2 Fundamental Methods of Logical Thinking

Empty cell mystery

Andy is put in a cell with a dirt floor and only one window. The window is too high for him to reach. The only thing
in the cell is a shovel. He won’t be able to get any food or water and only has two days to escape or he’ll die. Andy can’t
dig a tunnel because it will take him much longer than two days to do it. How will Andy escape from the cell?

Answer: Andy has to use the shovel to create a pile of dirt under the window so he can climb up onto it and
escape from the cell.

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning

1. Determine the next number : 3, 6, 9, 12, ___, ____ - We can conclude that all Math teachers are
- The next number will be 15 and 18. Because strict
all numbers are multiple of 3.
2. The teacher gave the students easy test/quizzes
every week. Therefore, you can conclude that the
next quiz or test will be_________
- We can conclude that the next quiz will be
easy.
3. My math teacher is strict. My previous Math teacher - Based on the number of heart, increasing
is strict. My cousins Math teacher is strict. What can one heart per level
you say about all Math teachers?

Inductive Reasoning

Definition: Inductive reasoning involves making Key Points:

generalizations based on specific observations or - Starts with specific observations.
evidence. - Draws broad conclusions.
- Conclusions are not guaranteed to be true.
Example: Every time we've observed the sun rising in
the east, it leads us to generalize that the sun rises in
the east every day.

Deductive Reasoning

1. Filipino are religious. 3. All Filipino heroes are brave

Jay is a Filipino Andres Bonifacio is a Filipino Hero
Therefore, we can conclude that _______________ Therefore, we can conclude that _______________
- We can conclude that Jay is religious - We can conclude that Bonifacio is brave
2. Quadrilateral is a polygon with 4 sides 4. Acute angles are less than 90 degrees.
Square have a 4 sides. Angle B measures 40 degrees
Therefore, we can conclude that _______________ Therefore, we can conclude that _______________
- We can conclude that a Square is a - We can conclude that Angle B is an acute
quadrilateral angle.

Deductive Reasoning

Definition: Deductive reasoning involves drawing Key Points:

specific conclusions from general principles or premises. - Starts with general principles.
- Applies these principles to specific cases.
Example: All humans are mortal. John is a human. - Conclusions are logically certain if premises are true
Therefore, John is mortal.
 Difference of Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
a. Basis of Reasoning:
Inductive: Specific observations.
Deductive: General principles.

b. Certainty of Conclusions:
Inductive: Conclusions are probable.
Deductive: Conclusions are certain if premises are true.

c. Use Cases:
Inductive: Scientific hypotheses, statistical inference.
Deductive: Mathematics, formal logic.

Applications in Everyday Life

a. Inductive Reasoning: b. Deductive Reasoning:
- Predicting weather based on past patterns. - Solving puzzles and riddles.
- Forming opinions about people based on past - Making legal arguments based on established laws
interactions.

Intuition, Proof, and Certainty

a. INTUITION
- it is the ability to understand something instinctively, without the need for conscious listening or without not having an
actual evidence of it.
- Example:
A chef intuitively knowing the right combination of ingredients for a new recipe.
A musician intuitively sensing the next note in a musical composition.

b. PROOF
- Involves providing evidence or logical reasoning to establish the truth or validity of a statement or proposition
- Example:
Proving the Pythagorean theorem using geometric constructions and algebraic manipulation.
Providing experimental data and statistical analysis to support a hypothesis in a scientific study.

c. CERTAINTY
- refers to a state of being free from doubt or uncertainty
- Example:
Knowing with certainty that 2 + 2 = 4, based on the principles of arithmetic and mathematical proof.

Example:
Teacher: square, rectangle and Rhombus are parallelograms. Quadrilateral with opposite sides are parallel and equal. So
how many sides are there in a square?
Like in the example, we do not have to think how many sides are there in a Quadrilateral because we already have this
prior knowledge that Quadrilateral has four sides. So gaining intuition instinct.
The first thing that comes into your mind next is mathematical proof. So teacher asked, how do you say so?
Student: Because Quadrilateral means a Polygon with four sides. So, in here we are to justify the answer that we have.
So that's why it is mathematical proof. Detail evidence.
Teacher: please, show an illustration on the board and the student draws a square on the board. Since we already had
the proof, we are now very certain on our answer, like we would have no doubt about it.

In summary, intuition provides immediate insight without explicit reasoning, proof involves logical justification or
evidence, and certainty implies complete freedom from doubt.

These concepts are interrelated but distinct, shaping our understanding of the world and guiding our decision-
making processes.

Determine the type of reasoning shown on each statement below.

1. 2,4,6,8 ____. The next number is ____. INDUCTIVE

2. All number ends on 0,2,4,6 and 8 are even. The number “208”end in “8”. Therefore _____ DEDUCTIVE

3. All birds lay eggs. Eagle and hawks are birds. Therefore____ DEDUCTIVE

4. Smoking can cause cancer. Tomas is smoking. DEDUCTIVE

5. Everytime Kevin visits her dentist, she reives excellent services. With this she believes that ____ INDUCTIVE
 Polya's Step by Step Solving Method

Polya's step-by-step problem-solving method

- often referred to as the "four-step method" or "four-step problem-solving process“, is a widely recognized approach to
solving mathematical problems.

George Polya (1887-1985)

- The father of problem-solving
- A mathematics educator who strongly believed that the skill of problem solving can be taught.

Polya's Four-Step Problem Solving Strategy:

Step 1: Understand the problem.
Step 2: Devise a plan.
Step 3: Carry out the plan.
Step 4: Review the solution.

a. Understand the Problem

- This initial step emphasizes the importance of fully comprehending the problem before attempting to solve it.
- It involves reading the problem carefully, identifying the key information provided, and understanding what is being
asked.
- Often, problems can be complex and may require breaking down into simpler parts or visualizing the problem
using diagrams or illustrations. Asking questions to clarify any uncertainties can also be helpful in this step.
b. Devise a Plan
- Once the problem is understood, the next step is to devise a plan or strategy for solving it.
- This may involve selecting an appropriate method, formula, or approach based on the nature of the problem. It's
essential to consider various strategies and choose one that seems promising or efficient.
- Strategies may include using mathematical operations, drawing diagrams, working backward, using patterns or
relationships, or making an educated guess. The goal is to come up with a clear plan of action to tackle the
problem effectively.
c. Carry Out the Plan
- With a plan in place, the next step is to execute it by applying the chosen strategy to solve the problem.
- This involves performing calculations, following logical steps, and implementing the chosen method or approach.
- It's crucial to pay attention to detail, perform calculations accurately, and keep track of intermediate steps.
Flexibility is also important, as adjustments may be needed along the way based on new insights or unexpected
challenges encountered during problem-solving.
d. Look Back
- After obtaining a solution, it's essential to reflect on the problem-solving process and evaluate the solution
obtained.
- This final step involves checking the solution for correctness, verifying whether it satisfies the conditions of the
problem, and assessing whether it makes sense in the context of the problem.
 - It's an opportunity to review the steps taken, identify any errors or misconceptions, and consider alternative
approaches. Additionally, reflecting on the problem-solving process can help improve problem-solving skills and
deepen understanding for future problem-solving endeavors.

Overall, Polya's problem-solving method provides a systematic framework for approaching problems, promoting
critical thinking, creativity, and perseverance. By following these steps, individuals can enhance their problem-solving
abilities and tackle a wide range of problems with confidence and efficiency.

PROBLEM 01: A garden is in the shape of a rectangle with a length of 10 meters and a width of 6 meters. What is
the area of the garden?
a. Understand the Problem: We need to find the area of the garden, given its length and width.
b. Devise a Plan: We'll use the formula for the area of a rectangle: Area = length × width.
c. Carry Out the Plan: Substitute the given values into the formula: Area = 10 meters × 6 meters = 60 square meters.
d. Look Back: Does the answer make sense? Yes, it does. The area of the garden is 60 square meters.

PROBLEM 02: A recipe calls for 2 cups of flour to make 24 cookies. How much flour is needed to make 36
cookies?
a. Understand the Problem: We need to find out how much flour is needed to make a different number of cookies than
specified in the original recipe.
b. Devise a Plan: We'll use a proportion to find the amount of flour needed. The ratio of flour to cookies is constant, so
we can set up a proportion: 𝟐/𝟐𝟒=𝒙/𝟑𝟔 where x is the amount of flour needed for 36 cookies.
c. Carry Out the Plan: Solve the proportion for x:x
x=𝟐𝒙𝟑𝟔/𝟐𝟒= 𝟑 𝒄𝒖𝒑𝒔
d. Look Back: Does the answer make sense? Yes, it does. It takes more flour to make 36 cookies than it does to make
24 cookies.

PROBLEM 03: A car travels at a constant speed of 60 miles per hour. How far will it travel in 4 hours?
a. Understand the Problem: We need to find the distance traveled by the car given its constant speed and the time it
travels.
b. Devise a Plan: We'll use the formula for distance:
Distance = Speed × Time.
c. Carry Out the Plan: Substitute the given values into the formula:
Distance = 60 miles/hour × 4 hours = 240 miles.
d. Look Back: Does the answer make sense? Yes, it does. The car travels further the longer it travels at a constant
speed.

PROBLEM 04: Sarah has P80. She wants to buy a book that costs P25 and a sweater that costs P35. After buying the
book and the sweater, how much money will she have left?
a. Understand the Problem: We need to determine how much money Sarah will have left after buying the book and the
sweater.
b. Devise a Plan: We'll subtract the total cost of the book and the sweater from the initial amount of money Sarah has.
c. Carry Out the Plan: Subtract the cost of the book and the sweater from Sarah's initial amount of money: P80 - (P25 +
P35) = P80 - P60 = P20.
d. Look Back: Does the answer make sense? Yes, it does. If Sarah started with $80 and spent P25 on a book and P35
on a sweater, she should have P20 left.

MODULAR ARITHMETIC

1. If it is 11 o’clock and you have to finish your math homework in 18 hours, what hour will it be? 5 o’clock
2. If it is 12:00 now, what time is it in 12 hours? 12:00 What is the remainder when you divide 12 by 12? 0
3. If it is 12 now, what time is it in 18 hours? 6 o’clock What is the remainder when you divide 18 by 12? 6
4. Let us say today is Wednesday. What would be the day, 11 days after Wednesday? Sunday What would be the
remainder if we are going to divide 11 by 7? 4

Calculate using 12 hour clock.

1. 7+12= 19-12 = 7
2. 6+18= 24-12= 12
3. 9+21= 30-24= 6
4. 11-13= -2 +12= 10
5. 5-10= -5 +12= 7
6. 8-12= -4+12 = 8

Based on the assigned number for 7 days in a week, what would be the days on the after each of the following days.
Sunday=0, Monday=1, Tuesday=2, Wednesday=3, Thursday=4, Friday=5, Saturday=6
1. 5+11= 16-14= 2; Tuesday 4. 5+8= 13 -7= 6; Saturday
2. 3+9= 12-7= 5; Friday 5. 6+10= 16- 14= 2; Tuesday
3. 6-12=-6 + 7 = 1;Monday
Modular arithmetic
- It is a special type of arithmetic which involves only integer (ℤ).
- A number x mod N is the equivalent of asking for the remainder of x when divided by N.
- Two integers a and b are said to be congruent (or in the same equivalence class) modulo N if they have the same
remainder upon division by N. In such a case, we say that a≡b(modN).

Congruence

Arithmetic Operation

Addition Subtraction Multiplication:

Let's take two numbers, 5 and 3, Find: Find :
and perform addition modulo 7. • (13−3)mod7 • (5×3)mod7.
• (5+3)mod7 • =10mod7 • =15mod 7
• =8mod7 • =3 • =1
• =1 • So, 13−3≡3(mod7). • So, 5×3≡1(mod7)
• So, 5+3≡1(mod7).

Division (with modular inverse)

• For division, we need to find the modular inverse of the divisor. Let's say we want to compute 5÷3 modulo 7.
• First, we need to find the modular inverse of 3 modulo 7. The modular inverse of 3 (mod 7) is 5, because
3×5≡1(mod7)
• So, 5÷3 modulo 7 becomes 5×5 modulo 7.
• (5×5)mod 7
• =25mod 7
• =4
• So, 5÷3≡4(mod7)