ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Jannah Isha Z. Jani

BSN-1B
Brokenshire College

SKELETAL SYSTEM: BONES AND JOINTS o Joints, where two or more bones come together, allow
I. Functions of the Skeletal System movement between bones.
II. Extracellular Matrix o Ligaments allow some movement between bones but
III. General Features of the Bone prevent excessive movement. (Bones to bones;
IV. Bone and Calcium Homeostasis cartilaginous; cannot be repaired)
V. Axial Skeleton
VI. Appendicular Skeleton STORAGE
VII. General Considerations of Bone Anatomy o Some minerals in the blood – principally, calcium and
VIII. Effects of Aging on the Skeletal System and phosphorus – are stored in the bone.
Joints o Blood levels of these minerals decrease, the minerals
are released from bone to blood.
SKELETAL SYSTEM o Adipose tissue is also stored within bone cavities. If
o Rigid framework to support the soft tissues of the body. needed, lipids are released into the blood and used by
o Joints and levers allow the body to move. other tissues as a source of energy.
o Consists of bones, as well as their associated
connective tissues: cartilage, tendons, and ligaments. BLOOD CELL PRODUCTION
o Consists of dynamic, living tissues that can grow, detect o Many bones contain cavities filled with red bone marrow,
pain stimuli, adapt to stress, and undergo repair after which produces blood cells and platelets.
injury. o Marrow produces three types of blood cells: erythrocytes
o 206 adult bones; infants or still in the process of growing (rbc), leukocytes (wbc), and thrombocytes (platelets)
– more cartilaginous bones o Called Hemopoiesis / Hematopoiesis
o Adult bones are composed of 30% protein (called
ossein), 45% minerals (including calcium, magnesium, EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
and phosphorus), and 25% water. o The bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments are all
 Skeleton – derived from a Greek word meaning dried. connective tissues.
 Joint – two bones come together; movable, although  Their characteristics are largely determined by
some of them allow only limited movement --- others the composition of their extracellular matrix.
allow no apparent movement; the structure of a given o Contains collagen, ground substance, and other organic
joint is directly correlated to its degree of movement. molecules, as well as water and minerals.
o Types and quantities of these substances differ in each
MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM type of connective tissue.
o Support
o Protection TYPES OF BONES
o Movement o Long bones: longer than wide; enhances their function in
o Storage movement of appendages; most of upper and lower
 Triglyceride storage – fat deposits limbs.
o Mineral homeostasis  Such as thigh, leg, arm, forearm, fingers, and
o Blood cell production (Hemopoiesis/Hematopoiesis) toes.
 Hemopoiesis in red bone marrow o Short bones: almost cube shaped
 Most wrist and ankle bones
SUPPORT o Flat bones: thin and extensive surface
o Bear weight  Such as cranial bones, sternum, ribs, and
o Major supporting tissue of the body scapula.
o Cartilage provides firm yet flexible support within certain o Irregular bones: do not fit above categories
structures, such as the nose, external ear, thoracic  Such as vertebrae and some facial bones.
cage, and trachea. o Provides protection while allowing bending and flexing of
o Ligaments are strong bands of fibrous connective tissue certain body regions such as the spine.
that attach to bones and hold them together.
MACROSCOPIC STRUCTURE
PROTECTION o Parts of a long bone
o Bone is hard and protects the organs it surrounds.  Diaphysis (growing between): shaft of long bone,
 The skull encloses and protects the brain, and the made up mostly of compact bone
vertebrae surround the spinal cord.  Epiphysis (growing upon): broad and of long bone;
 The rib cage protects the heart, lungs, and other mostly spongy bone
organs of the thorax.  Epiphyseal plate (growth plate): where the
bone grows in length. When bone growth stops,
MOVEMENT the cartilage of each epiphyseal plate is
o Tendons, strong bands of connective tissue, attach replaced by bone and becomes an epiphyseal
skeletal muscles to bones. line.
 Contraction of skeletal muscles pull the  Metaphysis: growth area between diaphysis and
tendons, which moves the bones. In this way, epiphysis
we can move our appendages for normal body  Articular (joins) cartilage: hyaline cartilage at joint
movements.  Periosteum: fibrous covering over most of bone
 Medullary Cavity (marrow) with fat and blood cells

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Jannah Isha Z. Jani
BSN-1B
Brokenshire College

 This cavity including smaller cavities are filled  Repair and remodeling of bone
with soft tissue called marrow.  Osteocytes
 Yellow marrow – adipose tissue  When osteoblasts become surrounded by
 Red marrow – blood-forming cells; only site of matrix
blood formation in adults.  Osteoclasts
 Children’s bones have proportionately  Are formed from monocytes
more red marrow than adult bones  Bone-destroying cells
because, as a person ages, red marrow is  Present and contribute to bone repair and
mostly replaced by yellow marrow. remodeling by removing existing bone, called
 In adults, red marrow is confined to the bone reabsorption.
bones in the central axis of the body and  Digest bone matrix for normal bone turnover.
in the most proximal epiphyses of the
limbs. 2 MAJOR BONE TISSUE TYPES
 Endosteum: membrane lining medullary cavity. o Compact bone – mostly solid and matrix cells
 Periosteum: dense connective tissue that covers o Spongy bone – consists of a lacy network of bone with
the bone. many small, marrow-filled spaces.

HISTOLOGY OF BONES

COMPACT BONE STRUCTURE

o Forms the perimeter of the diaphysis of a long bone, and
the thinner surfaces of all other bones
o Has more matrix; denser, with fewer pores that spongy
bone.
o Arranged in osteons (haversian systems)
 Cylinders running parallel to long axis.
 Consists of concentric rings of lamellae surrounding
a central canal, or Haversian canal.
o Central canal through center of osteon
 Contains blood vessels, nerves, lymphatics
o Concentric lamellae: layers of matrix
o Lacunae: “lakes” between lamellae (thin sheets of
extracellular matrix)
 Contain osteocytes (bone cells)
o Osteocytes
 Located in lacunae between the lamellae of each
osteon.
 Blood vessels that run parallel to the long axis of
the bone are in the central canals.
 Osteocytes are connected to one another by cell
processes in canaliculi.
o Canaliculi (“little canals”)
 Contain extensions of osteocytes
 Gives the osteon the appearance of having tiny
cracks within the lamellae.
MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF BONE
 Permit flow of ECF between central canal and
o Matrix
lacunae
 25% water, 25% collagen fibers, 50% (calcium  Where cell processes extend from the osteocytes
phosphate) mineral salts. across the extracellular matrix of the lamellae within
o Cells tiny canals.
 Osteogenic cells in periosteum
 Osteoblasts o Perforating (Volkmann’s) Canals
 Secrete collagen fibers  Carry blood and lymphatic vessels and nerves from
 Build matrix and become trapped in lacunae periosteum
 Bone-forming cells

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Jannah Isha Z. Jani
BSN-1B
Brokenshire College

 They supply central (Haversian) canals and bone

marrow
 Perpendicular system of canals that penetrate and
cross between Haversian systems.

o o Nutrients leave the blood vessels of the central

canals and diffuse to the osteocytes through the
canaliculi. Waste products diffuse in the opposite
direction. The blood vessels in the central canals, in
turn, are connected to blood vessels in the periosteum
and endosteum.

HISTOLOGY OF BONES

BONE OSSIFICATION
o Bone formation
o Formation of bone by osteoblasts.
o Not arranged in osteons
o Timeline:
i. Initial bone development in embryo and fetus
ii. Growth of bone into adulthood
iii. Remodeling: replacement of old bone
iv. Repair if fractures occur

o o Irregular latticework of trabeculae

 These contain lacunae with osteocytes and
canaliculi
o Spaces between trabeculae may contain red bone
SPONGY BONE
marrow.
o Very porous
o After an osteoblast becomes surrounded by bone
o Located in the epiphyses of long bones and lines the
matrix, it becomes a mature bone cell, or osteocyte.
medullary cavity of long bones.
o In the fetus, bones develop by two processes, each
o Less bone matrix and more open space than compact
involving the formation of bone matrix on preexisting
bone.
connective tissue.
 Trabeculae – spongy bone consists of delicate
o Mesenchyme (early connective tissue) model
interconnecting rods or plates; adds strength to a
 This initial “skeleton” model will be replaced by
bone without the added weight that would be
bone tissue beginning at 6 weeks of embryonic life.
present if the bone were solid mineralized matrix.
o Intramembranous Ossification
o Spaces between trabeculae are filled with marrow.
 Bone formation that occurs within connective tissue
o Each trabecula consists of several lamellae with
membranes
osteocytes between them.
 Bone forms within sheets of mesenchyme that
o Usually, no blood vessels penetrate the trabeculae, and
resemble membranes
the trabeculae have no central canals.  Only a few bones form by this process: flat
o Nutrients exit vessels in the marrow and pass by bones of the skull, lower jawbone (mandible),
diffusion through canaliculi to the osteocytes of the and part of clavicle (collarbone)
trabeculae.  occurs when osteoblasts begin to produce bone
within connective tissue membranes
 occurs primarily within the bones in the skull

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Jannah Isha Z. Jani
BSN-1B
Brokenshire College

o Endochondral Ossification 2. Growth of cartilage model

 Bone formation that occurs inside hyaline cartilage.  Cartilage “bone” grows as chondroblasts
 Mesenchyme forms hyaline cartilage which then secrete cartilage matrix.
develops into bone.  Chondrocytes increase in size, and the matrix
 All other bones form by this process around them calcifies.
 Chondrocytes die as they are cut off from
nutrients, leaving small spaces (lacunae)
3. Primary Ossification Center
 Perichondrium send nutrient artery inwards into
disintegrating cartilage
 Osteogenic cells in perichondrium becomes
osteoblasts that deposit bony matrix over
remnants of calcified cartilage → spongy bone
forms in center of the model.
 As perichondrium starts to form bone, the
membrane is called periosteum.
4. Medullary (marrow) cavity
 Spongy bone in center of the model grows
toward the ends of model
 Osteoclasts break down some of new spongy
bone forming a cavity (marrow) through most of
diaphysis.
 Most of the wall of the diaphysis is replaced by
a collar of compact bone.
INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION 5. Secondary Ossification Center
o Four steps  Like step 3, except that nutrient arteries enter
1. Development of ossification center ends (epiphyses) of bones and osteoblasts
 Mesenchyme cells → Osteogenic → deposit bony matrix → spongy bone forms in
Osteoblasts epiphyses from center outwards
 Osteoblasts secrete organic matrix  Occurs about time of birth.
2. Calcification: cells become osteocytes 6. Articular cartilage and epiphyseal cartilage
 In lacunae, they extend cytoplasmic processes  Articular cartilage at ends of epiphyses
to each other becomes articular cartilage.
 Deposit calcium and other mineral salts.  Epiphyseal (growth) plate of cartilage remains
3. Formation of trabeculae (spongy bone) between epiphysis and diaphysis until bone
 Blood vessels grow in and red marrow is growth ceases.
formed
4. Periosteum covering the bone forms from OSSIFICATION CENTERS
mesenchyme o Where the process of osteoblasts lining up on the
surface of connective tissue fibers and begin depositing
bone matrix to form trabeculae starts.
o The trabeculae radiate out from the centers. Usually,
two or more ossification centers exist in each flat skull
bone.
o Mature skull bones result from fusion of these centers as
they enlarge.
o Trabeculae are constantly remodeled after their initial
formation, and they may enlarge or be replaced by a
compact bone.
o The bones at the base of the skull and most of the
remaining skeletal system develop through the process
of endochondral ossification from preformed hyaline
cartilage models.
o The cartilage models have the general shape of the
mature bone.
o Chondrocytes – increases in number during
endochondral ossification, causing the cartilage model
to increase in size.
o Soon, chondrocytes in the center of the model absorb
ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION some of the cartilage matrix and enlarge.
o Six steps o The chondrocytes release matrix vesicles, which initiate
1. Formation of cartilage model of the “bone” the formation of hydroxyapatite crystals – they die soon
 As mesenchyme cells develop into after. This causes the cartilage matrix to be calcified.
chondroblasts

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Jannah Isha Z. Jani
BSN-1B
Brokenshire College

o As this process is occurring in the center of the cartilage

model, blood vessels accumulate in the perichondrium. BONE REMODELLING
o The presence of blood vessels in the outer surface of o The removal of existing bone by osteoclasts and the
future bone causes some of the unspecified connective deposition of new bone by osteoblasts and occurs in all
tissue cells on the surface to differentiate into bone.
osteoblasts. o Responsible for changes in bone shape, the adjustment
o These osteoblasts then produce a collar of bone around of bone to stress, bone repair, and calcium ion
part of the outer surface of the diaphysis, and the regulation in the body fluids.
perichondrium becomes periosteum in that area. o Involved in bone growth when newly formed spongy
o Primary Ossification Center – Blood vessels also grow bone in the epiphyseal plate forms compact bone.
into the center of the diaphysis, where bone first begins o Because bone is the major storage site for calcium in
to appear. the body, bone remodeling is important to maintain
o Osteoblasts invade spaces in the center of the bone left blood calcium levels within normal limits. Calcium is
by the dying cartilage cells. removed from bones when blood calcium levels
o Some of the calcified cartilage matrix is removed by decrease, and it is deposited when dietary calcium is
osteoclasts, and the osteoblasts line up on the adequate. This removal and deposition are under
remaining calcified matrix and begin to form bone hormonal control.
trabeculae. o If too much bone is deposited, the bones become thick
o Secondary Ossification – A medullar cavity forms in the or develop abnormal spurs, or projections, that can
center of the diaphysis as osteoclasts remove bone and interfere with normal function. Too little bone formation
calcified cartilage, which are replaced by the bone or too much bone removal, as occurs in osteoporosis,
marrow. Later, secondary ossification centers form in weakens the bones, and makes them susceptible to
the epiphyses. fracture.

BONE GROWTH BONE REPAIR

o Occurs by the deposition of new bone lamellae onto o Sometimes a bone is fractured and needs to be
existing bone or other connective tissue. repaired. When this occurs, blood vessels in the bone
o Appositional Growth - As osteoblasts deposit new bone are also damaged. The blood vessels bleed, and a clot
matrix on the surface of bones between the periosteum (hematoma) forms in the damaged area.
and the existing bone matrix, the bone increases in  Two or three days after the injury, blood
width, or diameter. vessels and cells from surrounding tissues
begin to invade the clot. Some of these cells
GROWTH IN LENGTH produce a fibrous network of connective tissues
o Major source of increased height in an individual, occurs between the fractured bones, which holds the
in epiphyseal plate. bone fragments together and fills the gap
o Occurs through Endochondral Ossification. between them.
o Chondrocytes divide and grow more cartilage on  Other cells produce islets of cartilage in the
fibrous network
epiphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate
 Callus – The networks of fibers and islets of
o Chondrocytes on the diaphyseal side die and are
cartilage between the two bone fragments.
replaced by bone
 Osteoblasts enter the callus and begin forming
o Therefore, bone grows from diaphyseal side towards
a spongy bone.
epiphyseal side  Spongy bone formation in the callus is usually
o Growth in length stops between 18-25 years; cartilage in complete 4-6 weeks after the injury.
epiphyseal plate is completely replaced by bone Immobilization of the bone is critical up to this
(epiphyseal line). time because movement can refracture the
delicate new matrix.
GROWTH IN THICKNESS  Subsequently, the spongy bone is slowly
o As bones grow in length, they must also grow in remodeled to form compact and spongy bone,
thickness (width) and the repair is complete.
 Perichondral Osteoblasts → Osteoblasts → lay o If a bone is completely immobilized, it is not subjected to
down additional lamellae of compact bone. the normal mechanical stresses that help it form. Bone
 Simultaneously, osteoclasts in the endosteum matrix is reabsorbed, and the strength of the bone
destroy interior bone to increase width of the decreases.
marrow. o Modern therapy attempts to balance bone
immobilization with enough exercise to keep muscle and
REMODELING AND REPAIR bone from decreasing in size and strength and to
o Remodeling in response to use maintain joint mobility. These goals are accomplished by
 Resorption by osteoclasts limiting the amount of time a cast is left on the patient
 Deposition by osteoblasts and by using “walking casts”
o Repair after a fracture o Walking casts – allow some stress on the bone and
 Dead tissue removed some movement.
 Chondroblasts → Fibrocartilage → Spongy bone TYPES OF FRACTURE
deposited by osteoblasts → Remodeled to compact o Partial: incomplete break (crack)
bone.

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Jannah Isha Z. Jani
BSN-1B
Brokenshire College

o Complete: bone broken into two or more pieces the absence of osteoclast activity, osteoblast
o Incomplete: does not extend completely across the bone activity continues, removing calcium from the
o Greenstick: an incomplete fracture on the convex side of blood and depositing it into the bone.
the curve of the bone Therefore, calcitonin maintains homeostatic
o Hairline: incomplete fractures in which the two sections blood calcium levels by decreasing calcium
of bone do not separate levels that are too high.
o Closed (simple): not through skin o In summary, PTH, vitamin D, and calcitonin work
o Open (compound): broken ends break skin together to keep blood calcium levels within the
o Complicated: If soft tissues around a closed fracture are homeostatic range
damaged
o Comminuted: complete fracture in which the bone
breaks into more than two pieces.
o Impacted: one fragment is driven into the spongy portion
of the other fragment
o Linear: run parallel to the length of the bone
o Transverse: right angles to the length of the bone
o Spiral: take a helical course around the bone
o Oblique: run obliquely in relation to the length of the
bone
o Dentate: rough, toothed, broken ends
o Stellate: have breakage lines radiating from a central
point

FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH

o Adequate minerals (Ca, P, Mg)
o Vitamins A, C, D
o Hormones
 Before puberty: hGH + insulin-like growth factors
 Thyroid hormone and insulin is also required
 Sex hormones contribute to adolescent growth
spurt
o Weight-bearing activity

CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS
o Blood levels of Ca2+ controlled
o When osteoblast and osteoclast activity is balanced, the
movements of calcium into and out of a bone are equal.
o When blood calcium levels are too low, osteoclast
activity increases, osteoclasts release calcium from
bone into blood, and blood calcium levels increase.
o Maintained by three hormones: Parathyroid hormone
(PTH) from the parathyroid glands, vitamin D from the
skin or diet, and calcitonin from the thyroid gland.
o Negative feedback loops
o Parathyroid hormone (PTH) → increases osteoclast
activity + decreases loss of Ca2+ in urine.
 (1) PTH indirectly stimulates osteoclasts to
break down bone, which releases stored
calcium into the blood. (2) PTH stimulates the
kidney to take up calcium from the urine and
return it to the blood. (3) PTH stimulates the
formation of active vitamin D, which, in turn,
promotes increased calcium absorption from
the small intestine.
 PTH and vitamin D are secreted when blood
calcium levels are too high. Therefore, they
cause blood calcium levels to increase,
maintaining homeostatic levels. Decreasing
blood calcium levels stimulate PTH secretion. EXERCISE & BONE TISSUE
o Calcitonin → decreases osteoclast activity, produced by o Bone strengthened in response to use
the thyroid. o Bone resorbed during disuse; examples:
 Calcitonin works to decrease blood calcium  During prolonged bed rest
levels by inhibiting osteoclast activity. Even in  Fracture with cast/immobilizer

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Jannah Isha Z. Jani
BSN-1B
Brokenshire College

 Astronauts without gravity o Parietal and Temporal bones: forms a large portion of
the side of the head.
DIVISIONS OF SKELETAL SYSTEM o Squamous suture: where parietal and temporal bones
o Two divisions: axial and appendicular join each other at the side of the head.
 Axial: bones around axis o Suture: joint uniting bones
 Examples: skull bones, hyoid, ribs, sternum, o Anteriorly, the parietal bone is joined to the frontal bone
vertebrae by the coronal suture, and posteriorly it is joined to the
 Appendicular: bones of upper and lower limbs plus occipital bone by the lambdoid suture.
shoulder and hip bones that connect them o External auditory canal: A prominent feature of the
 Examples: collar bone (clavicle), arm (humerus), temporal bone that is a large opening. A canal that
forearm (radius and ulna), thigh bone (femur) enables sound waves to reach the eardrum.
o Mastoid process: important neck muscles involved in
rotation of the head attach to the mastoid process.
o Sphenoid bone: single bone that extends completely
across the skull that; resembles like a butterfly.
o Zygomatic bone: cheek bone
o Zygomatic arch: forms a bridge across the side of the
face and provides a major attachment site for a muscle
moving the mandible.
o Maxilla: forms the upper jaw; contain the superior set of
teeth
o Mandible: forms the lower jaw; contain inferior set of
teeth

FRONTAL VIEW
o Major structures seen from the frontal view are the
frontal bone, zygomatic bones, the maxillae, and the
mandible.
o Orbits: prominent openings into the skull, cone-shaped
fossae; provide both protection for the eyes and
attachment points for the muscles that move the eyes.
 Superior and inferior orbital fissures: largest of the
several openings through which structures
communicate with other cavities; provide openings
through which nerves and blood vessels
communicate with the orbit or pass to the face.
 Optic foramen: where the optic nerve passes and
enters the cranial cavity.
 Nasolacrimal Canal: passes from the orbit into the
nasal cavity; contains a duct that carries tears from
the eyes to the nasal cavity.
 Lacrimal bone: small; can be seen in the orbit just
above the opening of this canal.
 Nasal septum: divides the nasal cavity into right
and left halves
 Two structures that form the nasal
septum: vomer (forms the inferior half of
the nasal septum) & perpendicular plate
of the ethmoid bone (forms superior half)
 Nasal bones: forms the nose bridge
 Nasal conchae: three bony shelves of each of the
lateral walls of the nasal cavity.
 Increased surface area of the overlying
SKULL AND HYOID BONE epithelium facilitates moistening and
o 22 bones warming of the air inhaled through the
o 8 Cranial bones (Braincase: Neurocranium) nose.
 Paranasal sinuses: opens the nasal cavity;
 Frontal, 2 parietal, 2 temporal, Occipital, Sphenoid,
decreases the weight of the skull and act as
and Ethmoid
resonating chambers during voice production.
o 14 Facial bones (Viscerocranium)
 The sinuses are named for the bones
 2 nasal, 2 maxilla, 2 zygomatic, 2 lacrimal,
where they are located and include the
 2 palatine, 2 inferior nasal conchae, 1 mandible, 1
frontal, maxillary, ethmoidal, and
vomer
sphenoidal sinuses.

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Jannah Isha Z. Jani
BSN-1B
Brokenshire College

 Mastoid air cells: additional sinus of the skull, which

are located inside the mastoid processes of the
temporal bone.

INFERIOR OF THE CRANIAL CAVITY

o Three divisions of the cranial fossae: anterior, middle,
and posterior; formed as the developing skull conforms
the shape of the brain.
o Bones forming the floor of the cranial cavity, from
anterior to posterior: frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid,
temporal, and occipital bones.
o Foramen rotundum and Foramen ovale: transmit
important nerves to the face.
o Foramen spinosum: where a major artery to the
meninges passes through
o Jugular foramen: where the internal carotid artery
passes through, and the jugular vein pass
o Foramen magnum: where the spinal cord joins the brain;
posterior fossa; located in the occipital bone near the
center of the skull base.
o Sella turcica: the central region of the sphenoid bone is
modified into a structure resembling a saddle; contains
the pituitary gland.

BASE OF THE SKULL VIEWED FROM BELOW

o Occipital condyles: smooth points of articulation
between the skull and the vertebral column, are located
beside the foramen magnum.
o Styloid processes: two long, pointed projections from the
inferior surface of the temporal bone. The muscles
involved in moving the tongue, the hyoid bone, and the
pharynx (throat) originate from this process.
o Mandibular fossa: where the mandible articulates with
the temporal bone, is anterior to the mastoid process
o Hard palate: forms the roof of mouth, which is also the
floor of the nasal cavity.
o Palatine bones: forms the posterior 1/3 of the hard
palate. (Anterior 2/3 by maxillae)
o Hard and soft palate: separate the nasal cavity and
nasopharynx from the mouth, enabling us to chew and
breathe as the same time.

HYOID BONE
o An unpaired, U-shaped bone.
o Not part of the skull and has no direct bony attachment
to the skull or any other bones.
o Muscle and ligaments attach it to the skull.
o Provides an attachment for some tongue muscles, and it
is an attachment point for important neck muscles that
elevate the larynx during speech or swallowing.

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Jannah Isha Z. Jani
BSN-1B
Brokenshire College

o Sutures: immovable joint between skull bones

 Coronal, sagittal, lambdoidal, squamous
o Paranasal sinuses: cavities
 Located in bones near nasal cavity
o Fontanels: Soft spot in fetal skull
 Allow deformation at birth
 Calcify to form sutures

VERTEBRAE
o Functions
 Encloses spinal chord
 Supports head
 Point of attachment for muscles of back, ribs, and
pelvic girdle
o Regions
 7 cervical
 12 thoracic
 5 lumbar
 1 sacrum and 1 coccyx

FUNCTIONS OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN

o Support the weight of the head and trunk
o Protects the spinal cord
o Allows spinal nerves to exit the spinal cord
o Provides a site for muscle attachment
o Permits movement of head and trunk

NORMAL CURVES IN COLUMN

o Four normal curves
 Cervical and lumbar curves are convex (bulge
anteriorly)
 Thoracic and sacral curves are concave (bulge
posteriorly)
 Curves increase in strength, help in balance, and
absorb shocks.
o Kyphosis: hunchback condition
o Lordosis: swayback condition
o

UNIQUE FEATURES OF THE SKULL

Scoliosis: lateral curvature of the spine

STRUCTURE OF THE VERTEBRA

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Jannah Isha Z. Jani
BSN-1B
Brokenshire College

o Body: disc-shaped anterior portion  Called dens (“tooth”) that creates pivot for head
o Vertebral arch: posteriorly back from body rotation.
 With the body, creates a hole called vertebral
foramen
o Seven processes from this arch
 Transverse process extending laterally on each
side
 Spinous process extending dorsally OTHER VERTEBRAE
 Two each of superior and inferior articular o Thoracic (T1-T12)
processes that form joints with vertebrae.  Larger than cervical
o Intervertebral disks: pads of fibrocartilage that separates  Have facets for articulations with ribs
vertebral bodies. o Lumbar (L1-L5)
o The vertebral arch surrounds a large opening called the  Largest and strongest; spinous processes short and
vertebral foramen. thick
o Vertebral canal: formed by the vertebral foramina of all
the vertebrae in the spine.
o Pedicles: each vertebral arch consists two of these.
o Laminae: extends from the transverse process to the
spinous process.
o The transverse and spinous processes provide
attachment sites for the muscles that move the vertebral
column.
o Intervertebral foramina: gaps between the successive
vertebrae where spinal nerves exit the spinal cord.
o Articular process: articulates vertebrae o Sacrum (S1-S5 fused into one unit)
o Articular facet: each articular process has a smooth  Foundation for pelvic girdle
“little face”  Contain sacral foramina for nerves and blood
vessels
 The spinous processes of the first sacral vertebrae
form the median sacral crest.
 The spinous process of the fifth vertebra does not
form, leaving a sacral hiatus
 Anterior edge of the body of the first sacral vertebral
bulges form the sacral promontory.
o Coccyx: 4 coccygeal vertebrae fused into 1

CERVICAL AREA
o Dislocations and fractures are common in this area than
in other regions of the vertebral column.
o Cervical (C1-C7 from superior to inferior)
 Spinous process often bifid with transverse THORAX
foramina on transverse processes. o Thoracic cage: sternum, costal cartilages, ribs, and
o C1: atlas bodies of T1-T12
 Articulates the head, specialized to support head o Sternum: form by 3 portions fused by about age 25
 Lacks body and spinous process years:
o C2: axis  Manubrium, body, xiphoid process
 Has body and spinous process  Jugular notch: located between ends of clavicles at
the superior end of the sternum.
 Sternal angle: slight elevation that can be felt at the
junction of the manubrium and the body of the
sternum; identifies the second rib.
o Ribs: 12 pairs (Floating ribs: not attached to sternum)
o True ribs are #1-7: articulate with sternum directly by
costal cartilages.
o False ribs are #8-12: do not articulate with sternum
directly by costal cartilages

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Jannah Isha Z. Jani
BSN-1B
Brokenshire College

 Styloid process: located on the medial side

PECTORAL GIRDLE where the distal end of the ulna forms a head,
o Function: attach bones of upper limbs to axial skeleton which articulates with the bones of the wrist.
o Clavicles and scapula: bilateral o Radius: lateral bone (thumb side)
o Glenoid cavity: where the head of the humerus connects  Radial tuberosity: where one of the arm
to the scapula. muscles, the biceps brachii, attaches.
o Spine: ridge on the scapula o Greater and lesser tubercle: muscles originating on the
o Clavicle: articulates with the scapula and the acromion scapula attach to the greater and lesser tubercles and
process. hold the humerus to the scapula.
o Coracoid process: provides attachment of arm and chest o Deltoid tuberosity: where the deltoid muscle attaches.
muscles. o Epicondyles: on the distal end of the humerus, just
lateral to the condyles, provide attachment site for
forearm muscles.

UPPER LIMB
o Humerus: arm bone
 Articulates with scapula (glenoid cavity) at shoulder
joint
 Articulates with radius and ulna at elbow
o Ulna: medial bone
 Trochlear notch: fits tightly over the head of the
humerus, forming most of the elbow joint.
 Olecranon process: point of elbow
 Coronoid process: helps complete the grip of
the ulna on the distal end of the humerus.

WRIST AND HAND

o Carpus (wrist): 8 bones
o Metacarpals: 5 bones of palm of hand
 Number 1-5 starting with thumb
o Phalanges: 14 bones of fingers
 # 1-5 metacarpals
 Each finger except the thumb has proximal, middle,
and distal phalanges; thumb lacks middle phalanx
PELVIC (HIP) GIRDLE
o Pelvic girdle includes two hip (coxal) bones
 Joined anteriorly at pubic symphysis
 Posteriorly attached to sacrum and sacroiliac joint

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Jannah Isha Z. Jani
BSN-1B
Brokenshire College

 Pelvic inlet: formed by the pelvic brim

 Pelvic outlet: bounded by ischial spines, the pubic
symphysis, and the coccyx.
o Basin-like pelvis is formed by two hip bones (pelvic
girdle) + sacrum and coccyx
 False (greater) pelvis: broad region superior to
pelvic brim; contains abdominal organs
 True (lesser) pelvis: small region inferior to pelvic
brim; contains urinary bladder + internal
reproductive organs

LOWER LIMB
o Femur (thigh bone): largest bone in the body
 Articulates with hip proximally and with the tibia
and patella distally
 Head (fits into acetabulum) and greater
trochanter at proximal end
o Patella: kneecap in anterior of knee joint
o Tibia: shin bone
 Large medial, weight-bearing bone of leg
 Tibial tuberosity: where the muscles of the
anterior thigh attach.
o Fibula: longest, thinnest bone in the body
 Lateral to tibia and smaller
 Does not articulate with femur

PART OF EACH HIP (COXAL) BONE

o 3 separate bones fuse by age 23 to form a hip bone
 Ilium: largest and most superior
 Ischium: lower posterior part
 Pubis: lower anterior part
o Bones meet at the acetabulum of the hip bone (socket
for head of femur)
o Acetabulum: socket of the hip joint.
o Obturator foramen: large hole in each hip bone that is
closed off by muscles and other structures.

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Jannah Isha Z. Jani
BSN-1B
Brokenshire College

ANKLE AND FOOT o Condyle: smooth, rounded end of a bone, where it forms
o A prominence can be seen on each side of the ankle. a joint.
These are the medial malleolus of the tibia and lateral
malleolus of the fibula. MALE AND FEMALE DIFFERENCES
o Tarsus (ankle) has 7 bones o Male usually have heavier bones
 Large talus (ankle bone) o Related to muscle size and strength
 Calcaneus (heel bone) o Female pelvis is wider and shallower than male pelvis:
o Metatarsals (foot bones) allows for birth
 Numbered 1-5 from medial to lateral
o Phalanges (toe bones) AGING AND SKELETAL SYSTEM
 Big toe has proximal and distal phalanges while o Birth through adolescence: more bone formed than lost
others have proximal, medial, and distal phalanges. o Young adults: gain and loss about equal
Numbered like metatarsals from 1-5. o As levels of sex steroids decline with age: bone
resorption > bone formation
o Bone becomes brittle and lose calcium

JOINTS
o Points where bones meet
o Classifications
 Structurally: by their anatomy
 Fibrous, cartilaginous, or synovial.
 Functionally: by the degree of movement they permit
 Immovable, slightly movable, and freely movable

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION
o Based on what is between the bones:
 Space (or not)
 Type of connective tissue present
o Types
 Fibrous joints – no cavity, just dense irregular
connective tissue
 Cartilaginous joints – no cavity, bones held together
by cartilage
 Synovial joints – have synovial cavity, dense
irregular tissue of articular capsule, and often
ligaments

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION
o Based on degree of movement they permit
o Types:
 Synarthrosis: immovable
 Pelvis, sutures, joints
 Amphiarthrosis: slightly movable
 Epiphyseal plate, tibia-fibula, vertebrae, pelvic
symphysis
 Diarthrosis: freely movable
 Most joints of the body
 All diarthrotic joints are synovial

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS OF BONE ANATOMY FIBROUS JOINTS

o Foramen: hole in a bone o Suture (synarthrosis)
 Some structure, such as a nerve or blood vessel,  Joined by thin layer of dense fibrous connective
passes through the bone at that point. tissue
o Canal/Meatus: if the hole is elongated into a tunnel-like  Example: between bones of skull
o Syndesmosis
passage through the bone
o Fossa: depression in a bone  Greater distance between bones and greater amount
of dense irregular connective tissue
o Tubercle/Tuberosity: rounded projection
 Examples: Distal tibia and distal fibula
o Process: sharp projection from a bone
(amphiarthrosis)
 Most tubercles and processes are sites of muscle  Gomphosis (synarthrosis): tooth root in socket
attachment on the bone. Increased muscle pull, as (alveolar process) of mandible or maxilla
occurs when a person lifts weights to build up o Interosseous membrane (amphiarthrosis)
muscle mass, can increase the size of some
 Has greater amount of dense irregular connective
tubercles.
tissue

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Jannah Isha Z. Jani
BSN-1B
Brokenshire College

 Examples: extensive membranes between

shafts of some long bones (radius-ulna, tibia-
fibula)

SYNOVIAL JOINTS: STRUCTURE

o Synovial cavity: space containing fluid
o Articular cartilage
 Covers ends of bones, absorbs shock
o Articular capsule
 Inner layer: synovial membrane that secretes
synovial fluid (reduces friction, supplies nutrients)
 Outer layer: dense, irregular connective tissue
o In some cases, synovial joints include:
 Ligaments (either outside or inside joint cavity)
 Menisci (cartilage discs)
 Articular fat pads
 Bursae
 Sacs made of synovial membranes containing
fluid
 Located where friction can occur
 Examples: between skin-bone, tendons-bones,
muscles-bones, ligaments-bones

CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS
o Synchondrosis (synarthrosis)
 Cartilage connects two areas of bone
 Example: epiphyseal (growth) plate connecting
epiphysis and diaphysis of long bone
(synarthrosis)
o Symphysis (amphiarthrosis)
 Cartilage connects two bones, but a broad disc of
fibrocartilage is present also
 Examples: pubic symphysis and intervertebral
discs

KNEE JOINT

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Jannah Isha Z. Jani
BSN-1B
Brokenshire College

 Flat bone surfaces moving across each other

o Flexion
 Decrease in angle between articulating bones
o Extension
 Increase in angle between articulating bones
 In anatomical position the body is in full extension
o Hyperextension
 Bending beyond 180 degrees, such as moving
humerus backwards behind anatomical position

TYPES OF MOVEMENTS AT SYNOVIAL JOINTS

o Gliding

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Jannah Isha Z. Jani
BSN-1B
Brokenshire College

MOVEMENTS
o Abduction
 Movement of bone away from midline
o Adduction
 Movement of body toward midline
o Circumduction
 Movement of distal end in a circle
o Rotation
 Bone revolves around its own longitudinal axis

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Jannah Isha Z. Jani
BSN-1B
Brokenshire College

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Jannah Isha Z. Jani
BSN-1B
Brokenshire College

SPECIAL MOVEMENTS
o Elevation
 Movement upward
o Depression
 Movement downward
o Protraction
 Movement forward
o Retraction
 Movement backward into anatomical position

o Inversion
 Move soles medially
o Eversion
 Move soles laterally
o Dorsiflexion
 Bend foot toward dorsum (“stand on heels”)
o Plantar flexion
 Bend foot toward plantar surface (“stand on toes”)

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Jannah Isha Z. Jani
BSN-1B
Brokenshire College

 Articulating surfaces flat or slightly curved

 Examples: between carpals, tarsals, sternum-
clavicle, scapula-clavicle
 Movements: gliding
o Hinge joints
 Concave-to-convex surfaces
 Examples: elbow, knee, ankle, interphalangeal
 Movements: flexion, and extension only
o Pivot joints
 Rounded surface with ring formed by bone and
ligament
 Examples: atlantoaxial joint (to turn head to say
“no”) and radius-ulna for pronation-supination
 Movement: rotation (ROT)
o Condyloid joints
 Convex oval surface to concave oval surface
 Examples: wrist, metacarpophalangeal -2 to -5
joints
 Movements: F, E, ABD, ADD
o Saddle joints
 One sided of saddle-shaped, other like a rider
astride it
 Examples: trapezium (carpal) to metacarpal-1
(thumb)
 Movements: triaxial (F, E, ABD, ADD, ROT)
o Ball-and-socket joints
 Ball-like surface into cuplike socket surface
 Example: shoulder, hip
 Movements: triaxial (F, E, ABD, ADD, CIR, ROT)
o Supination
 Movement of forearm so palms face forward or
upward
o Pronation
 Movement of forearm so palms face backward or
downward

SIX TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS

o Planar joints

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Jannah Isha Z. Jani
BSN-1B
Brokenshire College

DETAILS OF A SYNOVIAL JOINT: KNEE JOINT

o Ligaments
 Tibial and fibular collateral ligaments
 Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL): 70% of knee
injuries
 Posterior cruciate ligament (PCL)
o Menisci (medial and lateral)
 Fibrocartilage discs that increase stability of knee
joint
o Bursae
o Arthroplasty
o Knee replacement: total or partial

AGING OF JOINTS
o Decrease in production of synovial fluid
o Thinning of articular cartilage
o Ligaments shorten and lose flexibility
o Influenced by genetic factors

COMMON DISORDERS OF JOINTS

o Common joint injuries
 Rotator cuff injury
 Separated shoulder
 Tennis elbow
 Dislocation of the radial head
 Knee injuries: swollen knee, rupture of tibial
collateral ligaments, dislocated knee
o Rheumatism: rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis
o Ligaments shorten and lose flexibility
o Influenced by genetic factors

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