
Spherical shape. it stretches so much schematically shown below. Sbi3+ Cb + radiant energy
process is
caks into two parts. The neutron (nuclear fission)
In the above
-Slow neutron
up into two
reaction,J236 is unstable and splits
92

K-92 fragments, antimony (,Sb') and

U-236
Ba-141 (,,Cb*) columbium.
neck formed in
U-235 U-236

389
 Nuclear Chain Reaction
A reaction in which the species which starts the reaction is also produced so that the reaction pro
ceeds on its own is called a chain reaction.

The process of nuclear fission results in the emission of

three neutrons per fission.
n3)

Bombardment of,oU3Swith one slow neu n3'

tron gives two fission fragments and 3

neutrons.
On an average, in cach fission process 3 n= 3!
Uraniumn
new neutrons are produced. These newly nuclei
produced neutrons undergoa chain of suc
cessive fissions to produce a large number
of neutrons in geometrical progression. This Neutron
type of chain reaction is shown alongside:
The number of fissions taking place at each
successive step goes on increasing at a
rapid rate, giving rise to a chain reaction.

Uncontrolled and Controlled Nuclear Fission

1. Uncontrolled Nuclear Fission Points toRemember
A fission reaction in which all the neutrons produced Controlled Nuclear Fission
during fission are allowed to cause fission of more parent
nuclei leading to an explosion due to asudden outburst 1. In acontrolled nuclear fission reaction, for
of energy is called uncontrolled nuclear fission. every one neutron absorbed, only one neu
tron isavailable for further fission.
In such a reaction, tremendous amount of energy is
2. It proceeds at a steady rate.
released instantly. But this energy cannot be put to any
practical use. 3. The massenergy is converted into nuclear
2. Controlled Nuclear Fission
energy which is used for generating elec
tricity.
Anuclear fission reaction in which one fission causes just Uncontrolled Nuclear Fission
one further fission, is called controlled nuclear fission.
1. In an uncontrollednuclear fission reaction,
In sucha reaction only a desired number of neutrons are 3neutrons are produced forevery one neu
absorbed, so that only one neutron from each fission is tron absorbed and the exponential produc
left to cause further fission. As a result, the number of tionof neutrons results in an explosion.
fission taking place in one second is constant and the
energy liberated does not go out of control. 2. It proceeds very fast.
3 The massenergy is converted into nuclear
Thus, the controlled chain reaction is a source of useful
energy which is used for making the atom
energy. Controlled nuclear reaction in nuclear reactors bomb.
provide fission energy at a constant rate. This nuclear
energy is converted into electrical energy.

390
 Nuclear Reactor and Nuclear Power Plant
reactions in acontrolled and self-sustained
e a l reaCtor is a device for carrving out fission purposes like generation of electricity.
i a e r So that the nuclear enerav can be harnessed for useful

Parts of a Nuclear Plant

The various components of a typical nuclear plant is de NuclearFuel
scribed:
in a nuclear reactor
A fissionable material used
1. Nuclear Reactor: Here, acontrolled nuclear fission of a is called nuclear fuel.
fissionable fuel such as 235 U is carried out fuel is enriched
The most commonly used nuclear
92

containing
Reactor Core: This is the part in a nuclear reactor where uranium (as uranium dioxide UO,)
nuclear fission chain takes place and heat is gener 2.5-3% of uranium-235.
ated. A large number of equally spaced fuel rods are Uranium-235
placed parallel to each other in the reactor core. Enrichment of Nuclear Fuel: Only
when bombarded
U) isotope undergoes fission
(i) Nuclear Fuel: The fuel generally used is enriched with slow neutrons. Since naturally-occurring ura
U-235 or Plutonium -239. The powdered uranium percent of uranium-235
nium has only about 0.7
dioxide containing 2.5 to 3% uranium-235 is cast (the rest is uranium-238). the concentration of
into pellets. The pellets are placed in tubes which uranium-235 in the naturally-occurring uranium
are then sealed at both the ends. Afuel rod or should be increased to about 2.5-3% to make it
element consists of several of these tubes as effective.
sembled to form a bundle, each covered with a The process by which the percentage of uranium
zirconium alloy sheath. 235 (U215) in a sample of uranium is increased to
(ii) Moderator: The moderator reduces the velocity of 2.5-3% is called enrichment of uranium or en
the fast-moving neutrons. These fast neutrons richment of nuclear fuel.
cannot cause fission of uranium-235. To effec
tively use these neutrons for causing further fis How the Control rods monitor the Reaction
sion, their velocity should be reduced from
4200 km/s to about 3 km/s. Commonly used mod When the control rods are lowered into the
erators are graphite and heavy water (D,O). core, they absorb more neutrons, thereby de
creasing the number of neutrons in the reactor.
(iii) Control rods: These rods made of cadmium or This slows the rate of fission.
boron steel are used to absorb neutrons so as to When the control rods are pulled out, they
control the fission rate in the reactor. absorb lesser neutrons, thereby increasing the
(iv) Coolant: A coolant such as ordinary water, heavy number of neutrons in the reactor. This in
water or liquid sodium is circulated through the creases the rate of fission.
func
pipes welded into the reactor vessel. The
tion of the coolant is to remove heat produced in
utilisation.
the reactor and bring it out for
(v) Shield or protective screen: A protective screen
made of special concrete about 3 metres thick is
built around the reactor. lt stops the escape of
reactor.
heat, Y-rays and neutrons from the
coo|
2. Heat Exchanger: A heat exchanger consisting ofthe re Conrol rod
ant circulating in a coiled pipe is connected to
reactor to
actor. It transfers the heat produced in the
into steam. The cool
the water which gets converted
reactor.
ant is pumped back to the
391
 Cold water at high pressure
Inside a Nuclear Plant
To electric transmnission
Turbine
Coolant Steam
Reactorcore
Generator
Control rod

Fuelrod
Moderator

Hot water

Hot water Heat exchanger

3. Steam turbine: The steam generated in the heat ex

changer is used to run the steam turbine. The spent
steam is sent back as hot water to the heat exchanger.
4. Electric generator (or dynamo): The shaft of the steam
turbine is connected to an electric generator (or dy
namo). Electricity so produced is sent for transmission
Working of a Nuclear Reactor
1. The fuel rods are loaded into the core of the reactor and bombarded with slow neutrons to initiate the fission of
uranium-235(23U). The fast neutrons emitted during fission are slowed down by the moderator.
92

2. The excess neutrons are removed by adjusting the position of the control rods so that on an average, only one
neutron per fission is available for further fission. At this stage, the reactor is said to have become critical.
3. The heat produced in the core is transferred to the heat exchanger with the help of coolant.
Atomic Energy Plants in India
(i) Major Research Centres: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) at Mumbai, research laboratories at Gulmarg
(Srinagar) and Kolkata.
(ii) Atomic Energy Plants: There are in all four nuclear power plants (stations) in India.
1. Tarapur Atomic Power station at Tarapur in Maharashtra. It is the first atomic power station in India which started
functioning in 1969.
2. Rajasthan Atomic Power station at Rana Pratap Sagar near Kota in Rajasthan.
3. Madras Atomic Power station at Kalpakkam in Tamil Nadu.
4 Narora Atomic Power station in Utar Pradesh.
Allthese power plants produce about 3% of the total energy being produced in India.
Fuel supply Centres
(i) Uranium ore is mined in Jaduguda mines /n Jharkhand, and processed and enriched at the Nuclear Fuel Complex at
Hydrabad (Andhra Pradesh).
(ii) Heavywater, (used as moderator and coolant in nuclear reactors) is produced at Nangal in Punjab.
Four more plants for producing heavy water are under construction at Vadodara, Kota, Talchi and Tuticorin.

392
 Nuclear Fusion
Te combination of tWo or more liabt nuclei latomic mass less than 20) to form a heavy nucleus with
Fusion'".
Goeration of a large amount of eneray is called "Nuclear
The energy liberated in the fusion reaction is
known as
thermonuclear energy.
It is found that the sum of the masses of the
individual
light nuclei is greater than the mass of the single heavy
nucleus formed. This difference in mass is converted into
energy (nuclear) according to Einstein's relation, E = mc'
The most common and simple example of nuclear H He +
is when the two isotopes of fusion ,H + Gn' + energy
hydrogen [i.e., a deuterium Deuterium Tritium Helium
H² and a tritium ,H] combine together to
nucleus helium He. As the sum of mass ofform a heavy
,H? and the
mass of ,H3 is greater than the sum of
n' this reaction releases a mass of ,He* and
tremendous amount of energy,
(approx. = 16.96 x 1011 Jfor this nuclear
reaction). Thus,
H ,H2 He + 16.96 x 1011 J Example of nuclear fusion
However it is not easy to start a fusion reaction. To start H+ H + ,H + 88.2 x 10° J
nuclear fusion reaction the required
conditions are: H + ,H He' + + 3.2 Mev
1. Avery high temperature (about 10
degree Celsius).
2. Extremely high pressure
It is found that to fuse hydrogen atoms, the
minimum tem
perature required is 1000,000°C. Hence, nuclear fusion
reactions are called thermonuclear reaction and energy so
liberated is called thermonuclear energy.
Fusion: Source of Energy in the Sun
A verv high pressure and temperature is
required to start nuclear fusion. These ideal conditions exist in Sun and stars for
fusion reaction.
A very high temperature exists inside the core of the Sun. At these
high temnperatures, the formation of heavy nuclei (helium) takes Deuterium
Neutron
place by combining two light nuclei (hydrogen). This fusion of
proton nuclei to form helium nuclei accounts for the tremen
dous amount of energy in the Sun. SUN
There are two types of thermonuclear reaction taking place
inside the core of Sun, Proton-proton cycle and Carbon
nitrogen cycle (C-N cycle). Both the fusion reactions are
responsible for liberation of huge amount of energy in the Sun. Tritium FUSION REACTION
Proton- Proton Cycle: Four protons fuse together to form one
helium nucleus andtwopositrons (,,e) along with the liberation ENERGY
of 27Mev of energy. Atoms of deuterium and
4,H' He + 2,,e° + energy release energy. The reactiontritium
also
fuse together to
heavier element and energetic produces helium, a
This cycle is responsible for the generation of energy in the Sun. vide energy. neutrons, which pro
 What would happen if all thehydrogen of the Sun gets consumed...
uSon reaction wouldbe possible As a result. temperature of the Sun will be lowered and lignt ad
heat radiations will halL. This fallin lemperature and pressure would cause the Sun to shrink under its own
heavier atoms
(i) Due to contraction there would be an increaseof tennperalure againand fusion of helium to give
sial
the Sun will again
ccome poSsible at some suitable temperature. Th fusion of helium will restart and
glowing.
Nuclear Fission NuclearFusion

nucleicombine
I. It is the process in which a heavy nucleus splits up Itis the process in which two lighter
into two lighter nucleiof nearly equal masses. together to form a heavy nucleus.
required
ltmay take place at ordinary temperature. 2. Avery high temperature and high pressure is
for it to OCcur.
3. The products of nuclear fission are in general radio-3. The products of nuclear fusion are non-radioactive
active and hence, pose a radiation hazard. hence produce no radiation hazard.
4 Per fission about 200 Mev energy is liberated. Butthe 4. Per fusion much less energy is liberated. But then
much
energy liberated in fission per unit mass of material energy liberated per unit mass of material is
ismuch less than that of for fusion of two light nuclei. more than that for fission of heavy nuclei.
5 The sources of fissionable material (i.., uranium) 5. The sources of matter that undergo fusion (1.e.,
are limited. hydrogen) is available in abundance.
6. It is used to make atom bomb. 6. It isused tomake the Hydrogen bomb.

Neutron
Hydrogen Neutron
atoms

Uranium atom
Helium atom

Solved Examples
1. Fission of one U-235 nucleus releases 3.2 10-11Jof energy. Calculate the number of fissions required to produce
energy at the rate of 5 MW (megawatt) for 24 hours in a generator.
Solution:
Rate of energy production = 5 MW 5 x 10W 5 r 10 J/s

Duration for which energy is required 24 h 24 x 60 x 60 s

86400 seconds
Total energy needed 5 x 106 x86400 4.32 x 10!"J
Energy released per fission 3.2 x 10-11
4.32 x 1011
Number of fissions required 1.35 x 1022
3.2 x 10-11

Ans: Number of fissions required are 1.35 x 102.