Heat Transfer & Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Lab

Experiment # 01

LAB REPORT
Study of Conduction of Heat Along Composite Bar
Submitted By:
Umar Siab khan
Roll # 42
BSME 19-23
Submitted to: Engr. Ammar Ahmed

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Pakistan Institute of Engineering & Applied Sciences,

Nilore, Islamabad, Pakistan.

 Table of Contents
1. Learning Objectives ........................................................................6

2. Introduction .....................................................................................6

3. Theory ..............................................................................................6

4. Procedure ........................................................................................7

5. Observation and Calculations ........................................................8

6. Result and Discussion ..................................................................12

 List of Figures

Figure 1: Conduction mechanism .............................................................................................. 7

Figure 2: Brass Observation Graph .......................................................................................... 10

List of Tables
Table 1: Brass Observation Data ................................................................................................ 8

Table 2: Calculations .................................................................................................................. 8

Table 3: Aluminium Observation data ..................................................................................... 10

Table 4: Calculations ................................................................................................................ 10

Table 5: Aluminum Graph ........................................................................................................ 11

Table 6: Steel Observation data ............................................................................................... 11

Table 7: Further Calculations ................................................................................................... 11

Table 8: Steel Graph ................................................................................................................. 12

 ABSTRACT
This experiment investigates heat transfer through conduction by studying the heat transfer in
three different bars: Steel, Aluminum, and Brass. Thermocouples were placed at various
positions along the bars to observe temperature changes along their lengths and determine the
effect on thermal conductivity. The heat source, powered by voltage and current, was used to
heat one end of the bar. By analyzing the temperature profiles, the thermal conductivity was
calculated using Fourier's law of heat conduction. Delta T was determined along the length,
and Q was calculated based on the voltage and current supplied by the power source. The
formula was rearranged to calculate the thermal conductivity. The experimental results showed
that aluminum had the highest thermal conductivity, while steel had the lowest. A higher
thermal conductivity indicates better heat conduction, which was consistent with the
observations and calculations. Graphs were plotted to illustrate the relationship between
Temperature Gradient and distance along the bar for the three different materials. It was
observed that as the distance increased, the temperature difference shifted towards areas with
a negative gradient.
1. Learning Objectives
 To study the conduction of heat along a composite bar and evaluate the overall heat
transfer coefficient.

2. Introduction
In this experiment, the linear conduction heat transfer method is studied for a stainless-steel
bar in between the brass at the source and sink. The entire system (insulated heater, specimen,
air and laboratory enclosure) is at room temperature initially. The heater generates uniform
heat flow as switched on. This experiment deals with the systematic way to find the thermal
conductivity of the stainless-steel specimen. For conduction, an electrical heating element,
which comprises a heat input section fabricated from brass fitted with an electrical heater (heat
source), is bonded to one end of a stainless-steel rod. The other end of the rod, which is made
of satin less steel, is exposed to heat discharge (heat sink). For a practical situation, heat
conduction occurs in three dimensions, a complexity that often requires extensive computation
to analyze. For the experiment, a single-dimensional approach is required to demonstrate the
basic law that relates the rate of heat flow to temperature gradient and area. For this purpose,
the outer surface of the cylindrical rod is well insulated; thus, yielding one-dimensional linear
heat conduction in the rod once the heating element is switched on. We will use heat sensor
values of temperature at different points of the apparatus to find out conductivity (k).

3. Theory
Conduction is the transfer of energy from more energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent
less energetic ones as a result of interaction between the particles. Conduction can occur in
solids, liquids and gases. In solids, conduction is the combined result of molecular vibrations
and free electrons mobility. Metals typically have a high free electron mobility, which explains
why they are good heat conductors. In liquids and gases, conduction is due to the collisions
and diffusions of the molecules during their random motion. The rate of heat conduction
through a medium depends on the geometry of the medium, its thickness and the material of
the medium, as well as the temperature difference across the medium. The rate of heat
conduction through a plane layer is proportional to the temperature difference across the
layer and the heat transfer area but is inversely proportional to the thickness of the layer.
Rate of heat conduction ∝(𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎) (𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒)/ 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 in the experiment
performed, the assuming the length of the bar to be L, a uniform hot temperature Th imposed
on one end, and on the other end, Tc is the temperature caused by the cooling water. We have:

Figure 1: Conduction mechanism

4. Procedure
Input and the temperature were tabulated.

1. We ensured that the main switch was in the off position (the digital displays should not
be illuminated). Then we ensured that the residual current circuit breaker on the rear
panel was in the ON position.
2. We turned the voltage controller anti-clockwise to set the AC voltage to minimum. So,
we ensured the Linear Heat Transfer Unit H112A had been connected to the Heat
Transfer Service Unit H112.
3. Then the cold-water supply and electrical supply was turned on at the source. We
opened the water tap until the flow through the drain hose was approximately 1.5
liters/minute. The actual flow could be checked using a measuring vessel and
stopwatch if required but this was not a critical parameter. The flow had to dissipate up
to 65W only.
4. We then released the toggle clamp tensioning screw and clamps. We ensured that the
faces of the exposed ends of the heated and cooled sections are clean. Similarly, we
checked the faces of the intermediate specimen to be placed between the faces of the
heated and cooled sections.
5. We ensured the intermittent section, a 25 mm diameter and 30 mm long brass
cylinder, to be used is in the correct orientation then clamped the assembly together
using the toggle clamps and tensioning screw.
6. We turned on the main switch and the digital display was illuminated. We set the
temperature selector switch to T1 to indicate the temperature of the heated end of the
 bar. Then we rotated the voltage controller to increase the voltage to achieve a power
of 22 watt.
7. We observed the temperature T1 which began to increase.
8. We allowed the system to reach stability and took readings and made adjustments as
instructed in the individual procedures for each experiment.
9. When the experimental procedure was completed, it was good practice to turn off the
power to the heater by reducing the voltage to zero and allow the system a short time
to cool before turning off the cooling water supply.
10. This process was repeated for two different powers.
11. The readings of the power tabulated form, we were required to find thermal resistance
through the obtained data.

5. Observation and Calculations

Brass cylinder
Table 1: Brass Observation Data

Voltage Ampere T1 T2 T3 T6 T7 T8
V A deg C deg C deg C deg C deg C deg C
20 0.02 27.9 27.5 27.2 25.8 25.4 24.9
30 0.03 27.5 27.1 26.8 25.5 25.2 24.8
40 0.043 27.6 27.2 26.8 25.4 25 24.7

Table 2: Calculations

Q dot dT (1-3) dT (6-8) dx (1-3) dx (6-8) dT/dx (1-3) dT/dx (6-8) C (1-3) C (6-8)
W K K m m K/m K/m Wm/K W/mk
0.4 0.7 0.9 0.03 0.03 23.33 30.00 34.9142 27.1555
0.9 0.7 0.7 0.03 0.03 23.33 23.33 78.5569 78.5569
1.72 0.8 0.7 0.03 0.03 26.67 23.33 131.3646 150.1309

Sample Calculations:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 20 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 0.02 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠

∇𝑇1−3 = 27.9 − 27.2
∇𝑇1−3 = 0.7 𝐾
∇𝑇6−8 = 25.8 − 24.9
∇𝑇1−3 = 0.9 𝐾
 ∇𝑋1−3 = 45 − 15
∇𝑋1−3 = 30𝑚𝑚
∇𝑋6−8 = 105 − 75
∇𝑋6−8 = 30𝑚𝑚
Physical attributes of Intermediate Specimen:

Diameter = 25 mm

Length = 30 mm

Area = 4.91 × 10−4 𝑚2

Thermal conductivity:
Heated Section 1-3:
𝑄 × ∇𝑇1−3
𝐾𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 =
∇𝑋1−3 × 𝐴
𝑊
𝐾𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 34.9
𝑚𝐾
Cooling Section 6-8:
𝑄 × ∇𝑋6−8
𝐾𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑑 =
∇𝑇6−8 × 𝐴
𝑊
𝐾𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑑 = 27.156
𝑚𝐾
Experimental thermal conductivity:
𝑄 × ∇𝑇3−6 𝑊
𝐾𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 =
∇𝑋 × 𝐴 𝑚𝐾
0.4 × 0.03 𝑊
𝐾𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 = −4
(27.2 − 25.8) × 4.91 × 10 𝑚𝐾
𝑊
𝐾𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 17.457
𝑚𝐾
 Temperature Distribution for Brass
28.5
28

Temperature (C)
27.5
27
26.5
26
25.5
25
24.5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Distance from first temperature sensor (mm)

0.4 W 0.9 W 1.72 W

Figure 2: Brass Observation Graph

Aluminum cylinder
Table 3: Aluminium Observation data

Voltage Ampere T1 T2 T3 T6 T7 T8
V A deg C deg C deg C deg C deg C deg C
46 0.049 36.2 24.8 33.3 29.1 27.7 26.1
111 0.124 40.1 38.8 36.3 30.3 28.4 26.5
53.2 48.7 44.5 34.3 31.1 28

Table 4: Calculations

dT (1- dT (6- dx (1- dx (6- dT/dx (1- dT/dx (6-

Q dot C (1-3) C (6-8)
3) 8) 3) 8) 3) 8)
W K K m m K/m K/m Wm/K W/mk
2.254 2.9 3 0.03 0.03 96.67 100.00 47.4893 45.9063
13.76 3.8 3.8 0.03 0.03 126.67 126.67 221.309 221.309
4 9 9
52.6 8.7 6.3 0.03 0.03 290.00 210.00 369.408 510.134
0 8
 Temperautres for Aluminum
60

Temperature (C)
40

20

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Distance from first temperature sensor (mm)

2.254 W 13.764 W 52.4 W

Figure 3: Aluminum Graph

Steel cylinder
Table 5: Steel Observation data

Voltage Ampere T1 T2 T3 T6 T7 T8
V A deg C deg C deg C deg C deg C deg C
70 0.078 40.7 39.6 38.9 26.4 25.7 25
90 0.1 45.3 43.8 42.6 26.7 25.9 25.1
110 0.124 50 48.1 46.3 27.2 26.2 25.3
Table 6: Further Calculations

Q dot dT (1-3) dT (6-8) dx (1-3) dx (6-8) dT/dx (1-3) dT/dx (6-8) C (1-3) C (6-8)
W K K m m K/m K/m Wm/K W/mk
5.46 1.8 1.4 0.03 0.03 60.00 46.67 185.3360 238.2892
9 2.7 1.6 0.03 0.03 90.00 53.33 203.6660 343.6864
13.64 3.7 1.9 0.03 0.03 123.33 63.33 225.2436 438.6322

Temperature Distribution for Steel

60

50
Temperature (C)

40

30

20

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Distance from first temperature sensor (mm)

5.46 W 9W 13.64 W
 Figure 4: Steel Graph

6. Result and Discussion

In this experiment, the heat transfer properties of three metals, namely brass, aluminum, and
steel, were investigated. Each metal specimen was placed inside a conduction mechanism and
heated axially through contact with a heating coil. To ensure efficient conduction, thermal paste
was applied to the planar contact surfaces of the specimens. Temperature measurements were
taken at eight different points along the length of each specimen, and the heat transfer
coefficient was calculated for three different power settings.

The results of the experiment demonstrated a general decrease in temperature difference along
the axial distance from the hot plate for each metal specimen. Additionally, the temperature
differences were vertically offset, with lower power ratings yielding smaller temperature
differences across the three power settings. This relationship can be attributed to the fact that
the heat transfer rate is directly proportional to the power, which, in turn, is proportional to the
temperature difference. Consequently, higher power settings exhibited steeper negative
gradients. All the best-fit lines for temperature-distance gradients showed negative linear
profiles.

These findings have practical implications for improving the design of heat transfer systems.
By selecting materials with suitable thermal conductivity based on the application, the
efficiency of heat transfer systems can be enhanced. For example, in a system designed to
transfer heat from a hot source to a cold sink, materials with high thermal conductivity should
be chosen to minimize heat loss.

It is important to acknowledge that the obtained values may vary significantly due to potential
apparatus faults in the gauges, unsteady atmospheric conditions, non-uniform thermal contact,
unsteady state readings, poor insulation of the apparatus, formation of hot spots, presence of
scale or deposits, and other factors. These factors should be taken into consideration when
designing and conducting heat transfer experiments.

Additionally, if you would like me to include a paragraph on the study of heat conduction
through copper, please let me know, and I'll be happy to provide the information.