Appl Water Sci (2017) 7:3919–3936

DOI 10.1007/s13201-017-0545-1

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Hydrological investigations in the semi-arid Makhawan

watershed, using morphometry
Mohd Yousuf Khanday1 • Akram Javed2

Received: 1 December 2016 / Accepted: 13 February 2017 / Published online: 7 March 2017
Ó The Author(s) 2017. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com

Abstract In order to understand the hydrological behavior Introduction

of a catchment area, morphometric analysis of the drainage
basin plays an important role to expresses the geology, Increasing population pressure and climate change along
geomorphology and structural antecedents. In the present with erratic rainfall have made water management plans
study, morphometric analysis and its influence on hydrol- quite difficult. Therefore, it is a need of hour to evaluate the
ogy were carried out in Makhawan watershed, Central water resources, because they play an utmost important
India, using SRTM, remote sensing and GIS. SRTM data role in sustainability of livelihood. Many river basins and
were used for preparation of DEM, slope and aspect maps. sub-basins in different parts of the globe have been studied
DEM was used to delineate the watershed limits and to in detail using conventional methods for drainage network
extract the channel network, which was later updated using characteristics (Horton 1945; Strahler 1952, 1957, 1964;
IRS 1D LISS III data. The hydrological module in ArcGIS Leopold and Miller 1956; Morisawa 1959; Krishnamurthy
was used for calculation of watershed and morphometric et al. 1996). Drainage basins/catchments are the funda-
parameters, under linear, relief and aerial aspects. The mental units of the fluvial landscape and the recent research
watershed shows dendritic-to-sub-dendritic drainage pat- has been carried out extensively on their geometric char-
tern; however, parallel-to-sub-parallel pattern developed acteristics, topology of the stream networks, quantitative
locally which may be due to rejuvenation of streams in measurements of drainage texture, pattern, shape and relief
mature stage with moderate drainage texture. High drai- aspects. The features of basin morphometry have been used
nage density in the watershed is observed over imperme- to predict or describe geomorphic processes and estimation
able subsurface material, sparse vegetation with high relief; of sediment yields rates (Baumgardner 1987). Morphom-
whereas, low drainage density is found over permeable etry is the measurement and mathematical analyses of the
subsurface material and low relief. It has been found that configuration of the earth’s surface, shape and dimension
low relief with low drainage density areas are favorable of its landforms (Agarwal 1998; Reddy et al. 2002).
sites for more groundwater prospects. For proper understanding of the nature of drainage
basin, one has to prepare a drainage map and then compute
Keywords Morphometry  Hydrogeology  Watershed  the drainage morphometric parameters (Krishnamurthy
Remote sensing  SRTM et al. 1996; Kumar et al. 2000; Reddy et al. 2002; Nag and
Chakraborty 2003; Nooka Ratnam et al. 2005). The pri-
mary factors responsible for running water ecosystem
functioning in a particular basin are climate, geology,
relief, soils and vegetation (Lotspeich and Platts 1982;
& Mohd Yousuf Khanday
[email protected]
Frissel et al. 1986; Mesa 2006). The influence of drainage
morphometry on landform characteristics can be well
1
Geological Survey of India, SU: J&K, NR, Jammu 180006, understood by the analysis of morphometric parameters of
India watershed (Sreedevi et al. 2009). Identification of drainage
2
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202002, India networks within watershed and subwatersheds can be

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achieved using topographic maps or alternatively with Study area description

advanced methods using remote sensing and DEMs (Ver-
stappen 1983; Mark 1983; O’Callaghan and Mark 1984; Makhawan watershed is situated in the north-western part
Rinaldo et al. 1998; Macka 2001; Maidment 2002). of Guna district of Madhya Pradesh (Central India),
Topographic maps have been widely used to describe the includes main headquarter Guna in the southern part of the
geomorphology of drainage networks (Schumm 1956; watershed. The watershed occupies an area of 163.30 km2,
Mark 1983); however, they do not represent the real drai- and lies between geographical coordinates 77°140 1500 –
nage networks on the ground due to cartographic general- 77°220 2700 East longitudes and 24°360 5000 –24°450 3200 North
izations and subjective judgment of the cartographers latitudes corresponding to toposheets 54 H/2, 54H/5 and
(Chorley and Dale 1972; Drummond 1974; Mark 1983). 54H/6 (Fig. 1). The maximum and minimum elevation
Furthermore, there are often numerous valleys, which are found in the watershed is 529 and 438 m above mean sea
not cartographically marked as fluvial channels despite level (MSL), respectively (Fig. 2), in which the darker
their ability to collect and transport flow. For these reasons, shades show higher elevations; whereas, lighter shades
the first-order streams called ‘‘fingertip’’ by Horton (1945) depict lower elevation. The area is connected with Agra–
or ‘‘exterior links’’ by Shreve (1966) and Tarboton et al. Bombay Highway (NH-3) and Western Railway’s broad
(1991) should be included in drainage network studies. gauge line of the Kota-Bina section, which provides all
Many authors pointed out this in their studies (Horton communications with other states. The main Makhawan
1945; Melton 1957; Lubowe 1964; Krumbein and Shreve River flows almost southeast to northwest, indicating a
1970; Mark 1983; Javed et al. 2009; Khanday and Javed general slope towards northwest. A check dam built on the
2016). Because of this, an attempt has been made in the Makhawan River in the central part of the watershed, pri-
present study to use remote sensing and SRTM data for marily serves as an irrigation source for adjacent agricul-
updating these fingertip drainages. Singh et al. tural fields. In other parts of the watershed agriculture is
(2013, 2014) have carried out morphometric analysis of mainly rain fed. There are eight villages falling within the
Morar River Basin, Madhya Pradesh, India, and hydro- watershed besides the main Guan city. The main crops
logical inferences from watershed analysis for water grown are soyabean, paddy and groundnut in the Kharif
resource management, using remote sensing and GIS season; whereas, wheat and gram are grown in Rabi sea-
techniques. son. Based on the Thornthwaite system of climate classi-
The study area falls under semi-arid climatic condi- fication, the study area forms a part of semi-arid climatic
tions and receives recharge mainly through rainfall and zone and experiences a dry weather, with an average
the area needs morphometric analysis to understand the annual rainfall of about 821 mm. The maximum tempera-
physiographic status of the area. Agriculture is the prime ture rises up to 45 °C in June while minimum temperature
occupation of the local community though the surface can be as low as 7.9 °C in January (Khanday and Javed
water resources are limited; hence, irrigation is mostly 2008). The relative humidity is generally high and maxi-
dependent on groundwater resources. Due to the mum relative humidity (88%) is observed during the month
increasing population and unpredictable change in rainfall of August. Summer remains the driest part of the year with
pattern, water level has gone down to deeper levels. This humidity as low as 27% or even less during the month of
calls for sustainable development of watershed in terms of April. The average annual humidity is about 61% (Singh
surface and ground water resources in this area. For car- et al. 2002).
rying out such studies, it becomes necessary to know the
drainage characteristics, erosion status and topography of Drainage
the region to formulate a comprehensive watershed
development plan. For morphometric analysis using The drainage network of the watershed is primarily defined
topographic maps, remote sensing, SRTM data and GIS by Makhawan River and its tributaries. The pattern is
techniques are speedy, precise, fast and less expensive dendritic to sub-dendritic; however, parallel-to-sub-parallel
(Farr and Kobrick 2000; Grohmann et al. 2007). The main pattern has also developed locally. Based on the contour
aim of the present study is to delineate and analyze var- value, slope, relief, DEM and drainage network, the
ious parameters of a drainage network at watershed/sub- Makhawan watershed has been demarcated into seven
watershed level using topographic maps, SRTM data and subwatersheds which were designated as SW1–SW7. Total
GIS techniques to know the geometry of the basin for number of streams of all orders are 732, out of which 534
hydrological conditions. The results obtained may be the are of 1st order, 150 are of 2nd order, 40 are of 3rd order, 7
scientific database for further detailed hydrological are of 4th order and only one stream is of 5th order. Out of
investigations in such areas. seven subwatersheds, only one subwatershed (SW7) is of

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Fig. 1 Location map of the Makhawan watershed

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Fig. 2 Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the Makhawan watershed derived from SRTM data

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Appl Water Sci (2017) 7:3919–3936 3923

5th order; whereas, rest of the subwatersheds is of 4th alluvium along the main river course. Groundwater occurs
order. The whole Makhawan watershed is also of 5th order in the area under phreatic and semi-confined-to-confined
(Fig. 3). 1st and 2nd order streams are associated with conditions. Lava flows of the Deccan Traps occupy [70%
relatively higher elevations where relief and slope are high of the area, in which weathered, jointed and fractured
resulting in more runoff, and less recharge. basalts form aquifers at different depths. The aquifers are
being tapped through boreholes and dugwells. The depth to
Geomorphology water level ranges from 2 to 13.16 mbgl (meter below
ground level) with seasonal fluctuation of 0–6.28 m. The
The expression of surface and subsurface lithological and yield of aquifers mostly depends on the degree of weath-
structural features, resulting in landforms has important ering and fracturing, ranging from 1 to 5 lps (liter per
control over the occurrence of natural resources. The study second). However, in laterite and alluvium groundwater
area has three geomorphic units, viz., Deccan Plateau, occurs under water table conditions. The granular portions
denudational hills and alluvial plain (Fig. 4). Deccan Pla- of these formations such as sand and gravel form good
teau is the dominant geomorphic unit in the area. From the aquifers. However, these have a limited areal extent con-
field observation denudational hills are composed of vol- fined to the banks of the main Makhawan River. The depth
canic rocks of Deccan Traps which are highly jointed and to water table ranges from 3.84 to 18.94 mbgl with sea-
fractured having high relief and steep slopes characterized sonal fluctuation of 1.54–6.50 m in areas underlain by
by parallel-to-sub-parallel drainage pattern, high drainage alluvium and laterite.
density. Deccan plateau is composed of basalts of Deccan
Traps which are fractured and jointed having undulated Slope
topography with dendritic-to-sub-dendritic drainage pat-
tern, low-to-moderate drainage density; whereas, alluvial For hydrological investigations, slope plays an important
plains constitute gravel, sand silt and clay-sized uncon- role which is governed by geomorphic processes having
solidated material over a flat land surface, illustrated by different lithological resistances (Sreedevi et al. 2005). The
low drainage density with high infiltration rate. recent widespread availability of digital terrain data has
made automatic procedures for topographic analyses pop-
Geology ular. Therefore, in the present study SRTM data have been
imported into ArcGIS software for deriving slope and
The study area is underlain by basaltic lava flows of aspect grids. Normally a slope map or aspect map displays
Deccan Traps which predominantly belong to ‘‘simple’’ the attribute values over areas such as regions instead of at
and ‘‘aa’’ type. The simple type consists of massive basalt, points, such that within each area, all slopes fall into a
vesicular and zeolitic basalt; whereas, the ‘‘aa’’ type has certain range or all aspects fall into a certain quadrant.
massive and vesicular units except with highly fragmented Aspect grid is defined as the down-slope direction of the
top horizons. It is formed due to out-pouring of enormous maximum rate of change of a cell to its neighbors. This can
lava flows at the end of the Mesozoic era which was spread be used to identify the orientation or direction of a hillside.
over vast areas and flows piled up one over the other The cell values in an aspect grid range from 0° to 360°
(Deshpande 1998). The flows are horizontal-to-subhori- (Fig. 6), in which 0° is North in a clockwise direction, 90°
zontally bedded, very hard and are greenish gray in color. is east, 180° is south, and 270° is west (Gorokhovich and
The laterite occurs on the top of basaltic lava flows, as Voustianiouk 2006). Slope grid has been prepared fol-
disconnected patches of capping on hillocks. The top of the lowing the methodology given by Burrough (1986) which
laterite is hard, red-colored rock followed by clayey zone identifies slope as the maximum rate of change between a
and leached-out silica in the form of chert. Alluvium cell and its neighbors. It is classified as a vector; since it
consists of finer siliceous debris washed away from the has a quantity in terms of gradient as well as direction in
hills, composed of fine-to-coarse grained gravel, sand, silt, the form of aspect. The output slope grid of Makhawan
clay and kankar, yellowish brown and clayey loam, con- watershed contains values representing degree of slope
taining kankar nodules. Alluvium has predominant land use from 0° to 11°, with a mean slope of 1.10° and slope
for cultivation, which is found along the course/plains of standard deviation is 0.16°. For infiltration of groundwater
major streams (Fig. 5). into the subsurface and certain possibility of groundwater
prospects, slope forms the main factor. Higher slope means
Hydrogeology high runoff which allows less residence time for rainwater;
whereas, gentler slope means low surface runoff, which in
The area is mostly covered with basaltic flows of Deccan turn allows more time for the rainwater to percolate and
Traps followed by laterite and some deposits of recent hence comparatively more infiltration (Sarkar et al. 2001).

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Fig. 3 Drainage network of the Makhawan watershed

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Appl Water Sci (2017) 7:3919–3936 3925

Fig. 4 Geomorphological units of the Makhawan watershed

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Fig. 5 Geology of the Makhawan watershed

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Appl Water Sci (2017) 7:3919–3936 3927

Fig. 6 Aspect map of the Makhawan watershed derived from SRTM data

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The higher degrees of slope are observed in the north- and DEM. The SRTM data imported in the ArcGIS soft-
eastern, south-eastern and south-western parts of the ware, slope, aspect and topographic elevation maps were
watershed (Fig. 7). prepared with contours of the watershed.
In this research, the vector layer of drainage network
Data used was digitized in GIS environment. Drainage information
was derived from SOI toposheet. Natural drainage system
Survey of India (SOI) topographic sheets 54H/2, 54H/5 and network present in SOI topographic sheet were digitized
54H/7 on 1:50,000 scale, surveyed in 1982–1983, were and later updated using DEM and FCC obtained from IRS
utilized for base map preparation. Standard Geocoded LISS III satellite data in spatial analysis toolbox of ArcGIS
False Color Composite (FCC) of Indian Remote Sensing environment. Subwatershed boundaries were drawn based
satellite (IRS-1D) LISS III (Path-Row: 97–54) of 27th on water divide line, obtained from watershed raster layer
February, 2011, having a spatial resolution of 23.5 m of derived. Raster-to-vector conversion was carried out using
band combinations 2 (green), 3 (red) and 4 (near infrared) the module available in ArcGIS and drainage was created
was procured from National Remote Sensing Center as line coverage, assigning unique ids for various stream
(NRSC), Hyderabad. Shuttle Radar Topography Mission orders (1st order, 2nd order, 3rd order and so on). An
(SRTM) data of 90 m resolution were downloaded from integrated use of multispectral satellite data, DEM and
the website (http://www.srtm.csi.cgiar.org) for generating Survey of India topographical sheets were utilized for
Digital Elevation Model (DEM), slope and aspect maps of generation of database and extraction of various drainage
the study area. Besides, the secondary information/data parameters such as stream number (Nu), stream order (u),
were collected and utilized wherever required, including cumulative stream length (Luc), mean stream length (Lsm),
published research papers, technical reports, special vol- stream length (Lb), basin area (A), bifurcation ratio (Rb),
umes and memoirs of the Geological Society of India, and drainage density (D), stream frequency (Fs), drainage
information from other government and non-government texture (Rt), relief ratio (Rh), sinuosity index (Si), basin
sources were consulted. Limited ground truth verification shape (Bs), form factor (Rf), circularity ratio (Rc), and
was also carried out in key areas. elongation ratio (Re) were computed at subwatershed level
using standard methods and formulae (Horton 1932, 1945;
Miller 1953; Schumm 1956; Hadely and Schumm 1961;
Methodology Strahler 1957, 1964; Chopra et al. 2005; Nooka Ratnam
et al. 2005; Solanke et al. 2005; Mesa 2006; Sreedevi et al.
Geo-referencing 2005, 2009). The input values such as area of the water-
shed, perimeter, maximum basin length, difference in
The drainage map was originally derived from SOI relief, etc., were computed in ArcGIS using vector layer.
toposheets and later updated with satellite data. Topo-
graphical maps were rectified/referenced geographically
and the entire study area was delineated in GIS environ- Results and discussion
ment with the help of ArcGIS 10.2.1 software assigning
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM), World Geodetic The DEM with a pixel size (resolution) of 90/90 m of the
System (WGS dating from 1984 and last revised in 2004) study area has been used to generate slope and aspect
and 43 N Zone Projection System. SRTM data have also maps. The study of drainage parameters plays a vital role in
been converted into UTM projection. For geo-referencing, watershed management and planning irrigation and indus-
the latitudes and longitudes of a reference map were con- trial development of an area (Javed 1995). Drainage
verted into X, Y coordinates, and the corresponding X, development is controlled by climate, rainfall, lithology,
Y coordinates were put on the scanned map. slope, topography apart from exogenic and endogenic
forces of the area (Melton 1957). Drainage order has
Data generation inferred that Makhawan watershed is a 5th order water-
shed. The morphometric parameters have been computed
The elevation value being the basic requirement for under linear, relief and aerial aspects. Linear aspects
delineation of watershed, and is given the highest priority include stream number, stream order, stream length, mean
for the demarcation of watershed/subwatershed boundaries, stream length, stream length ratio and bifurcation ratio.
which involved deriving information on drainage network Relief aspects consist of relief, relief ratio, sinuosity index;
first-order stream onwards (Dwivedi et al. 2006). The whereas, aerial aspects include drainage density, stream
watershed boundaries were demarcated on the basis of frequency, drainage texture, form factor, circularity ratio,
contour value, slope, relief, and drainage flow directions elongation ratio, basin shape. Quantitative assessment of

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Fig. 7 Slope map of the Makhawan watershed derived from SRTM data

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Table 1 Morphometric parameters and their formulae

Morphometric parameters Formula References

Stream order (u) Hierarchical rank Strahler (1964)

Stream length (Lu) Length of streams Horton (1945)
Mean stream length (Lsm) Lsm = Lu/Nu, where Lsm = mean stream length, Lu = total stream Strahler (1964)
length of order ‘u’, Nu = total no. of streams segments of order ‘u’
Stream length ratio (RL) RL = Lu/Lu1, where RL = stream length ratio, Lu = total stream Horton (1945)
length of order ‘u’, Lu1 = total stream length of its next lower
order
Bifurcation ratio (Rb) Rb = Nu/Nu1, where Rb = bifurcation ratio, Nu = total no. of Schumm (1956)
stream segments of order ‘u’, Nu1 = no. of segments of the next
higher order
Mean bifurcation ratio (Rbm) Rbm = average of bifurcation ratios of all orders Strahler(1957)
Relief ratio (Rh) Rh = H/Lb, where Rh = relief ratio, H = total relief (relative relief) Schumm (1956)
of the basin kilometer, Lb = basin length
Sinuosity index (Si) Si = (X/Lb), where X = average drainage length, Lb = basin length Leopold et al. (1964)
Drainage density (D) D = Lu/A, where D = drainage density, Lu = total stream length of Horton (1932)
all orders, A = area of the basin (km2)
Stream frequency (Fs) Fs = Nu/A, where Fs = stream frequency, Nu = total no. of streams Horton (1932)
of all orders, A = area of the basin (km2)
Drainage texture (Rt) Rt = Nu/P, where Rt = drainage texture, Nu = total no. of streams Horton (1945)
of all orders, P = perimeter of the basin (km)
Form factor (Rf) Rf = A/Lb2, where Rf = form factor, A = area of the basin (km2), Horton (1932)
Lb2 = square of the basin length
Circularity ratio (Rc) Rc = 12.57A/P2, where Rc = circularity ratio, A = area of the basin Miller (1953)
(km2), P2 = perimeter (km)
Elongation ratio (Re) Re = (2/Lb) 9 H(A/P), where Re = elongation ratio, A = area of Schumm (1956)
the basin (km2), Lb = basin length
Basin shape (Bs) Bs = Lb2/A Horton (1945)

these parameters has been carried out using standard length of streams of all orders in the watershed is
mathematical formulae (Table 1). 472.74 km, whereas SW1–SW7, the stream lengths are
57.4, 58.14, 82.94, 68.2, 49.95, 78.33 and 90.4 km,
Linear aspects respectively (Table 2).
The mean stream length (Lsm) is computed by dividing
According to Horton (1945) and later modified by Strahler the total stream length of order ‘‘Lu’’ by the number of
(1964), designation of stream orders is the first step in drai- stream segments of order ‘‘Nu’’ (Srinivasa et al. 2004). As
nage basin analysis based on ranking of streams. The first- a thumb rule, mean length of channel segments of a given
order streams have no tributaries; the second-order streams order is greater than that of the next lower order but less
have only first-order streams as tributaries. Similarly, the than the next higher order. Lsm values of the subwater-
third-order streams have first and second-order streams as sheds vary from 0.41 (SW1) to 12.92 (SW6) indicating that
tributaries and so on. The trunk stream through which entire SW5 at 2nd order shows an anomaly which might be due to
discharge of water passes is the stream of the highest order variation in slope and topography.
(Chopra et al. 2005). The stream ordering of the watershed The stream length ratio (RL) between streams of dif-
suggested that the Makhawan watershed is of fifth order. Six ferent orders shows variation (Table 2), which may be due
subwatersheds (SW1–SW6) are of fourth order; however, to variation in slope and topography. SW2, SW4, SW6 and
SW7 is of fifth order. In SW3, SW6 and SW7 1st and 2nd SW7 show an increasing trend in stream length ratio from
order steams are dominant since these subwatersheds pos- lower order to higher order showing mature geomorphic
sess moderate-to-steep slope and similar relief features. stage. But in SW1, SW3 and SW5, RL values show dif-
Stream length of various orders, has been measured ference from one order to another order which indicate
using vector layer in.dbf format in ArcGIS software. After their late youth stage of geomorphic development, sug-
adding stream length of each stream for a given order (u), gesting an important relationship with runoff and erosional
total stream length (Lu) of each order was computed. Total status of the watershed.

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Table 2 Stream analysis of the subwatersheds and the whole Makhawan watershed
Subwatersheds Stream order
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

SW1
No. of streams 62 20 6 1 –
Stream length (km) 25.69 19.43 6.79 5.49 –
Cumulative stream length (km) 25.69 45.12 51.91 57.40 –
Mean stream length (km) 0.41 0.97 1.13 5.49
SW2
No. of streams 66 21 5 1 –
Stream length (km) 27.26 12.61 8.94 9.33 –
Cumulative stream length (km) 27.26 39.87 48.81 58.14 –
Mean stream length (km) 0.41 0.60 1.79 9.33
SW3
No. of streams 99 28 9 1 –
Stream length (km) 45.45 13.58 13.30 10.61 –
Cumulative stream length (km) 45.45 59.03 72.33 82.94 –
Mean stream length (km) 0.46 0.49 1.48 10.61
SW4
No. of streams 65 17 5 1 –
Stream length (km) 39.64 12.69 7.91 7.96 –
Cumulative stream length (km) 39.64 52.33 60.24 68.20 –
Mean stream length (km) 0.61 0.75 1.58 7.96
SW5
No. of streams 52 15 3 1 –
Stream length (km) 27.50 6.82 8.29 7.34 –
Cumulative stream length (km) 27.50 34.32 42.61 49.95 –
Mean stream length (km) 0.53 0.45 2.76 7.34
SW6
No. of streams 87 21 6 1 –
Stream length (km) 44.47 13.30 7.64 12.92 –
Cumulative stream length (km) 44.47 57.77 65.41 78.33 –
Mean stream length (km) 0.51 0.63 1.27 12.92
SW7
No. of streams 103 28 6 2 1
Stream length (km) 45.01 19.59 8.12 7.74 9.94
Cumulative stream length (km) 45.01 64.60 72.72 80.46 90.40
Mean stream length (km) 0.44 0.70 1.35 3.87 9.94
Whole Makhawan watershed
No. of streams 534 150 40 7 1
Stream length (km) 255.02 98.02 60.99 26.81 31.90
Cumulative stream length (km) 255.02 353.04 414.03 440.84 472.74
Mean stream length (km) 0.48 0.65 1.52 3.83 31.90

Bifurcation ratios characteristically range between 3.0 and SW6 (3rd/4th order), indicate structural control on the
and 5.0 for watersheds in which the geologic structures do drainage pattern; whereas, lower Rb values in SW7 is
not distort the drainage pattern. Bifurcation ratio (Rb) indicative of less structural control. The mean bifurcation
values in the study area vary from 1.00 to 9.00. Higher Rb ratio (Rbm) values of the subwatersheds lie between 2.87
values in SW1 (3rd/4th order), SW2 (3rd/4th order), SW3 and 4.16 (Table 2) which belong to normal basin category
(3rd/4th order), SW4 (3rd/4th order), SW5 (2nd/3rd order) (Strahler 1957).

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Relief aspects SW5, SW6 and SW7 have relatively high drainage density,
indicating less permeable material, sparse vegetative cover
Basin relief is one of the most important factors for and moderate-to-high relief. The drainage density of the
understanding denudational processes operating in a basin whole Makhawan watershed also falls in low category, i.e.,
(Chow 1964). The highest elevation encountered in the 2.89 km/km2 (Table 3).
watershed is 530 m and the lowest is 438 m, which indi- Stream frequency (Fs) values of the subwatersheds vary
cates total relief of the basin as 92 m. The Rh values in the from 3.87 (SW1) to 5.08 (SW7) and display a positive
watershed vary from 0.004 (SW1 and SW3) to 0.012 correlation with the drainage density values of the sub-
(SW7), higher values of Rh in SW7 indicate steep slope watersheds indicating an increase in stream population
and high relief (9°–11°) representing isolated hillocks; with respect to increase in drainage density except SW4,
whereas, lower values in rest of the six subwatersheds may which shows relatively low stream frequency despite
indicate presence of the Deccan plateau and alluvial plains having a high drainage density. Fs reflects the drainage
with gentle slope and low relief. This indicates that SW7 texture and mainly depends on the lithology of the water-
has a high discharge capacity having poor indication of shed (Sreedevi et al. 2009).
inadequate groundwater potential. Smith (1950) classified drainage density into five dif-
Sinuosity is the degree to which a river departs from a ferent classes of drainage texture, i.e., less than 2 indicates
straight line (Schumm and Khan 1972). The distance very coarse, between 2 and 4 is coarse, between 4 and 6 is
between two points on the stream measured along the moderate, between 6 and 8 is fine and greater than 8 is very
channel divided by the straight line distance between two fine drainage texture. The values of Rt vary from 3.12
points is termed as sinuosity ratio (Brice 1984; Ebisemiju (SW1) to 5.83 (SW3), out of which SW1, SW4 and SW5
1994) and is used to determine whether a channel is show coarse drainage texture; whereas, SW2, SW3, SW6
straight or meandering. Sinuosity index (Si), is the ratio and SW7 exhibit medium drainage texture (Table 3).
between average channel length (X) and basin length (Lb). Horton (1932) defined form factor (Rf) as a dimensionless
A stream showing sinuosity index[1.5 may be treated as a ratio of basin area (A) to the square of basin length (Lb). The
meandering stream and\1.5 as non-meandering. However, value of form factor would always be less than 0.7854 (for a
if a stream at young stage shows Si [1.6, it can be perfectly circular basin). Smaller the value of the form factor,
attributed to rejuvenation of stream. The Si values of the more elongated will be the basin. The basins with higher
subwatersheds ranges from 1.42 (SW1) to 2.55 (SW3), values of form factors have high peak flows for shorter
indicating that subwatersheds may be treated as meander- duration, whereas elongated basins with lower values of
ing streams except SW1 which is approaching to mean- form factor have lower peak flow for longer duration. Flood
dering because of its low value; whereas, Makhawan flows of elongated basins with low form factor are easier to
watershed has Si value of 5.16 which may be attributed to manage than those of the circular basins with higher values of
the phenomenon of rejuvenation. form factor (Nautiyal 1994). The form factor (Rf) values
vary from 0.25 (SW6) to 0.43 (SW2) indicating elongated
Aerial aspect shape with flatter peak flow for longer duration. Flood flows
of such elongated basins are easier to manage.
Horton (1932) had introduced drainage density as an Miller (1953) defined circularity ratio (Rc), as the ratio
expression to indicate the closeness of spacing of channels. of the area of the basin (A) to the area of a circle having the
Langbein (1947) recognized the significance of drainage same circumference as the perimeter of the basin (P). The
density as a factor determining the time of travel by water circularity ratio (Rc) is influenced by the length and fre-
and suggested that drainage density values between 0.55 quency of streams, geological structures, land use/land
and 2.09 km/km2 corresponding to humid regions. An area cover, climate, relief and slope of the basin (Chopra et al.
with high precipitation such as thundershowers loses 2005). The circularity ratio remained remarkably uniform
greater percentage of rainfall as runoff resulting in more in the range of 0.6–0.7 for first-order and second-order
surface drainage channels. Density of vegetation and basins in homogeneous shales and dolomites, indicating the
rainfall absorption capacity of soils, influence the rate of tendency of small drainage basins in homogeneous geo-
surface runoff and affects the drainage texture of an area logic materials to preserve geometrical similarity. How-
(Gregory and Gardiner 1975; Gregory 1976; Montgomery ever, first- and second-order basins situated on the flanks of
and Dietrich 1989; Trucker and Bras 1998). moderately dipping strata are strongly elongated with cir-
Drainage density (D) values of the subwatersheds vary cularity ratios between 0.4 and 0.5 (Chow 1964). The cir-
from 2.49 (SW1) to 3.28 km/km2 (SW7) fall in low density cularity ratio (Rc) ranges from 0.36 (SW1) to 0.67 (SW2),
category. SW1 and SW2 suggest permeable subsoil mate- indicating elongated shape characterized by moderate-to-
rial and presence of vegetative cover; however, SW3, SW4, high relief.

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Appl Water Sci (2017) 7:3919–3936 3933

Schumm (1956) defined elongation ratio (Re) as the peaked flood discharges (Chow 1964). Basin shape (Bs)
ratio between the diameter of the circle of the same area as values vary from 2.34 (SW2) to 4.41 (SW1) indicating that
the drainage basin (A) and the maximum length of the basin SW3 has weaker flood discharge periods and probability of
(Lb). The values can be grouped into three categories as more infiltration due to its higher bifurcation ratio, whereas
circular ([0.9), oval (0.9–0.8) and less elongated (\0.7). rest of the six subwatersheds have sharply peaked flood
Values close to 1.0 are normally found in regions of very discharge.
low relief, whereas values of 0.6–0.8 are usually associated
with high relief and steep ground slope (Strahler 1964). A
circular basin is more efficient in the discharge of runoff Qualitative groundwater potential zones
than an elongated basin (Singh and Singh 1997). Higher Re
values show high infiltration capacity and low runoff; The quantitative analysis of morphometric parameters is
whereas, lower Re values are characterized by high sus- found to be of immense utility in watershed delineation, soil
ceptibility to erosion and sediment load. The values of and water conservation and their management. Since sub-
elongation ratio (Re) of the subwatersheds vary from 0.18 surface hydrological conditions of an area are controlled by
(SW1) to 0.29 (SW2); out of these subwatersheds SW2, the drainage characteristics of the basin, they play an impor-
SW3 and SW5 show higher Re values suggesting high tant role in locating groundwater prospective areas (Pradhan
infiltration capacity and low runoff, whereas subwatersheds 2009). Drainage pattern is the source of surface water and is
SW1, SW4, SW6 and SW7 with lower Re values suggest dependent upon intrinsic characters of lithology, soil, depo-
susceptibility to erosion and sedimentation load (Khanday sitional and structural features which have direct relationship
2009). with geomorphological setup of the area (Schumm 1956).
Basin shape (Bs) verified that long narrow basins with The present study area mainly depends on the rainfall to
high bifurcation ratios would be expected to have attenu- fulfill the requirements of local community for domestic as
ated flood discharge periods, whereas rounded basins of well as agricultural purposes, the scarcity of which could
low bifurcation ratio would be expected to have sharply lead to acute water crisis resulting in severe drought

Table 3 Results of the morphometric analysis of the subwatersheds and whole Makhawan watershed
Basin parameters SW1 SW2 SW3 SW4 SW5 SW6 SW7 Whole Makhawan
watershed

Basin area (A) (km2) 23.02 21.36 27.11 21.44 16.55 26.28 27.54 163.30
Bifurcation ratio (Rb) I/II 3.10 3.14 3.54 3.82 3.47 4.14 3.68 3.56
Bifurcation ratio (Rb) II/III 3.33 4.20 3.11 3.40 5.00 3.50 4.67 3.75
Bifurcation ratio (Rb) III/IV 6.00 5.00 9.00 5.00 3.00 6.00 3.00 5.71
Bifurcation ratio (Rb) IV/V 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 2.00 7.00
Bifurcation ratio (Rb) V/VI – – – – – 1.00 1.00
Mean bifurcation ratio (Rbm) 3.36 3.34 4.16 3.31 3.12 3.66 2.87 4.20
Stream length ratio (RL) II/I 0.76 0.46 0.30 0.32 0.25 0.30 0.44 0.38
Stream length ratio (RL) III/II 0.35 0.71 0.98 0.62 1.21 0.57 0.41 0.62
Stream length ratio (RL) IV/III 0.81 1.40 0.80 1.01 0.89 1.69 0.95 0.44
Stream length ratio (RL) V/IV – – – – – – 1.28 1.19
Perimeter (P) (km) 28.49 19.96 23.50 22.83 19.22 26.14 28.44 62.10
Basin length (Lb) (km) 10.08 7.07 8.12 8.56 6.79 10.25 9.51 18.34
Basin width (Lw) (km) 4.07 4.44 5.50 3.87 4.23 4.31 4.33 12.72
Drainage density (D) (km/km2) 2.49 2.72 3.06 3.18 3.02 2.98 3.28 2.89
Stream frequency (Fs) 3.87 4.35 5.05 4.10 4.29 4.38 5.08 4.48
Relief ratio (Rh) 0.004 0.008 0.004 0.006 0.007 0.007 0.012 0.005
Sinuosity index (Si) 1.42 2.06 2.55 1.99 1.84 1.91 1.90 5.16
Drainage texture (Rt) 3.12 4.66 5.83 3.85 3.69 4.40 4.92 11.78
Basin shape (Bs) 4.41 2.34 2.43 3.42 2.79 3.40 3.28 2.06
Form factor (Rf) 0.27 0.43 0.41 0.29 0.36 0.25 0.30 0.49
Circularity ratio (Rc) 0.36 0.67 0.62 0.52 0.56 0.48 0.43 0.53
Elongation ratio (Re) 0.18 0.29 0.27 0.22 0.27 0.20 0.20 0.18

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conditions. The principal recharge of groundwater body in whereas elongation ratio depicts that out of seven subwa-
the area is through monsoon precipitation. The drainage tersheds, four subwatersheds suggest higher susceptibility
pattern of the Makhawan watershed is dendritic to sub- to erosion whereas rest of the three subwatersheds have
dendritic due to homogenous lithology; however, parallel- high infiltration capacity and low runoff. In the present
to-sub-parallel pattern has also developed locally con- study, morphometric analysis has been carried out using
firming some structural control over drainage development. GIS techniques to assess the hydrological characteristics of
In the study area, high drainage density is observed over Makhawan watershed and an attempt has been made to
the hilly terrain (529–493 m amsl) with impermeable hard identify the qualitative assessment of groundwater
rock substratum, and low drainage density over the highly prospective areas in semi-arid climatic conditions for
permeable sub-soils and low relief areas. Low drainage judicious planning and management of conservation mea-
density areas are favorable for identification of ground- sures at micro-level to conserve available natural resources,
water potential zones. It has been observed in the field and which will be helpful to various stakeholders such as water
from the analysis that the gentler slope has more prospects resources management and policy-makers for better deci-
for groundwater. Slope and elevation maps revealed that sion-making, particularly, in the data-scarce areas. The
moderate slopes (4°–7°) where the elevation ranges from present study also reveals that the hydrological evaluation
474 to 493 m amsl towards central and north-western parts derived from SRTM data are more applied and accurate
of the watershed, which are characterized by low drainage compared to other techniques at subwatershed level.
density and stream frequency form the recharge zone of the
watershed since the surface drainage gets more time to Acknowledgements Authors are thankful to the Chairman, Depart-
ment of Geology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, for encour-
infiltrate into the ground. This zone has less drainage agement and providing necessary infrastructure facilities of the
density, thereby less runoff and more infiltration and is remote sensing lab. Help rendered by H.H. Khan during preparation
characterized by thick zone of weathered material; there- of thematic maps is acknowledged. Thanks are also due to M.H. Wani
fore, this zone is suitable for recharge structures. for fruitful discussion and assistance during the field check. The first
author gratefully thanks University Grants Commission for providing
financial assistance in the form of Junior Research Fellowship. The
constructive comments and suggestions of the editor and anonymous
Conclusion reviewers have improved the quality of the paper.

Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Crea-
The present study demonstrates the utility of remote tive Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://
sensing, SRTM and GIS in drainage delineation and their creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted
updation, which have been used for the morphometric use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give
analysis at subwatershed level. The drainage pattern of the appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link
to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.
area is dendritic to sub-dendritic in nature; however, par-
allel-to-sub-parallel pattern is also developed locally.
Dendritic to sub-dendritic may be due to somewhat
homogenous lithology and structural control which is References
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