EEMQ 4245:DESIGN OF MACHINES & MACHINE ELEMENTS

CHAPTER ONE.

1.0 MACHINES AND MACHINE ELEMENTS.

Consider Figure 1 below. Identify the elements, generate a parts list and classify them.

Figure 1: Drive assembly

A machine may be defined as a combination of stationary and moving parts constructed for the
useful purpose of generating, transforming or utilizing mechanical energy.

1.1 Classification of Machines:

Machines may be classified as below;

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EEMQ 4245:DESIGN OF MACHINES & MACHINE ELEMENTS

All machines are composed of elements or parts or units. A machine element or part may be
a separate one or an integral part consisting of several other small pieces or components
which are rigidly joined by bolting or riveting or welding etc. The machine elements are
classified as discussed in section 1.3.2.

1.2 Classification of Machine Elements.

Machine elements may be classified as follows;
1. General purpose Elements. Examples; nut and bolt, keys, axles, shafts, couplings, bearing
etc.
2. Special purpose Elements. Examples; pistons, cam shafts, crank shafts, push rods,
connecting rods etc.
3. Fasteners. Examples; bolted joints, riveted joints, welded joints etc.
4. Elements of Rotary motion drive. Examples; belts, ropes, gears, chains, couplings etc.

1.3 BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR MACHINES AND MACHINE ELEMENTS.

In the design of machine element or a complete machine, the design Engineer must consider the
following points;
i. Strength of Machine Elements.
ii. Rigidity of Machine Elements.
iii. Stress concentration.
iv. Alternating stress.
v. Creep strength.
vi. Resistance to vibration of machine parts.
vii. Heating of machine elements.
viii. Stiffness.
ix. Wear resistance.
x. Light weight and minimum dimensions.
xi. Easily available materials.
xii. Processibility
xiii. Safety
See discussion of each factor above in sections that follow.
The other two requirements including factor of safety and standardization will be discussed in
separate sections.
xiv. Factor of safety
xv. Standardization.
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1.4 DISCUSSION
1. Strength
The machine elements should be sufficiently strong so that it is not damaged or permanently
deformed during the specified life of the machine. A fault development in any part of the
element of machine may render the whole assembly to be working with error and giving faulty
results. In engineering practice most failures are due to breakage and the disintegration of the
working surface of parts of machines: pitting, wear and abrasion etc. Breakage occurring before
the specified life has expired and failure of the working surfaces of machines are impermissible
if they develop progressively. The problem of the strength of machine elements should therefore
be considered in relation with the time factor - The life of these elements.
It is clear that for machines for machines of different designs the expected service life will be
different. For example, the life of an aircraft engine amounts to only several hundred flying
hours, for mine winding machines it is 10,000 hours and for metal cutting machine tools, it is 50
000 hours. For ball and roller bearings employed in metal cutting machine tools, it is 5000 hours
only.

A number of forces are acting on the machines and their elements that produces strain and
fatigue. Separate parts of the machines have separate functions to accomplish. Some are affected
by high temperature or low temperature and others are subjected to the alternating vibratory
forces and shock loads etc. and which is why like the life of the machine, the life span of each of
its component parts are also prescribed beforehand. The longevity of the component parts are
dependent on the strength of the material. As strong is the part of the machine, as long lasting
will be its life duration. This is further discussed in section 1.5 under design for strength.

2. Rigidity
The operating characteristics of machines are often determined by the degree of rigidity of their
individual units and parts: by rigidity is understood the limitation imposed on the magnitude of
their deformation under the action of the external load. When designing shafts, bearings, toothed
worm and other gears, it is important to ensure adequate rigidity. Shaft deflections which exceed
the allowable values, twisting and flexural (bending) deformation of a pair of meshing wheels in
a gear cause uneven load distribution over the width of the wheel teeth and the load is
concentrated nearer to the wheel end faces. In especially unfavorable cases, this may be the

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cause of tooth failure. When a shaft is deflected, its journals are misaligned in the bearings,
thereby causing the uneven wear of the shells, heating and seizure in the sliding bearings.
When high strength steel is used for the manufacture of shafts, the shaft diameter (from the
strength point of view) can be very small, but its deflections and angles of twist may exceed the
allowable values. In this connection, for consideration of rigidity, the diameter of the shaft has
frequently to be increased to a magnitude at which adequate strength can be also ensured when
cheaper steel with lower mechanical properties is used.

Rigidity is particularly important for ensuring the adequate accuracy of items produced on
machine tools. Inadmissible errors may be due to the deformation of the component itself (for
example when it is clamped) and the parts of the machine tools (spindle, arbor, bearing etc.).
Besides inaccuracy of manufacture, elastic depressions of the joints during machining cause
vibration which considerably lower the productivity. The most important design methods for
increasing the rigidity of machine elements are the following.
a) The reduction of lever arms of bending and twisting forces;
b) Incorporation of additional support;
c) The application of cross sections which effectively resist bending (in which the cross
sectional area is removed as far as possible from the neutral axis) and torsion (closed
tubular);
d) Decrease of the length of the parts in tension and increase of their cross-sectional area.

3. Stress Concentration
Although for the purpose of stress calculations, the stress across a section is generally taken as
uniform, it is known that the distribution of stress (either direct as shear) is actually influenced
by the shape of the section.
In general, the variation of stress is greater where the available sectional area is changing and
sudden changes should therefore, be avoided wherever possible, since they cause stress
concentration at the corners. Changes of sections are, of cause, sometimes inevitable; but corners
which are either sharp or of small radius can generally be modified. Since the maximum stress
may be 3 to 6 times the mean stress in sections which change abruptly such modification is
essential. Particularly this is the case if the material is brittle; while for a ductile material, when
the yield stress is expected, plastic flow tends to give a more even stress distribution. This is

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commonly occurs to relatively small extend in a brittle material. Various methods for relieving
the stress concentration at the sharp corners are indicated in the figures.

Figure 2: Stress Concentration

4. Alternating stress
In Engineering design, many examples occur in which the material is subjected to varying
stresses such as those produced by repeated loading and unloading or reversal of loads (i.e.
alternating stresses). It is known that under such conditions the materials fail under stress
considerably lower than the ultimate stress as determined in static tests. The repetition of load
introduces an entirely different phenomenon.
Failure caused by the repeated application of a load, whether the load acts in the same direction
each time or is reversed is referred to as FATIGUE FAILURE or progressive failure. Failure by
fatigue starts by the very gradual spreading of minute cracks. When the cracks have spread until
the effective area resisting the load is sufficiently reduced, rupture occurs suddenly, usually
without a warning. The fatigue strength more appropriately termed as ENDURANCE LIMIT is
usually determined from a polished specimen subjected to reversed bending.

Experimental tests evidence has shown that for specimens subjected to direct tension and
compression, to bending, to torsion and combinations of these loadings support the statement
that; for most metals there is a definite limiting range of stress below which an infinite number of
cycles of application will not cause failure, but failure will occur after a diminishing number of
cycles as the range increases above this limiting value. see Figure below.

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Figure 3: Endurance Limit

Endurance limit of a material can be increased by the process of shot peening, barnishing,
nitriding, cyaniding and case hardening etc. Read section on Factors to consider when designing
machine parts to avoid fatigue failure.

5. CREEP.
If a ductile material is loaded in excess of a certain value, a graded increase in elongation takes
place with time without increase in load. This phenomenon is known as creep. The rate at which
creep is produced decreases with time. At normal temperature loads, the amount of creep taking
place during the useful life of the parts is so small that it is frequently ignored without serious
consequences. Creep should not be ignored, however, when the components are subjected to
high temperatures.
At high temperatures such as are encountered in steam boilers, turbines and steam piping, the
deformation of materials ceases to be elastic and becomes plastic with a continuous increase
under constant load. The equilibrium between stress load is not established even after a very long
time. The material under tensile strength continue to stretch or creep.
Creep is measured in terms of plastic deformation during certain time. The limiting creep stress
for a certain temperature is the maximum stress under which the material will not fail during a
prescribed length of time.

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6. Resistance to Vibration of Machine parts

The high working velocity of machines and their elements and the accompanying tendency to
lighten them often cause vibrations, by which are understood periodic deformations whose
amplitudes are very small as compared to the dimensions of the vibrating parts.
Vibrational loads are especially dangerous in that they may be the cause of fatigue failure. When
the natural frequency of a machine oscillations or the oscillations of its components coincide
with the frequency of change in the external periodic forces, which cause them, resonance sets in
which sharply increases the oscillating amplitudes and sometimes tend to failure. Examples:
 The vibration of spindles of metal cutting machine tools deteriorates the quality of the
machined surfaces and quickly blunts or even destroy the tool.
 Oscillations of parts of gears system (wheels, shafts, housings etc) due to the elasticity of
parts and their elements (teeth, walls of housing etc), cyclic errors in the working surfaces
of teeth and changes in the tooth deformations and frictional forces generate noise.
Various methods are employed to damp oscillations dangerous for elastic systems. The major
method is the elimination of those external forces which cause vibrations. Secondly, by changing
the dynamic properties of the system - by changing the moment of inertia of the masses and by
providing vibration dampers or anti-vibrators into the system etc.

7. Heating of Machine Elements.

Thermal conditions often restrict operation and dictate the design and size of components such as
design of certain drives (friction and worm) and friction clutches etc. Also they affect the choice
of materials for their manufacture, lubrication conditions etc.
The designing of machine elements which are to operate at high temperatures require special
calculations, since in such cases, the behaviour of metals under stress differs from their
behaviour at normal temperature. At elevated temperatures, the phenomenon of metal creep and
relation of stress are of utmost importance.
8. Stiffness
Stiffness is that property of a material which permits greater stresses to be induced with less
deformation. It is measured by the modulus of elasticity (E) a ratio of stress to strain within
elastic limit. E measures the stiffness of members in tension, compression and bending. The
torsional stiffness of members is measured by G, the modulus of rigidity of the members.

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Example:
 A lathe machine built for accurate work, it is necessary that the holder for the tool has a
stiffness such that it will deform by an insignificant amount;
 A shaft in a motor must not bend so much as to allow the rotor to drag on the stator.
In such cases, the actual stress induced in a member may be small compared to the ultimate or
elastic stress in order that the deformation under the load may be small.
9. Wear Resistance
Up to a specified time period the machine parts should not wear to an extent that they loose
contact with the other mating parts and then cease to carry on the functions intended for. The
wear can be resisted by making the contact surfaces harder, stiffer and tougher and by making
use of proper lubricants to be applied as scheduled. It should be noted that it is not the work that
wears out the machine components but friction if not properly lubricated.
10. Light Weight and Medium dimensions
The machine elements must be sufficiently strong, rigid and wear resistant with minimum weight
and least dimensions. This can be achieved by the wide use of light weight rolled sections; use of
latest methods of surface hardening (shot peening, case hardening and nitriding) by using high
strength grades of cast iron and light alloys and if possible by improving the design of the
machine elements.
11. Easily Available Materials
While designing, the designer should not select such materials for any machine parts which are
not easily available or not available at all. This may lead to an increased production cost and
longer time period of completion.
12. Processibility
The shape and material of the machine parts should be chosen so that they can be produced with
minimum labour costs and processing methods. The complex and costly method of production
should be avoided.
13. Safety
Machine and machine elements should essentially be such that they do not pose danger to the
operator or the user. As a designer, while making the components or operating them, workers
must have a full proof sense of safety and security. Machine should be properly fenced/guarded

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with safety guards; edges to be chamfered etc to ward off any probable danger. This is a wide
areas to be covered is different aspects.

1.5 DESIGN FOR STRENGTH

The fundamental requirements for the machine elements, on which their efficiency depends are:
strength, stiffness, wear and corrosion resistance.
Wear is a must when two surfaces of machine elements have relative motion but it can be
minimized though not totally eliminated by good design and proper lubrication. Selection of
good material and surface protection will help in preventing the corrosion of the machine parts.
The other factor that can cause failure of the machine part is its excessive deformation, i.e.
change of shape due to elastic strain, plastic strain and fracture.
When a machine part or element is subjected to a load, internal stresses are induced in the part by
the applied load. These internal stresses resist the distortion or deformation of parts. If the
dimension of the parts are based on the elastic deformation so as to prevent excessive elastic
deformation, the design is called "rigidity" or "stiffness" design. On the other hand, if the design
is based on the induced stresses or on plastic deformation, it is said to be the strength design.
Most machine parts are designed on the basis of strength design due to the following reasons.
 It is easier to base the design on strength than on stiffness.
 The machine parts designed on the basis of strength usually have sufficient elastic
rigidity stiffness.
 For parts which are not simple in form, it is difficult to determine the deflections than to
determine the induced stresses.
 It is more difficult or rather impossible to set a limit for permissible elastic deflection
than to fix upon the allowable stress.
However, members like springs are designed for both strength and stiffness.
In the design of parts, selection of design stress (working parameter) or allowable stress
will be used to calculate the proportions of the parts which should be sufficiently strong.
Design stress is the limit which should not be crossed by the maximum induced stress.

To arrive at a proper value of design stress, the following factors should be considered;

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i. Analysis of the service conditions that must be met.

ii. Evaluating the strength of the material under service condition.
iii. Deciding on the margin of safety desired between the service conditions and actual
failures.
The service conditions that should be fully analyzed are;
a) Magnitude of loads applied
b) Methods of load application i.e. steady, impact or variable
c) Type of stress induced in the part, i.e. tensile, compressive, shear or combination of these.
d) Temperature
e) Appearance
f) Use of standard parts
g) Ease of assembly
h) Ease of repair
i) Wearing qualities.
Strength Design is based primarily on three types of loading conditions viz: Static Loading,
Impact Loading and Fatigue Loading.

1.5.1 STATIC LOADING

Static loading is a loading which is applied to a part very gradually increasing from zero to its
maximum value. After the load reaches its final value, it does not change its magnitude, direction
or point of application with time.
The main function of a machine element is to resist the applied loading. When a machine
element is no longer able to perform its function satisfactorily, it is considered to have failed.
When a machine element is subjected to static loading, the failure may take place due to yielding
or due to fracture, rupture or breaking.
Explain when is failure said to occur for (i) Ductile material (ii) Brittle material
1.5.1.1 Prevention of failure
The failure of a machine element can be prevented if the maximum induced stress due to external
loading does not exceed the failure stress for the material.
The failure stress for ductile materials is the yield point stress and for brittle materials, it is the
ultimate strength of the material. Thus the failure of a machine point can be avoided if the
maximum induced stress due to external loading is kept less than the yield point stress for ductile
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materials and less than the ultimate for the brittle materials. This is achieved by using a factor of
safety FS which should be FS>1 on the failure stress.
Failure stress
Allowable stress=
Factor of Safety
To avoid failure, the following condition then must be satisfied:
Maximum induced stress  Allowable stress
The allowable stress can be easily obtained if the material properties and the desired safety factor
are known.
For Ductile Materials:
Yield point stress
Allowable stress in tension = in tension
FS
Yield point stress
Allowable stress in compression = in compression
FS
Yield point stress in shear
Allowable stress in shear = in shear
FS
Yield point stress is taken to be the same in tension and compression;
For Brittle Materials:
Ultimate stress
Allowable stress in tension = in tension
FS
Ultimate stress
Allowable stress in compression = in compression
FS
Ultimate stress in shear
Allowable stress in shear = in shear
FS

1.5.1.2 Impact Loading

Impact or shock loads are those loads which are applied very rapidly to machine part and which
result in stress waves and vibrations in the material. It is generally very difficult to determine the
exact magnitude of stresses produced by impact or shock.
1.5.1.3 Fatigue Loading
In static loading, the load is applied gradually whose magnitude and direction do not change after
the load reaches its maximum value. Also the static load is applied only once. But in Fatigue
loading (variable loading or cyclic loading) the load is repeated cyclically. Example: Rotating

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shaft subjected to bending loads in which a fibre on the surface undergoes both tension and
compression for each revolution of the shaft.
Types of cyclic loading include fluctuating, reversed and repeated stresses as shown in Figure 4
(a - c). This will further be discussed under failure theories.

Figure 4: Various types of Cyclic Loading

f max = Maximum stress

f min = Minimum stress

f r = Range of stress = f max - f min

f max  f min
f m = Mean stress =
2
f max  f min
f v = Variable stress =
2
Figure 4(a): Fluctuating Loading - Here there are both mean stress and variable stress
components. A completely reversed variable stress is superimposed on a tensile stress.

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Figure 4(b): Reversed Loading - Here, the mean stress is zero. The various stress reverses
completely from tension to an equal value compression.
Figure 4(c): Repeated Loading - Here, f min = 0, so that the stress varies from maximum to zero
in each cycle.
In the case of cyclic loading the fracture of the machine part occurs at stresses very much lower
than their ultimate statical strength. Also if the stresses are not merely repeated but reversed i.e.
the material is subjected to repeated stresses of opposite signs, the resistance to fracture is less
than if the same intensity of only one kind of stress were repeated. In all such cases, the material
is often said to have become "fatigued" and this type of failure is called fatigue failure.
1.6 Factors to be considered while designing machine parts to avoid fatigue failure
i. The variation in size of the component should be as gradual as possible.
ii. The holes, notches and other stress raisers should be avoided.
iii. The proper stress de-concentrators such as fillets and notches should be provided
wherever necessary.
iv. The parts should be protected from corrosive atmosphere.
v. A smooth finish of outer surface of the component increases the fatigue life.
vi. The material with high fatigue strength should be selected.
vii. The residual compressive stresses over the part surface increases its fatigue strength.

Example of fatigue loading: Rotating shaft subjected to bending loads in which a fibre on the
surface undergoes both tension and compression for each revolution of the shaft.

Exercise
1. Discuss reasons that necessitate design of machine parts on the basis of Strength.
2. Define Factor of safety and why it is provided in the design of machine parts.
3. What are the various factors required to be considered while designing machine parts to avoid
fatigue failure?
4. Discuss the effect of a key-way on a shaft and its effect .
5. What specific requirements would you consider in the design of each of the following
a) shaft
b) flange coupling
c) gear drive
d) journal bearing

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e) Engine block
f) Oven rack

1.6 FUNDAMENTAL LOADINGS

In order to cover the next three sections i.e. Stress and Strain, Shear and Torsion and SF & BM
diagrams, it is necessary to understand the fundamental loadings which include axial loading,
direct shear, torsion and Bending.
Each of the loadings produces stresses in machine elements as well as deformations, meaning
change in shape. There are only two types of stresses: normal and shear.
1. Axial loading.
Consider a prismatic bar shown in Figure 1 loaded in tension along its axis by the opposing
forces P at each end. A prismatic bar has a uniform cross-section and therefore a constant area
along its length.

Figure 5: Axial loading

Axial loading produces a normal stress. The forces produce a tensile load along the axis of the
bar, which is why it is called axial loading, resulting in tensile normal stress in the bar. There is
also a corresponding lengthening of the bar. If the forces were in opposite direction, then the bar
would be loaded in compression, producing a compressive normal stress and shortening of the
bar.
P
Stress:  .......................... (1)
A

Strain:  .......................... (2)
L
Where  = change in length and L = Length of the bar.

Stress-Strain Diagrams.
If the stress is plotted against strain for an axially loaded bar, the stress strain diagram for a
ductile material shown in Figure 2 is obtained.

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Where; A = proportional limit

B = elastic limit
C = yield point
D = ultimate strength
F = Fracture point

Figure 6: Stress-Strain Diagram (Ductile material)

The stress-strain diagram is a linear up to the proportional limit, and has a slope (E) called the
modulus of elasticity. In this region the equation of the straight line up to the proportional limit is
called Hooke's Law given by
  E ........................... (3)
Exercise.
PL
1. Show that elongation  
AE
2. Plot a stress-strain curve for a brittle material?
2. Direct Shear
The overlapping bars shown in Figure 3 are held together by a single rivet. This produces shear
stress.

Figure 7
Stress: If the rivet is cut in half at the overlap to expose the cross-sectional area (A) of the rivet,
the FBD is as shown.

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Figure 8
A shear force V acts over the cross-section of the rivet and by static equilibrium equals the
magnitude of the force P. As a consequence a shear stress  is developed in the rivet is given by;

V P
  .................... (4)
A Arivet

Suppose the joint is held by 2 rivets as shown in Figure 5

Figure 9 (a) (b)

As shown in the FBD, a shear force V acts over the cross-section of each rivet and so by static
equilibrium these two shear forces together equal the magnitude of the force P, which means that
each is half force P.

The shear stress  that is developed in each rivet is given by;

P
V P
  2  ....................... (5)
A Arivet 2 Arivet

This means that as the number of rivets increase, the shear stress in each rivet is reduced.

3. Torsion
Figure 6 show a circular shaft acted upon by opposing torques T, causing the shaft to be in
torsion. This type of loading produces a shear stress in the shaft, thereby causing one end of the
shaft to twist about the axis relative to the other end.

Figure 10: Torsion

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Stress: Two opposing torques T produce a twisting load along the axis of the shaft resulting in a
shear stress distribution given by;
Tr
 0r R ................ (6)
J
Where: r = radius of shaft from the centre
R = outside radius.
J = Polar moment of inertia.
1 1
with J   R 4 for solid and J   ( Ro 4  Ri 4 ) for hollow cross-section.. ..... (7)
2 2
This will be studied further under shear and torsion.
4. Bending
As shown in Figure 7, a simply supported beam with concentrated force F located at its
midpoint. This force produces both bending moment distribution and shear force distribution in
the beam. at any location along length L of the beam, the Bending moment produces a normal
stress  and the shear force produces a shear stress  .

Figure 11: Bending

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