PLANE AND SPHERICAL

TRIGONOMETRY

BY

GEORGE N. BAUER, PH.D.

"
AND

W. E. BROOKE, C.E. , M.A.

UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA

SECOND REVISED EDITION

D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS

BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO
PHYSICS DEPT .

COPYRIGHT, 1907 AND 1917,

By D. C. HEATH & Co.

117
 QA 531

B35
1917

PREFACE

THE plan and scope of this work may be indicated briefly

by the following characteristic features :
Directed lines and Cartesian coordinates are introduced
as a working basis .
Each subject, when first introduced, is treated in a gen-
eral manner and is presented as fully as the character of
the work demands. This avoids the necessity of treating
the same subjects several times for the purpose of modify-
ing and extending certain conceptions.
Statements in the form of theorems and problems are
used freely to indicate the aim of various articles and to
define the data clearly.
Inverse functions are treated more fully than is customary.
The general principles governing the solution of triangles,
the solution of trigonometric equations, and the proof of
identities are carefully presented .
. Special attention is given to the arrangement of compu-
tations.
The sine and cosine series are obtained from De Moivre's
Theorem, thus completing the line of development which
leads to the calculation of the trigonometric functions.
The work on spherical trigonometry contains the devel-
opment of all the formulas that are generally used in
practical astronomy.
The right spherical triangle is treated from two points of
view : as a special case of the oblique triangle, and directly
iii

M279625
iv PREFACE

from geometric figures. The work is so arranged that

either view may be presented independently.
The solutions of the oblique spherical triangle by means
of auxiliary quantities, characteristic of astronomy, are
included as interesting mathematical problems and as
preparation for astronomical work.

PREFACE TO THE SECOND REVISED EDITION

The second edition embodies such modifications, rear-

rangements, and additions as have been suggested by experi-
ence in the classroom.
Due to numerous requests tables have been added.
Simple three-place tables have been included. By their use
the numerical work is reduced to a minimum, thus leaving
the student free to give more attention to the principles in-
volved in the solution of a triangle. Accordingly a few tri-
angles, suitable for three-place table or slide rule computa-
tion, have been introduced at the beginning of the list of
problems under the right triangle and also under the oblique
triangle.
In order to give a wider range to computational work four-
place tables as well as five-place tables have been included.
G. N. B.
W. E. B.
MINNEAPOLIS , MINNESOTA,
June, 1917.
 CONTENTS

PLANE TRIGONOMETRY

CHAPTER I

RECTANGULAR COORDINATES AND ANGLES

ART. PAGE
1. Introduction · 1

RECTANGULAR COORDINATES

122238
2. Directed lines .
3. Lines of reference
4. Quadrants
5. Coordinates of a point
6. Signs of coordinates
7. Exercises 3

ANGLES
8. Magnitude of angles 4
9. Direction of rotation. Positive and negative angles 4
10. Initial and terminal lines 5
11. Sign of terminal line 5
12. Algebraic sum of two angles 5
13. Measurement of angles • 6
14. Circular or radian measure 7
7799O

15. Value of radian ·

16. Relation between degree and radian
17. Relation between angle, radius, and arc
18. Linear and angular velocity ·
19. Examples · 10
V
vi CONTENTS

CHAPTER II

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
ART. PAGE
20. Trigonometric functions introduced · 12
21. Definitions of the trigonometric functions 12
22. Values of the trigonometric functions of 30°, 45°, and 60° 13
23. Values of the trigonometric functions of 120°, 135°, and 150° 15
24. Signs of the trigonometric ratios • · 17
25. Trigonometric functions are single valued • 18
26. A given value of a trigonometric function determines an
infinite number of angles 19
27. Examples 20

CHAPTER III

RIGHT TRIANGLES

22
28. Statement of problem 22
29. Application of the definitions of the trigonometric functions
to the right triangle . 22
30. Trigonometric tables 23
31. Formulas used in the solution of right triangles 24
32. Selection of formulas 25
33. Check formulas · 25
34. Suggestions on solving a triangle 25
35. Illustrative examples 26
36. Examples 29
37. Oblique triangles 30
38. Applications 31

CHAPTER IV

VARIATIONS OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

REDUCTION OF FUNCTIONS OF n 90° ± α
39. Values of functions at 0°, 90°, 180°, 270° , and 360° 34
40. Variation of the functions 35
41. Graphical representation 39
42. Periodicity of the trigonometric functions 40
43. Examples 41
 CONTENTS vii

ART. PAGE
44. Use of formulas 42
45. Functions of -a in terms of functions of a • 42
46. Functions of 90° + a in terms of functions of a 43
47. Functions of 90° - a in terms of functions of a 44
48. Functions of 180° - a in terms of functions of a 45
49. Laws of reduction • 46
50. Examples 46

CHAPTER V

FUNDAMENTAL RELATIONS. LINE VALUES

51. General statement • 47

FUNDAMENTAL RELATIONS
52. Development of formulas 47
53. The use of exponents 48
54. Trigonometric identities . 49
55. Trigonometric equations 49
56. Examples 51

LINE VALUES
57. Representation of the trigonometric functions by lines 53
58. Variations of the trigonometric functions as shown by line 5655
values 55
59. Fundamental relations by line values 56
60. Examples 57

CHAPTER VI
FUNCTIONS OF THE SUM OF TWO ANGLES
DOUBLE ANGLES. HALF ANGLES
61. Statement of problem 61
62. The sine of the sum of two acute angles expressed in terms
of the sines and cosines of the angles 61
63. The cosine of the sum of two acute angles 62
64. Importance of formulas . 62
65. Generalization of formulas 63
66. Tangent of the sum of two angles 65
67. Cotangent of the sum of two angles 65
68. Addition formulas . 65
viii CONTENTS

ART. PAGE
69. Sine, cosine, tangent, and cotangent of the difference of two
angles 66
70. Exercises 66
71. Double angles 67
72. Half angles 68
73. Sum and difference of two sines and of two cosines 69
74. Equations and identities 70
75. Examples 71

CHAPTER VII

INVERSE FUNCTIONS
76. Statement of problem 74
77. Fundamental idea of an inverse function 74
78. Multiple values of an inverse function • 75
79. Principal values · 77
80. Interpretation of sin sin-1 a and sin-1 sin a . 77
81. Application of the fundamental relations to angles expressed

888
as inverse functions 78
82. The value of any function of an inverse function 79
83. Some inverse functions expressed in terms of other inverse
functions . 81
84. Relations between inverse functions derived from the formulas
for double angles, half angles , and the addition formulas 888
82
85. Examples 82

CHAPTER VIII

OBLIQUE TRIANGLE
86. General statement · 84
87. Law of sines • 84
88. Law of tangents 85
89. Cyclic interchange of letters 85
90. Law of cosines 85
91. Sine of half angle in terms of sides of triangle 86
92. Cosine of half angle in terms of sides of triangle 87
93. Tangent of half angle in terms of sides . 88
94. Area of plane triangle in terms of two sides and included
angle 89
95. Area of triangle in terms of a side and two adjacent angles . 89
 CONTENTS ix

ART. PAGE
96. Area in terms of sides 90
97. Formulas for solving an oblique triangle 90
98. Check formulas 91
99. Illustrative problems 92
100. The ambiguous case 95
101. Examples 98
102. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES . 102

CHAPTER IX

DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM WITH APPLICATIONS

103. Introduction to chapter 113
104. Geometric representation of a complex number 113
105. De Moivre's theorem • · 114
106. Geometric interpretation 115
107. Applications of De Moivre's theorem · 116
108. Cube roots of unity 116
109. Fifth roots of unity 117
110. Square root of a complex number 118
111. Any root of a complex number · 119
112. Sin n a and cos n a expressed in terms of sin a and cos a . 120
113. Comparison of the values of sin a, a , and tan a, a being
any acute angle 121
sin a
114. Value of for small values of a 121
α
115. Sine and cosine series • • 122
116. Examples · 124

SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY

CHAPTER X

FUNDAMENTAL FORMULAS
117. The spherical triangle • 127
118. Law of sines . 128
119. Law of cosines 129
120. Law of cosines extended 130
121. Relation between one side and three angles 131
122. The sine-cosine law 131
X CONTENTS

ART. PAGE
123. Relation between two sides and three angles • 132
124. Relation between two sides and two angles . • 132
125. Formulas independent of the radius of the sphere 133

CHAPTER XI

SPHERICAL RIGHT TRIANGLE

126. Definition of spherical right triangle • 134
127. Formulas for the solution of right triangles 134
128. Direct geometric derivation of formulas 134
129. Sufficiency of formulas . 137
130. Comparison of formulas of plane and spherical right
triangles • 137
131. Napier's rules 138
132. Side and angle opposite terminate in same quadrant 139
133. Two sides determine quadrant of a third 139
134. Two parts determine a triangle • 139
135. The quadrant of any required part 140
136. Check formula • 140
137. Solution of a right triangle 141
138. Two solutions 141
139. Examples 143
140. Quadrantal triangles 143
141. Isosceles triangles . 143
142. Examples • • 144

CHAPTER XII

OBLIQUE SPHERICAL TRIANGLE

143. Statement of aim of chapter 145

GENERAL SOLUTION
144. Angles determined from the three sides 145
145. Sides found from the three angles • 146
146. Delambre's or Gauss's formulas · 147
147. Napier's analogies • 147
148. Formulas collected 148
149. All formulas excepting law of sines determine quadrant 148
 CONTENTS xi

ART. PAGE
150. Theorem to determine quadrant . 149
151. Second theorem to determine quadrant 149
152. Third theorem to determine quadrant 150
153. Illustrative examples 150
154. Two solutions 153
155. Area of spherical triangle 154
156. Examples 154

SOLUTION WHEN ONLY ONE PART IS REQUIRED

157. Statement of problem 156
158. From two sides and the included angle, to find any one of
the remaining parts · 156
159. Two parts required 158
160. Problems 159
161. Each unknown part found from two angles and the included
side 160
162. Each unknown part found from two sides and an angle
opposite one of them . • · 161
163. Each unknown part found from two angles and a side
opposite one of them • 163
164. The general triangle · 164
ANSWERS 165
 PLANE TRIGONOMETRY

CHAPTER I

RECTANGULAR COORDINATES AND ANGLES

1. Introduction. The word trigonometry is derived from

the two Greek words for triangle (rpíywvov) and measure-
ment (uerpia). Originally trigonometry was concerned
chiefly with the solution of triangles. At present this is
but one part of the subject.
Certain preliminary considerations, concerning directed
lines and angles, are necessary before introducing the fun-
damental definitions of trigonometry .

RECTANGULAR COORDINATES
2. Directed lines. A positive and a negative direction
may be assigned arbitrarily to every line.
If the direction from A to C is positive, the opposite
direction from C to A is negative.
If we let the order of the let-
ters indicate the direction in A C
which a segment is measured , it is evident that AC and CA
represent the same segment measured in opposite direc-
tions ; hence
ACCA or - AC = CA.
•
Also, if B be a third point on the line, the segments AB
and BA are opposite in sign ; likewise the segments BC
and CB. Hence
AB = - BA or -– AB = BA,
and BC= CB or -- BC = CB.
1
2 TRIGONOMETRY

Then for all positions of A, B, and C on a line it follows

that

ACAB + BC. A B C
Thus for the following figures :
5 8
5 8 +(- 3) = 5
-12 A -8 B 0
-12 =-8 + (- 4) = - 12
C-6 B 0
4-6 +(+ 10) = 4
B A

3. Lines of reference. Two directed lines, perpendicular

to each other, may be taken as lines of reference or axes.
They are usually designated by X'X and Y'Y and are
called the X-axis and the Y-axis respectively.
The X-axis is positive from left
to right and negative from right
to left.
The Y-axis is positive upward
and negative downward.
X' The point of intersection of the
axes is the origin. The origin
serves as a convenient starting
point from which to measure dis-
tances.

4. Quadrants. The axes produced divide the plane into

four parts called quadrants. The quadrants are designated
by number. The first quadrant is indicated by XOY, the
second by YOX', the third by X'OY ', and the fourth by
Y'OX.

5. Coordinates of a point. From any given point P₁ in

the plane, draw a line parallel to the Y-axis intersecting
the X-axis in some point A.
Then the distance from the origin to the point of inter-
section, or OA, is the abscissa of the given point P₁.
 RECTANGULAR COORDINATES AND ANGLES 3

The distance from the

point of intersection to
the given point, or AP₁, Pl

P
is the ordinate of the +
given point P₁.
+
The abscissa and the A X
X'C O
ordinate of the point P₂
are OC and CP₂ respec-

1
tively. P
The abscissa and the
ordinate of the point P
are OC and CP, respectively .
The abscissa and the ordinate of the point P, are OA and
AP, respectively.

6. Signs of coordinates. Abscissas are positive when

measured from the origin to the right, and negative when
measured from the origin to the left.
Ordinates are positive when measured upward from the
X-axis and negative when measured downward .
Thus OA, AP, and CP,2 are positive ; OC, CP3, and AP
are negative.
7. EXERCISES
1. Locate the point whose abscissa is 4 and whose ordi-
nate is 7. This point is designated (4, 7).
2. Locate the point whose abscissa is 2 and whose ordi-
nate is 5, i.e. the point (2, 5).
3. Locate the points ( -3, 4) , ( -6, − · 3) , (5, -
− 1) , (0, 4) ,
(-7, 0), and (-8, 10).
4. Locate the points (11 , 3) , ( — 1, 0) , (m, n) , (x, y) , (x, 0) .
5. What is the locus of the points whose abscissas are 6 ?
6. What is the locus of the points whose ordinates are -3 ?
7. What is the locus of the points whose abscissas are
twice their ordinates ?
4 TRIGONOMETRY

ANGLES

8. Magnitude of angles. In elementary geometry the

angles considered are usually less than two right angles ;
but in trigonometry it is necessary
' to introduce angles of any magni-
tude, positive or negative.
To extend the conception of an
a angle, suppose a line to revolve in
X' X a fixed plane about a fixed
point O,
from the initial position OX to the
successive positions OY, OX', and
OP, generating a*, an angle greater
than two right angles.
* If the line continues to revolve,

making more than one complete rev-

olution, it generates an angle a which
is greater than four right angles. α
Evidently by continuing the rotation Χ
an angle of any magnitude may be
generated . Thus the size of the angle a depends upon the
amount of rotation of OP and is designated by an arc.
9. Direction of rotation. Positive and negative angles. As
a positive and negative direction may be assigned arbitra-
rily to a line, so a positive and nega-
tive sense of generation may be assigned
arbitrarily to an angle.
The direction of rotation indicated

X by the arrows in the figures of Art. 8

is the positive direction ; the opposite
direction, indicated by the arrow in the adjoining figure, is
the negative direction.
* Angles will usually be designated by Greek letters :
α . • · Alpha δ · · Delta
β • • Beta · Theta
2. Gamma $ Phi
 RECTANGULAR COORDINATES AND ANGLES 5

A positive angle is an angle generated by a line rotating

in the positive direction.
A negative angle is an angle generated by a line rotating
in the negative direction.
Negative angles , like positive angles, may have unlimited
magnitude.

10. Initial and terminal lines. The fixed line from which
both positive and negative angles are measured is the initial
line. It usually coincides with that part of the X-axis
lying to the right of the origin. Thus, in the last three
figures, OX is the initial line.
The final position of the revolving line, marking the ter-
mination of the angle, is the terminal line. Thus, in the
last three figures, OP is the terminal line.
Two or more unequal angles may p
have the same terminal line. Thus
the positive angle a and the nega-
tive angles ẞ and y have the same
X
terminal line.
Angles having the same terminal
line, and the same initial line, are called coterminal angles.

11. Sign of terminal line. The terminal line, drawn from

the origin in the direction of the ex-
tremity of the measuring arc, is posi
tive ; the terminal line produced ,
drawn from the origin in the oppo-
X site direction, is negative.
Thus the terminal line OP, of the
angle a, is positive, and the terminal.
P/+ As
line produced, OQ, is negative.
the terminal line OP revolves it retains its positive sign.

12. The algebraic sum of two angles. To construct the

algebraic sum of two angles, conceive OP to rotate from the
6 TRIGONOMETRY

position OX, through the angle a, to OP'; then from this

P P
P'

B
α

+
a
τα
X
a positive a positive
B positive B negative.

α
X X

a +ß
a negative a positive
P B positive B negative

position let it rotate through the angle ẞ, whether positive

or negative, to OP. Then XOP is the desired angle a + B.
13. Measurement of angles. Various units may be em-
ployed in the measurement of angles. In elementary geom-
etry the right angle is frequently used. Two other units in
common use are the degree and the radian. The degree
is generally used in practical problems involving numerical
computations, while the radian is essential in many theoret-
ical considerations.

The degree is defined as one ninetieth of a right angle.

The degree is divided into sixty equal parts called min-
utes. The minute is divided into sixty equal parts called
seconds.
Then 60 seconds (60") = 1 minute.
60 minutes (60 ') = 1 degree.
90 degrees (90°) = 1 right angle.
The angle 26 degrees, 39 minutes, and 57 seconds is
written 26° 39' 57".
 RECTANGULAR COORDINATES AND ANGLES 7

14. Circular or radian measure. A radian is an angle of

such magnitude that, if placed with its vertex at the center
of any circle, it will intercept an arc equal Y
in length to the radius of the circle.
Thus, if the arc XP is equal to the
radius OX, the angle XOP is a radian, X
T
or XOP = 1′, being used to designate
radian.

15. Value of the radian. Since, in the same circle or in

equal circles, angles at the center are proportional to their
intercepted arcs, it follows that
XOP arc XP
=
2 ΧΟΥ arc XY'
one radian r 2
or = =
one right angle (2 πr)
2
Therefore, one radian = · one right angle.
π
or π radians = 180°.

It is clear that the value of the radian is independent of

the radius, depending only upon the constant and the
right angle, and hence is an invariable unit.

16. Relation between degree and radian. From the pre-

ceding article it follows that
180°
1, = (1)
π
180°
or 1 = = 57° 17′ 44″. (2)
3.1416
Also, from equation (1) ,
1° (3)
180 '
or 1° 0.01745". (4)
Equations (1) and (2) are used to convert radians into
8 TRIGONOMETRY

degrees, and equations (3) and (4) are used to convert

degrees into radians. Thus,
2 2π
from (1), π = =
3 (180°
)-120°,

from (2), 4" -4 (57° 17' 44 ") = 229° 10′ 56",

πρ
from (3), 20° = 20
180
from (4), 3° = 3 (0.01745″) = 0.05235".
Using equation (3) to convert degrees into radians intro-
duces into the numerical value of the angle. Thus π
becomes associated with radian measure. Since the radian
is the angular unit with which is commonly associated,
no ambiguity arises by omitting to state with each angle,
expressed in terms of #, that the radian is the unit.
π 29 π
Thus, 90° = radians, 180° = π radians , 29° = 180 radians

are usually written

Π 2
90° = 180° 29° = 9 π
2 180

It must be especially noted that when no unit is specified

the radian is always understood . The constant is always
equal to 3.1416, and can never equal 180°, but π radians
are equal to 180°.

17. Relation between angle, radius, and arc. It is evident

from the definition of a radian that if
any arc of a circle AB be divided by
B
the radius, the quotient indicates the
number of radians contained in the
r Α central angle subtended by the given
arc, hence
arc AB
= angle AOB
radius
where angle AOB is expressed in radians. Representing
 RECTANGULAR COORDINATES AND ANGLES 9

the length of the arc AB by a, the radius by r, and the

angle AOB by 0, the relation above may be written
α
=0
r
or
a = re (1)

It should be especially noted that the angle is expressed

in terms of radians.
In the above figure is approximately equal to 21 radians.
Equation (1) expresses the relation between a, r, and 0,
and determines any one of these elements when the other
two are known.

PROBLEM . What is the length of the arc subtended by a

central angle of 112° in a circle whose radius is 15 feet ?

Solution. Reducing the angle to radians it is seen that

28 π*
112° = = 1.95".
45

Hence 0 = 1.95.

Substituting in Equation (1) we have

α == 15 × 1.95 = 29.3

Hence the length of the arc is 29.3 ft.

18. Linear and angular velocity. Equation (1) of Art. 17

leads directly to the relation between linear velocity and
angular velocity in uniform motion in a circle. Suppose a
point P moves along the circumference of a circle at a
constant velocity v, describing an arc a in time t ; then a/t
is called the linear velocity and is represented by v. During
the same time t, the angle is generated ; and 0/t is called
the angular velocity, and is represented by the Greek letter
w (omega).
10 TRIGONOMETRY

Dividing Equation (1), Art. 17, by t gives

α - ro
or v = rw
t t
i.e. the linear velocity is equal to r times the angular velocity.
While in general angular velocity may be expressed in
any units whatsoever, in the equation v = ro the angular
velocity must be expressed in radians per unit of time.
PROBLEM 1. If a point moves 26 feet in the arc of a
circle of radius 7 feet in 3 seconds, what is its angular
velocity ?
Solution. The linear velocity of the point is 26 feet per
second.
Substituting in equation (1) we have
26 = 7 w
.. @ = 21.238 radians per second.
PROBLEM 2. A flywheel makes 200 revolutions per
minute. Show that its angular velocity is 72,000° per
minute or 20 π radians per second.
3
If the radius of the flywheel is 3 feet, show that the
velocity of a point on the rim is 42.84 miles per hour.

19. EXAMPLES

1. Construct the following angles : 30°, 45°, 60° , 135°,

-90° , -
300°, — 60°, — - 420°.
— 390°, —
2. Construct approximately the following angles : 2
radians, 3 radians, — radian, - 4 radians, 9 radians.
3. Construct the following angles :
π π π 5л 5л
2 3 ' 4' 4 2
4. Reduce the following angles to radian or circular
measure : 10° , 30° , 45° , 60°, 135°, 225° , -
— 270°, -— 12°,
-– 18°, 24° 15 ', - 612° 19' 25" .
 RECTANGULAR COORDINATES AND ANGLES 11

5. Reduce to degree measure : 2 radians, 5 radians ,

- 3 radians, radian, - radian, b radians.
6. Reduce to degrees :
п 3 п - 5 π 3.1416 2 π + 1 2 •
" "
3' 4 3 π π 2 T +3
7. If an arc of 30 ft. subtends an angle of 4 radians,
find the radius of the circle.
8. In a circle whose radius is 5, the length of an intercepted
arc is 12. Find the angle ( a) in radians, (b) in degrees.
9. If two angles of a plane triangle are respectively equal
to 1 radian and radian, express the third angle in degrees.
10. In a circle whose radius is 12 ft., find the length of
the arc intercepted by a central angle of 16°.
11. Find the angle between the tangents to a circle at
two points whose distance apart measured on the arc of the
circle is 378 ft., the radius of the circle being 900 ft.
12. An automobile whose wheels are 34 inches in
diameter travels at the rate of 25 miles per hour. How
many revolutions per minute does a wheel make ? What is
its angular velocity in radians per second ?
13. Assuming the earth's orbit to be a circle of radius
92,000,000 miles, what is the velocity of the earth in its
path in miles per second ?
14. The rotor of a steam turbine is two feet in diameter
and makes 25,000 revolutions per minute. The blades of
the turbine, situated on the circumference of the rotor,
have one-half the velocity of the steam which drives them .
What is the velocity of the steam in feet per second ?
15. A belt travels around two pulleys whose diameters
are 3 feet and 10 inches respectively. The larger pulley
makes 80 revolutions per minute. Find the angular
velocity of the smaller pulley in radians per second, also
the speed of the belt in feet per minute.
 CHAPTER II

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

20. The trigonometric functions, upon which trigonom

etry is based, are functions of an angle.
These functions are the sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent,
secant, cosecant, versed sine, and coversed sine of an angle.
For any angle a they are written sin a, cos a, tan α, cot α,
sec a, csc α, vers a, and covers α.

21. Definitions of the trigonometric functions. Let OX

and OP be the initial and terminal lines respectively of any
angle α.

r α
y
X' X AX X'A х X
ર

α
А х x A
X'y X X' yX
r r

Let P be any point on the terminal line,

OP or r the distance from the origin to the point P,
OA or x the abscissa of the point P, and
AP or y the ordinate of the point P.
12
 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 13

It should be noted that OP, OA, and AP are directed

lines and hence
r = OP and not PO
x = OA and not 40
y = AP and not PA.

Then the trigonometric functions are defined as follows :

ordinate
sin a = y =
r distance
abscissa
cos α = =
r distance
ordinate
tan a = y =
abscissa
Χ = abscissa
cot a =
y ordinate
r distance
sec α ===
abscissa
distance
CSC α ===
y ordinate
vers a = 1 - cos a
covers a = 1 - sin a

It will be observed that each of the first six functions is

defined as a ratio between two line segments . These are
the fundamental trigonometric functions, and the ratios de-
fining them are called the trigonometric ratios.
The first six functions are called trigonometric ratios.
The expression trigonometric functions is more general and
embraces the versed sine, coversed sine, and the trigono-
metric ratios . It is evident, from the definitions , that the
values of the trigonometric functions are abstract numbers.

22. Values of the trigonometric functions of 30°, 45°, and

60°. A few concrete illustrations serve to show the nature
of the trigonometric functions, to fix ideas, and to prepare
the way for more general considerations.
 14 TRIGONOMETRY

Functions of 30°. Let OPF be an equilateral triangle

having its sides equal to 2 units . Place the triangle with
a vertex at the origin so that OX bisects the angle POF.
Then, by geometry, the angle AOP = 30°, the ordinate
AP = 1, and the abscissa QA = √3.
Hence, applying definitions,
1
sin 30° === .500
2
2 13
1 cos 30° = = .866
30 2
X' √3 A X
1 1
tan 30° = = √3 = .577
√3 3
协
cot 30° = /3
=√3 = 1.732

2 2
vers 30° = 1. √3 = .134 sec 30° = √3 = 1.155 .
V3 3
1 1 2
covers 30° = 1 -- = = .500 csc 30° := = 2.000
2 2 1
PROBLEM. Find the values of the trigonometric functions
of 30°, as above, taking OP = 1. P
Functions of 45°. Let OAP be
√2
a right-angled isosceles triangle
having its sides OA and AP each
equal to 1. Then AOP = 45° and X' A X
the distance OP = √2.
Hence, applying definitions,
1 1
sin 45° = √2 sec 45° = √2
√2
1 √2
cos 45° = √2 csc 45° = /2
√2 2 1
tan 45° = =1 vers 45° = 1 - √2

cot 45° === 1 covers 45° = 1 -

 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 15

PROBLEM. Find the values

Y
of the trigonometric functions
of 45°, taking OA = 3.
Functions of 60° . Let OPF, √3

ო
60
an equilateral triangle having X' F X
each side equal to 2, be placed
as in the figure. Then the .
abscissa and ordinate of P
are 1 and √3, respectively .
Hence, applying definitions,

2/1
sin 60° := √3 sec 60° = 2
2
1 2 2
cos 60° = csc 60° = = 13
2 V3
√3
tan 60° = √3 vers 60° = 1 -
=242
12
1 -
cot 60° = √3 covers 60° = 1 /3
/3 3

PROBLEM. Find the values of the functions of 60°, as

above, taking OP = 4a.
The values of the sines and cosines of 30°, 45°, and 60°
are used frequently and should be memorized. The follow-
ing table may be found helpful :

sin 30° -12 = cos 60°

1
sin 45 ° = √2 = cos 45 °
2
1
sin 60° == √3 = cos 30°

23. Values of the trigonometric functions of 120°, 135°, and

150°. By using the magnitudes of the figures of Art. 22
and properly placing them with respect to the axes , the
16 TRIGONOMETRY

values of the trigonometric functions of various angles may

be obtained.

Functions of 120°. From the figure and definitions it is

evident that

sin 120° = √3
2
2
√3 120°° -1
cos 120° =
2
X' A -1 O X
tan 120° = V3 √3
-1
1 1
cot 120° =
3 3
3 2 -
vers 120° = 1 - sec 120° = 2
1
√3 2 2
covers 120° = 1 - csc 120° = = √3
2 √3 3

Functions of 135°. From the figure and definitions it is

evident that

1 1
sin 135° = 2
√2 2 P
1 √2
cos 135° = √2 135°
√2
1 X' A -1 ΤΟ X
tan 135° = = 1

-1
cot 135° = -1

√2
sec 135° = √2 vers 135 ° = 1 + 1½√2
1

csc 135° = √2 = /2 covers 135° = 1 - √2

1
 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 17

Functions of 150 °. From the figure and definitions it is

evident that

sin 150° =12

√3 150°
cos 150° =
2 1
X' A -√3 ΤΟ X
1 1
tan 150° = = √3
-V3 3

cot 150° = - √3 3
1
213

100
sec 150° vers 150° = 1+ √3
√3

12

1/2
2
csc 150° = =2 covers 150° = 1 - =
1

PROBLEM. Find the values of the trigonometric functions

of 210°, 225°, 240°, 300°, 315°, and 330°.

24. Signs of the trigonometric ratios. The signs of the

trigonometric ratios of any angle depend upon the signs
of the ordinate, the abscissa, and the distance of any point
on its terminal line. As the terminal line passes from
one quadrant to another, there is always a change of
sign in either the abscissa or the ordinate of any point
on that line, but the distance remains positive. When a
coördinate changes its sign, every trigonometric ratio de-
pendent upon it must also change its sign.
The following table is constructed by taking account of
the signs of the abscissa x and of the ordinate y, and re-
membering that the distance r is always positive. It gives
the sign of each trigonometric ratio of an angle terminating
in any quadrant.
18 TRIGONOMETRY

1st Quadrant 2d Quadrant 3d Quadrant 4th Quadrant

11+

11+
+1+
sin a

++
+

။
+11
11+

+1 ++
COS α +
+ |+

||

1+
11+
tan a
||

||
+| +

|||
+

1
||+ | +||

cot a
||
++

T
I
||

--
I

sec a 1+
++

+|+
+
+
||

+1+

CSC α = +

+ ||
+1
++

|
25. Theorem. For every given angle there is one and only
one value of each trigonometric function.
The theorem is demonstrated
for the sine of an angle. The
same method is applicable to
α each of the remaining functions.
A2 A1 Let a be any angle. Refer-
X' X
ring to Art. 21 , it is clear that
if it be possible to obtain two
or more values for sin a they
must be obtained by taking dif-
ferent points on the terminal line.
Let P and P₂2 be any two points on the terminal line.
Then by definition
AP2 .
sin α = ᎪᏢ
AP , or sin α =
OP₁ OP
But since the right triangles OАи and ОАР, are similar,
 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 19

and have their corresponding sides in the same direction, it

follows that A₁P1 = AP2
OP₁ OP2
Hence the value of sin a is independent of the position of
the point chosen on the terminal line, but depends solely
upon the position of the terminal line, i.e. upon the angle.
The above theorem may be stated as follows : The trigo-
nometric functions are single-valued functions of the angle.
26. Theorem. Every given value of a trigonometric func-
tion determines an unlimited or infinite number of positive
and negative angles, among which there are always two positive
angles less than 360°.
The theorem is demonstrated for a given tangent. A
similar method is applicable to the remaining functions.
Let tan α = m where m Y
n
and n are positive numbers . P απ
Then απ
m
m
tan α = + m X' A1 -n
n A₂
—n +n -m X
Locate the point P₁, whose
abscissa is - n, and whose
ordinate is m . This point
and the origin determine the terminal line of the angle a₁,
m•
whose tangent is
η
Likewise the point P2 is located by using m and n as
ordinate and abscissa respectively. Drawing the terminal
line OP2, a second angle a is found , which also has the
given tangent.
The angles a and a2, are evidently less than 360° , and
m•
have the given tangent - There is an unlimited num-
n
ber of positive and negative angles coterminal with a₁ and
a2, all of which have the given tangent. Hence the theorem.
20 TRIGONOMETRY

27. EXAMPLES

In what quadrants does a terminate when

calco
1. sin α = - 11/ 3. tan α 5. 5. sin α =
2. cos α = } 4. cot a = - 8. 6. cos α = 융.
7. sin a is positive and cos a is negative.
8. tan a is positive and cos a is negative.
9. cosec a is negative and cos a is negative.
10. tan a is negative and sin α
a is positive.
11. cos a is negative and sin a is negative.
Give the signs of the trigonometric functions of the fol-
lowing angles :
12. 750°. 14. 560°. 16. - 15°. 18. - 470°.
5π 7π
13. 8 π 15. 5 . 17. 19.
3 6
Find the negative angles, numerically less than 360°, that
are coterminal with the following angles :
10π
10 π 3п
20. 22. 300°. 24.
3 2
2π
2 T 23 .
21. π. 25. - 495°
3
26. Construct the positive angles , less than 360°, for which
the sine is equal to %, and find the values of the other func-
tions of both angles.
SOLUTION. Determine the points
whose ordinates are 2 and whose
distances are 5, as follows :
With O as center and a radius 5,
P describe a circle. Through a point
P
5 on the Y-axis, 2 units above the
2 a2 5
α1 2 origin, draw a line parallel to the
X' A2 -√21 ΤΟ V21 A₁ X X-axis, intersecting the circle in
the two required points P₁ and P2.
Draw the terminal lines OP₁ and
OP2, giving the angles a₁ and α2, for
which we have
 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 21

225
sin α1 = and sin α2:=
៖
21
COS α1 = √21 COS α2 = -V
5
tan α₂ = 2

ཨ
tan α1 = √21 √21
21 /21 21

cot α1 = √21 - √21

cot α2 =
2
5 5
sec α1 = √21 sec α2 = √21
21 21 √21
5
CSC α1 = CSC α2 = 5
2 2

27. Construct the positive angles, less than 360°, for

which the cosine is 3 , and find the values of the other func-
tions of both angles.
Find the values of the functions of all angles less than
360° determined by
28. tan α = - 9. 32. sin α = - ૐ
α
29. cot α = 11. 33. sin α =
b
30. csc α = 31. 34. cos α = .4.

31. cot a = —
- 5.
sin a cos a
35. Given tan α = — 4, find the value of
cot a
sin² a + cos² α
36. Given sec a = 6; find the value of
cos² α
37. Given sin α = .3, find the value of tan a sec a cos α.
38. Given csc α = 8 and tan ẞ = 3, find the value of
sin a cos B + cos α sin ß.
39. Given tan a = and cos ẞ = -√5, a terminating
in the first quadrant and ẞ in the second, show that the angle
between the terminal lines of a and ẞ is a right angle.
 CHAPTER III

RIGHT TRIANGLES

28. In every triangle there are six elements or parts.

These are the three sides and the three angles.
When three elements are given, one of which is a side,
the other three elements can be determined.
The solution of a triangle is the process of determining
the unknown parts from the given parts.
In the present chapter it will be shown how the trigono-
metric functions can be employed to solve the right triangle.

29. Applications of definitions of the trigonometric func-

tions to the right triangle. Let ABC be any right tri-
angle. Place the triangle in the first quadrant with the
vertex of one acute angle coinciding with the origin, and
one side, not the hypotenuse, coinciding with the X-axis, as
in the figure.
Y

α
с α
α
to
/

X' b X
A
b

Then, by definitions,
a side opposite
sin a =
сhypotenuse
b side adjacent
cos α = =
C hypotenuse
22
 RIGHT TRIANGLES 23

side opposite
tan a =
b side adjacent
b side adjacent
cot a =
a side opposite
C
sec α = = hypotenuse
b side adjacent
C
CSC α == hypotenuse
a side opposite

It is seen that the functions of any acute angle of a right

triangle are expressed in terms of the side adjacent, the
side opposite, and the hypotenuse, without reference to the
coordinate axes.
It follows that

‫ܙܕܩ‬8
sin ẞ = b cot B =

|| 018
cos B = sec B =
C
tan B = 0
||

csc B
α

30. Trigonometric tables. In the preceding chapter the

trigonometric functions of 30°, 45°, and 60° were calculated.
By processes too complicated to introduce here, tables have
been computed, giving the values of the trigonometric func-
tions of acute angles. These tables generally contain two
parts. In one part the values of the functions, called
natural functions, are given ; in the other part the logarithms
of the trigonometric functions, called logarithmic functions,
are given.
When an angle is given its trigonometric functions can
be taken from the tables , and vice versa. The functions of
known angles thus become known numbers and can be used
in problems of computation.
.
Approximate values of the trigonometric functions can be
obtained by graphical methods.
 24 TRIGONOMETRY

PROBLEM. Measure the distance, abscissas and ordinates

of the points a, b, c, · • • " j. From these measurements
compute to two figures the sine, cosine, and tangent of 0°,
10°, 20°, " 90°. By arranging the results in tabular
form, a two place table is constructed.
90°
80°
i
70°
h
60°
9

50°

40°

3.0 °

20°

b 10°

‫السسلسلا‬
‫م‬

This table may be used to solve Examples 1 to 6, Art. 36.

On account of its extreme simplicity the use of this table
allows the attention to be focused upon the fundamental
processes involved in the solution of triangles.
 RIGHT TRIANGLES 25

31. Formulas used in the solution of right triangles. A

right triangle can always be solved when , in addition to
the right angle y, two independent parts are given. The
formulas usually employed are :
sin α = α sin B = α + B = 90°
C a² + b² = c²
b
COS α = cos B:=
с
α b
tan α = tan B = -
b α
When the computations are made without logarithms ,
the formulas involving the cotangent, secant, and cosecant
may sometimes be used advantageously.
32. Selection of formulas.
(a) If an angle and a side are given, it is always possible
to find the unknown parts directly from the given parts
without the use of the formula a² + b² = c². To find the
unknown side, select that formula which contains the given
parts and the desired unknown side. The unknown angle
can always be found from a + ß = 90°.
(b) If two sides are given, the third side would naturally
be found by the use of a² + b² = c², but in practice it is
generally preferable first to compute an angle by the use of
a formula involving the given sides and an angle. To find
the third side, select a formula containing one of the given
sides, the angle already computed, and the required side.
33. Check formulas. In all computations it is necessary
constantly to guard against numerical errors . However
carefully the computations are made, errors may still occur,
and therefore computed parts should be checked by means
of check formulas . Any formula which was not used in
the solution of the triangle may be used for this purpose.
For the right triangle the formula
a² = c² -— b² = (c— b) (c + b)
may conveniently be used , and in general it is sufficient.
26 TRIGONOMETRY

34. Suggestions on solving a triangle. Make a careful

free-hand construction of the required triangle, and write
down an estimate of the values of the unknown parts .
Large errors will be detected readily, without the use of
check formulas, when the computed parts are compared
with the estimates.
Before entering the tables, and before making any com-
putations, select all the formulas to be used, solve the
formulas for the required parts, and make an outline in
which a place is provided for every number to be used in
the computation. This will often lessen the actual work,
for frequently several required numbers are found on the
same page of the table.
The arrangement of the work is of considerable impor-
tance in every extended computation.
35. Illustrative examples.
1. In a right triangle, given b = 14, α = 35°, to find a, c,
and B.
SOLUTION. Approximate construction.
Estimate a = 9, c = 17. a
By natural functions
tan α = α COS α = b a=35°
b с b =14
b Check
... ab tan a ..C = B = 90° -α
COS α c² = a² + b²
a = 14 x .7002 c = 14.8192 B = 55° a2 = 96.10
a = 9.80 3 c = 17.09 b2 = 196.0
292.1
c² = ( 17.09) ² = 292.1
By logarithms
a = b tan a C= b B = 90° - α
COS α
b 14 log b B=
α 35° log cos a
log b log c
log tan a C
log a
α
 RIGHT TRIANGLES 27

Check

a² = c² - b² = (c − b) (c + b)
с log (c - b)
b log (c + b)
c- b 2 loga
c+ b log a

Filling in the above outline , the completed work appears as follows :

a = b tan α C= b B = 90° - α
COS α
b 14 log b 1.14613 B = 55°
α 35° log cos α 9.91336-10
log b 1.14613 log c 1.23277
log tan α 9.84523-10 с 17.091
log a 0.99136
a 9.8030

Check

a² = c² — b² = (c − b) (c + b)
с 17.091 log (cb) 0.49010
b 14. log (c + b) 1.49263
C --b 3.091 2 log a 1.98273
c + b 31.091 log a 0.99136

Since the check formula gives the same value for log a as that found
in the solution, the computation is in all probability correct.

2. In a right triangle, given c = 6.275, ẞ = 18 ° 47', to find

a, b, and a.
SOLUTION. Approximate construction.
Estimated a = 5, b = 2.
By natural functions Check
a = c cos B b = c sin ß c² = a² + b²
α = 6.275 x .9468 b = 6.275 x .3220 a² = 35.30
a = 5.941 b = 2.021 b2 = 4.084
α = 90° - ẞ 39.384
α = 71° 13/ c² = (6.275) ² = 39.38 b
28 TRIGONOMETRY

By logarithms
a = c cos B b = c sin ß α = 90° - ẞ
C 6.275 log c 0.79761 α = 71° 13'
B 18° 47' log sin ẞ 9.50784 - 10
log c 0.79761 log b 0.30545
log cos B 9.97623 - 10 b 2.0205
log a 0.77384
a 5.9407

Check

a² = c2 - b² = ( c − b) (c + b)
с 6.275 log (cb) 0.62885
b 2.0205 log (c + b) 0.91884
с b 4.2545 2 log a 1.54769
c + b 8.2955 log a 0.77384

3. Given a = .064873 , b = .12574 , to

find a, ẞ, and c.
α
SOLUTION. Approximate construction .
Estimate απ 30°, 60°, c = .15.

tan α = α c = _a
b sin a

α .064873 log a 8.8120610

b .12574 log sin α 9.66133 10
log a 8.81206 10 log c 9.1507310
log b 9.09948 - 10 с .14149
t log tan a 9.71258 - 10
α 27° 17' 23'
B 62° 42' 37"

Check

a² = (c− b) (c + b)
с .14149 log (c - b) 8.19728-10
b .12574 log (c + b) 9.42689 -- 10
C-- b .01575 2 log a 17.62417 20
c +b.26723 log a 8.81208 - 10
 RIGHT TRIANGLES 29

36. EXAMPLES

Solve the following right triangles, y being the right

angle. It is recommended that the first ten problems be
solved by the use of a three-place table of natural func-
tions, or by means of a slide rule.
1. a = 6 c = .0091
α = 20° a = .0029

2. c = 2.5 7. b = 371
α = 35° α = 43°

3. b = .84 8. c 7.72
B = 75° b = 6.87

4. α = 25 9. α = 18°
b = 60 c = .0938

5. c = 82 10. B = 49° 30'

a = 37 c = 12.47

The following problems should be solved by the use of

a four-place * or a five-place table.
11. a 1870 16. c 12.145
α = 19° 55' a = 9.321

12. c = .3194 17. b = 78.545

α = 25° 41' α = 31° 41′ 6″

13. b.9292 18. b = 3.4572

В = 32° 43' B = 57° 57' 57"

14. a = .00006 19. c20.082

b = .000019 b = 16.174

15. c 1200.7 20. a 78° 0' 3"

a = 885.6 a = 271.82
* Whenever sides are given to four significant figures and angles to
minutes.
30 TRIGONOMETRY

21. a = 5987.2 26. B = 83 ° 15 ′ 6″

B =88° 53′ 2" c = 7000
22. c.09008 27. α = 66° 6' 18"
a = .07654 C = 8070.6

23. α = 46° 39' 50" 28. a 978.45

α = 26.434 b = 1067.2

24. a 30.008 29. a = 5280

b = 29.924 b = 5608

25. a == 111.45 30. a = 17° 26' 34"

b = 121.69 c = 46.474

31. Solve the isosceles triangle, one of the equal sides

being 690.13 , and one of the base angles being 15° 20′ 25 ″.

32. Solve the isosceles triangle whose altitude is 606.6,

one of the equal sides being 955.7.

33. Solve the isosceles triangle whose base is 2558, and

whose vertical angle is 104° 0′ 46″.

34. Solve the isosceles triangle whose base is 161.4, and

whose altitude is 204.4.

35. Find the length of a side of a regular octagon in-

scribed in a circle whose radius is 49.

37. Oblique triangles. When any three independent parts

of an oblique triangle are given it can be solved by means
of right triangles . The oblique triangle may be divided
into two right triangles by drawing a perpendicular from
one vertex to the opposite side, or the opposite side pro-
duced.
When one of the given parts is an angle, the perpendicu-
lar must be selected so that one of the resulting right
triangles will contain two of the given parts.
In case the three sides are given, a second part of one of
 RIGHT TRIANGLES 31

the right triangles can be obtained by equating the expres-

sions for the length of the perpendicular obtained from each
right triangle.
Thus a²x² = b² —
- (c - x) 2,
α
a² — b² + c²
from which x=
2c <----X

38. APPLICATIONS
1. To find the distance from B to C, two points on op-
posite sides of a river, a line BA, 200 feet long, was laid off
at right angles to the line BC, and the angle BAC was
Jand

measured and found to equal 55° 29'. What was the re-
quired distance ?
2. A railway is inclined 4° 23 ' 20" to the horizontal.
How many feet does it rise per mile, measured along the
horizontal ?

3. From the top of a tower 120 feet high the angle of

depression of an object in the horizontal plane of the base
of the tower is 24° 27'. How far is the object from the foot
of the tower ? How far from the observer ?
Given any point A and a second point B at a greater elevation
than A.
B
The angle of elevation of B from A is the
B
angle that the line AB makes with its orthogonal
projection upon the horizontal plane through A.
In the figure it is the angle α.
A
The angle of depression of A from B is the
angle that the line BA makes with its orthogonal projection upon the
horizontal plane through B. In the figure it is the angle ß. It is clear
that α =
= B.
4. Find the length of one side of a regular pentagon
inscribed in a circle whose radius is 18.24 feet.

5. Find the perimeter of a regular polygon of n sides

inscribed in a circle whose radius is r.
32 TRIGONOMETRY

6. Find the perimeter of a regular pentagon circum-

scribed about a circle whose radius is 18.24 feet.

7. Find the perimeter of a regular polygon of n sides

circumscribed about a circle whose radius is r.

8. Find the length of a chord subtending a central angle

of 63° 14′ 20″ in a circle whose radius is 124.93 feet.

9. A straight road, PR, makes an angle of 19° 27' 30"

with another straight road, PS. Having given PR = 640
feet, find RS, the perpendicular distance from R to PS.
10. At a certain point the angle of elevation of a moun-
tain is 34° 28'. At a second point 500 feet farther away,
the angle of elevation is 31° 12′. Find the height of the
mountain above the table-land .

11. One side of the square base of a right pyramid is 15

inches, and the altitude is 20 inches. Find the slant height
and the edge. Find the inclination of a face to the base of
the pyramid.
12. How far can you see from an elevation of 2000 feet,
assuming the earth to be a sphere with a radius of 3960
miles ?

13. Two forces of 95.75 pounds and 120.25 pounds , at

right angles to each other, act at a point ; find the magnitude
of their resultant and the angle it makes with the greater
force.

14. Find the velocity of a point, whose latitude is

44° 30' 20", due to the rotation of the earth. Assume the
radius of the earth to be 3960 miles .

15. Find the length of a belt running around two pulleys

whose radii are 12 inches and 4 inches, respectively, the
distance between the centers of the pulleys being 6 feet.

16. A diagonal of a cube and a diagonal of a face of a

cube intersect at a vertex. Find the angle between them.
 RIGHT TRIANGLES 33

17. A force of 2000 pounds applied at the origin makes

an angle of 33° 25 ' with the positive X-axis. Find its
components along the X and Y axes respectively.
18. A force of 185 pounds applied at the origin makes an
angle of 82° 12′ with the positive X-axis. Another force of
327 pounds applied at the origin makes an angle of 11° 32′
with the positive X-axis. Find the X and Y components
of each of these forces. Add the X- components and also
the Y-components and then find the resultant in magnitude
and direction.

19. A cylindrical tank, whose axis is horizontal , is 8 feet

in diameter and 12 feet long. The tank is partly filled with
water, so that the depth of the water at the deepest point is
3 feet. How many gallons of water are in the tank, there
being 7 gallons in a cubic foot ?
20. A man who can paddle his canoe 5 miles per hour in
still water paddles at his usual rate directly across a river
one-half mile wide. If the river flows 4 miles per hour,
where will the canoe land and what is its speed in the water ?

है

2
 CHAPTER IV

VARIATIONS OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

REDUCTION OF FUNCTIONS OF n 90° ± a

39. In the study of the variations of the trigonometric

functions, their values at 0°, 90°, 180°, 270 °, and 360° are of
special importance.
Values of functions of 0°. The terminal line of 0° coin-
cides with the positive X-axis. For a point on this line, at
a distance r from the origin, we have
x = r, y=0
Hence
0=
sin 0° = cot 0° === ∞
r 0

818
X' Χ r
cos 0° === 1 sec 0° = =1
r r

tan 0° = csc 0° = * = ∞

Values of functions of 90°. The terminal line of 90° coin-

cides with the positive Y-axis , therefore
x = 0, y = r.
Hence

sin 90° = r
-=1 cot 90° =
r r
018

X'
810

X
cos 90° === 0 sec 90° = =∞

r r
-10

tan 90° === ∞ csc 90° =- = 1

2°

* For the interpretation of see any College Algebra.

0
34
 VARIATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 35

Values of functions of 180°. The terminal line of 180° co-

incides with the negative X-axis,
therefore
X - - r, y = 0.
Hence P
X' X
sin 180° = =

-r
cos 180° = 1
r
r
tan 180°:= = sec 180° = = 1
-2° -2°
r ∞ = r
cot 180° ==" csc 180°:= =∞
0

Values of functions of 270°. The terminal line of 270°

coincides with the negative Y-axis, therefore

x = 0, y = -r
Hence
0
sin 270° -1 cot 270° = =0
r -r
X
0 2°
cos 270° = =0 sec 270° = =∞ +
γ 0

tan 270° = 7 8 r
=1 csc 270° = = 1
-~

The values of the functions of 360° are identical with the

values of the functions of 0°, since these angles are
coterminal .

40. Variation of the functions. It has been shown that

the trigonometric functions are functions of an angle. As
the angle varies, the trigonometric functions depending upon
the angle also vary.
36 TRIGONOMETRY

Let the line OP, of fixed

length r, revolve about O
from the initial position OX.
y α r P Then the angle XOP or α
20 на ху increases from 0° to 360°.
18
XI

Χ х Ox X
� The variations of the trigo-
2

r &
nometric functions can be
P P traced by observing the
changes in the abscissa and
ordinate of the point P.

α increases from 0° to 90°,

a. As the angle a
y increases from 0 to r,
and a decreases from r to 0.
Hence
sin a or is positive and increases from 0 to 1
818

cos a or is positive and decreases from 1 to 0

814

tan a or У is positive and increases from 0 to ∞

812

cot a or is positive and decreases from co to 0

y

sec a or is positive and increases from 1 to ∞o

x
CSC α or is positive and decreases from ∞ to 1
y
As the angle a increases through 90°, x passes through
zero, changing from a positive number to a negative num-
X
ber. Then, immediately before a becomes 90° , cos a or
r
is a very small positive number ; while immediately after
a has passed 90°, cos a is a very small negative number.
This may be expressed by saying that cos a passes through
zero and changes sign as a passes through 90°.
 VARIATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 37

Likewise, immediately before a becomes 90°, tan a or y

x
is a very large positive number ; while immediately after
a has passed 90°, tan a is a very large negative number.
It has been seen that tan 90° ∞ . Hence tan a passes
through ∞ and changes sign as a passes through 90°.
Hence we may say that tan 90° = ± ∞ , choosing the posi-
tive sign when associating 90° with the first quadrant and
the negative sign when associating 90° with the second
quadrant.
Similarly, whenever a trigonometric function passes through
it changes sign.
b. As the angle a increases from 90° to 180°,
y decreases from r to 0,
and a decreases from 0 to - γ.
Hence
sin α or is positive and decreases from 1 to 0
r
x
cos α or is negative and decreases from 0 to - 1
2°

tan a or Y is negative and increases from ∞ to 0

x

cot a or ≈ is negative and decreases from 0 to --

y
sec a or is negative and increases from - ∞ to -1
X

csc α or is positive and increases from 1 to + ∞

y
c. As the angle a increases through 180°, y passes through
zero, changing from a positive number to a negative number.
As the angle α
a increases from 180° to 270°,
y decreases from 0 to - r,
and a increases from - r to 0.
Hence
sin α or Y is negative and decreases from 0 to − 1
r
38 TRIGONOMETRY

818
cos α or - is negative and increases from -1 to 0

tan a or y is positive and increases from 0 to + ∞

x

X
cot a or is positive and decreases from + ∞ to 0
y

is negative and decreases from -1 to -

∞
sec a or
x

CSC α or is negative and increases from -- ∞ to www 1

y

d. As the angle a increases through 270°, x passes through

zero, changing from a negative number to a positive
number.
As the angle a increases from 270° to 360°,
y increases from - r to 0,
and x increases from 0 to r.
Hence
sin α or y is negative and increases from -1 to 0

x
cos α or - is positive and increases from 0 to 1

tan & or y is negative and increases from - ∞ to 0

х

x
cot a or is negative and decreases from 0 to -
∞
y
r
sec a or - is positive and decreases from + ∞ to 1
X

2°
CSC α or is negative and decreases from - 1 to 81
y
The above results are presented in tabular form.
 VARIATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 39

1st QUADRANT 2d QUADRANT | 3d QUADRANT 4th QUADRANT

00 90° 180° 270° 360°
sin α= y +0 inc. + 1 + 1 dec. + 0 - 0 dec. - 1 - 1 inc. 0
r
х
cos α = + 1 dec. + 0 - 0 dec. - 1 - 1 inc. -- 0 + 0 inc. + 1

tan α = + 0 inc. +∞ -∞ inc. - 0 + 0 inc. + ∞ -∞ inc. - 0

x
X
cot α= + ∞ dec. +0 - 0 dec. +∞ dec. + 0 -- 0 dec. 81
y
2
sec α = - + 1 inc. + ∞ -∞ inc. -- 1 - 1 dec. 81
+ ∞ dec. + 1
х
r
CSC α = - + dec. + 1 + 1 inc. +∞ -∞ inc. - 1 - 1 dec.
8-
y
It is thus seen that the sine and cosine can never be
greater than +1 nor less than -1, while the secant and
cosecant have no values between +1 and -1 , but have
values ranging from +1 to + ∞ and from - 1 to ∞ .
The tangent and cotangent may
have any value from + ∞ to - ∞ . α sin a α tan a
OKO FIT F / S FIN

31/2

41. Graphical representation. A 0 0 0

113

graphical representation of the trigo π

nometric functions is effected by first 6
12 12

П
locating points using the different √2 1
4
values of the angle as abscissas and π π
the corresponding function-values as √3
ordinates, and then drawing a smooth π 1
8

curve through these points taken in

12 12

100

the order of increasing angles. 2π 2π √3

The values of the functions of 3 3
3п 3п -1
the angles previously calculated are √2
4
sufficient to determine an approxi-
112 0

5п √3
mate graph. For greater accuracy 6 6 3
the values of the functions may be π π
113

taken from the table of natural 7π 7π

6 √3
functions. 6
-

etc. etc.
མ
40 TRIGONOMETRY

Sine Curve y = sin x

7π574π 3π5777117
T643 2 346
2π3π5π 2π 3π ATX
O 46

Tangent Curve y = tan x

2π 377577
πT 2π 3π
77 1

The sine and tangent curves illustrate the truth of the

theorems of Arts. 25 and 26.
3п
Thus for any given value of the angle, as there is but
4
one value of each function , the curves showing the sine and
tangent to be √2 and -1 respectively.
But for any given value of a trigonometric function, as
sin a = , there are an unlimited number of angles, as
π п
6' 56 ', 21 , 28 , etc.
Also for tan α = √3 we see that a may have the values
π
1 , 2 , 3 , etc.

42. Periodicity of the trigonometric functions. From the

sine curve it is readily seen that the sine is 0 when the
 VARIATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 41

angle is 0, and that it increases to 1 as the angle increases to

π
At this point the sine begins to decrease and has the
2*
value 0 when the angle is π, and finally reaches the value
п
-1 when the angle is 3 ; then the sine again begins to in-
2
crease and has the value 0 when the angle has the value 2π.
When the angle increases from 2 to 4 π, the sine repeats
its values of the interval from 0 to 2π. If the angle were
increased indefinitely, the sine would repeat its values for
each interval of 2π. For this reason the sine is called a
periodic function, and 2 π is its period .
A study of the tangent curve shows that the tangent has
the same values between 0 and that it has between and
2π or between 2 and 3π. Hence the tangent is also a
periodic function having the period π.

43. EXAMPLES

1. Plot y = cos x and give the period of the cosine.

2. Plot ycot x and give the period of the cotangent.
3. Plot y = sec x and give the period of the secant.
4. Plot y csc x and give the period of the cosecant.
5. Plot y sin x + cos 2.
6. Plot y = x + sin x.
42 TRIGONOMETRY

REDUCTION OF FUNCTIONS OF n 90° ± a

44. The formulas to be developed in this section enable

us to express any function of any angle in terms of a func-
tion of an angle differing from the given angle by any
multiple of 90°. They may be used to express any func-
tion of any angle in terms of a function of an angle less
than 90° or less than 45°.

45. Functions of a in terms of functions of a (n = 0).

Let XOP be any positive angle and XOP' a numerically
equal negative angle.

r P P T
a х y y α
x
X' -α x ' y' X X' ac X
y
Up' P
PD

ྋ་ P'
y
88

88
SP

X' X X' ac
y X
SP

y
T -a

Then taking OP' = OP we have, for each figure,

x' = x, y' ==-Y, зов = r,

where x, y, r and x', y', r' are associated with P and P'
respectively.
Then in each quadrant
y
sin ( − a) ==== — sin a

= COS α
α) = == = = =
cos (— a)
 VARIATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 43

tan ( − a) = 1 = — y =- tan a
x
20 х
cot (-a): = = cot α
y
- α):=
sec (― = = sec α
x
↑
csc (-a): = CSC α
y' -y

46. Functions of 90° + a in terms of functions of a(n = 1) .

Let XOP be any positive angle a and XOP' the angle
90° + α.
Then taking OP' := OP we have, for each figure,
x² = ― y, y' = x, r' = r,

where x, y, r and x', y', ' are associated with P and P'
respectively.

P
r γ
y y
x
X' ac X X х
20

Similar figures can be constructed for the other quadrants.

Then in each quadrant
x
sin (90° + α)= = COS α
r
-
cos (90° + α) = = sin α
r

tan (90° + a) = 1 = 24 cot a

y
44 TRIGONOMETRY

- У
cot (90° + α) = = tan α
y' x
r
sec (90° + α) = = = CSC α
y
r
csc (90° + α) == = = sec α
y' x

47. Functions of 90° — a in terms of functions of a (n = 1) .

Let XOP be any positive angle and XOP' the angle
90° α.
Then taking OP' = OP we have, for each figure,
x' = y, y' = x, r' = r.
Y

y' P
r
190- a y a
2

α
20

X' x X X' x X
y 90-
༤.

P' y
3

P
९९९९९९

Similar figures can be constructed for the other quadrants.

Then in each quadrant
812

sin (90° - α) - = COS α

34

cos (90° ― α)= - y = sin a

/8
९
९

৪। ১ ১ ৪

tan (90° α) = = cot a

- = tan a
||

cot (90° - α) =
y' x
2°
||

sec (90° α): = CSC α

১৯

2°
csc (90° a) = = sec α
8

y'
 VARIATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 45

48. Functions of 180° — a in terms of functions of a (n = 2) .

Let XOP be any positive angle and XOP' the angle
180° - α.
Then taking OP' = OP we have, for each figure,
=- x, y' = y, r' = r.

P' Y P

180
૨ х
X' x X X' X
y y
r 186-0 r

Similar figures can be constructed for the other quadrants.

Then in each quadrant

sin (180° - a) = . = y = sin α

x
cos (180° ― α) = cos a
r
|

= y tan a
s

tan (180° — α) =
X
х
cot (180° -
— α) = cot a
||

sec (180° - α) = = r sec a

X
r
csc (180° — α): = = = CSC α
y' y

49. Laws of reduction. The method of the last four

articles may be applied to any angle of the form n 90° a
to obtain formulas of reduction for all positive and negative
integral values of n, a being any angle. A complete inves-
tigation would show the following laws to be true :
46 TRIGONOMETRY

When n is even, any function of n 90° ± a is numerically

equal to the same function of a ; when n is odd, any function
ofn 90° a is numerically equal to the cofunction of a.
If the function of n 90° ± a is positive, a being considered
acute, the members of the equation have like signs ; if the
function of n 90° ± a is negative, a being considered acute,
the members of the equation have unlike signs. The results
thus obtained are valid for all positive and negative values
of α.

50. EXAMPLES

Express as functions of a positive angle less than 90° :

1. sin 130°.
SUGGESTION. 130° = 90° + 40°, or 130° 180° 50°.
2. cos 170°. 5. cos (-20°) .
3. tan 110°. 6. tan ( -80 °).
4. cot 160°. 7. sin (-120°).

Express as functions of 0 :
8. sin (810 ° --
— 0). 12. tan (0-180°) .
9. tan (360° -0). 13. sec (-180° — 0) .
10. cot (270° +0). 14. csc (-630° +0).
11. sin (0-90°). 15. cos (990° — 0).

Express each of the trigonometric functions of the follow-

ing angles as functions of a without using the laws of
reduction.

16. 180° + α. 18. 270° + α.

17. 270° - α. 19. 360° - α.
 V
Reston
diaph
та

learnt

CHAPTER V

FUNDAMENTAL RELATIONS. LINE VALUES

51. In the present chapter eight fundamental relations

between the trigonometric functions are developed . It is
then shown that each trigonometric function may be repre-
sented geometrically by a single line, giving the so-called
line values. This gives a second view of the trigonometric
functions. The line values offer a simple method of demon-
strating the fundamental relations, and of developing the
properties already derived by means of the trigonometric
ratios . In fact the line values might serve as the funda-
mental definitions of the trigonometric functions and thus
trigonometry could be based upon these values . Inciden-
tally the line values suggest the origin of some of the terms
used to designate the several trigonometric functions .

FUNDAMENTAL RELATIONS
52. Certain relations of fundamental importance exist
between the trigonometric functions of an angle . These
will now be developed .
From definitions,
sin α = y 2

r 1
CSC α = ... sin a = (1)
y csc a

х
COS α = -,
r
r 1
sec α-· .. cos a = • (2)
x sec a

47
48 TRIGONOMETRY

tan α = y
x
20 1
cot α = -. ... tan a = •
cot a (3)
y

sin α = y
818
COS α = -,

sin a
tan α = y = tan a.
x cos a (4)

x
cot α == cos a
and = cot a . (5)
y sin a

From geometry, y² + x² = r².

Dividing successively by r2, 22, and y²,
y² , x² -
+ : 1, ... sin² a cos² a = 1 . (6)
*
}

y2 1
+ .. tan² a + 1 = sec² α. (7)
x2 x2'
¥

x2 7.2
+1 = ... cot² a + 1 = csc² α. (8)
y2 y2'

These eight formulas are called the fundamental relations.

They are used frequently, and should be memorized. In
doing this, it is well to have the method of derivation
clearly in mind.

53. The use of exponents. In affecting trigonometric

functions with exponents, the exponent is usually placed
immediately after the function. Thus, in the formulas of
the preceding article , sin² a is identical in meaning with
(sin a) ², and tan² a is identical with (tan α) ².
An exception to the above is made for the exponent - 1,
in which case it is always necessary to make use of paren-
 FUNDAMENTAL RELATIONS 49

1
theses. Thus, (cos a)-1 is used to express while
COS α
cos¹a has an entirely different meaning, as will be ex-
plained later.
54. Trigonometric identities. An identical equation , or
an identity, is an equation which is satisfied for all values
of the unknown quantities. The eight fundamental rela-
tions are trigonometric identities. There are many other
identities depending upon these.
The truth of an identity can be established in two ways :
First. Begin with one of the fundamental relations, and
produce the given identity by means of the fundamental
relations and algebraic principles.
Second. Begin with the given identity and transform it
to one of the fundamental relations , or reduce one member
of the equation to the other by means of the fundamental
relations and algebraic principles.
The choice of the trigonometric transformations neces-
sary to effect the reductions is often suggested by the
functions involved in the given problem. When no trans-
formation is thus suggested , the problem may generally be
simplified by expressing each of the functions in terms
of sines and cosines, and making use of the relation
sin² a + cos² α = 1.
Avoid the use of radicals whenever possible.
55. Trigonometric equations. A conditional equation is
an equation which is not satisfied for all values of the
unknown quantity, but is satisfied only for particular values.
(a) Trigonometric equations involving different trigono-
metric functions of the same angle may often be solved by
simplifying the equation by the use of the fundamental
relations. Thus sin α = cos α
sin α
may be written - 1 or tan α = 1
COS α
..α = 45° or 225°.
50 TRIGONOMETRY

(b) Some equations may conveniently be solved by trans-

posing all of the terms to the first member of the equation,
factoring, and then placing each factor equal to zero. Thus
2 sin² a + √3 cos a = 2√3 sin a cos a + sin a
may be written
a) = 0
sin a(2 sin a -1) + √3 cos a (1-2 sin α)
or
(sin a√3 cos a) (2 sin α - 1) = 0.
This equation is satisfied if either
sin α -V c α = 0 or 2 sin α- 1 = 0
√3 cos
whence tan α = √3 or sin α = 1.

. * . α = 60°, 240° or a = 30°, 150°.

(c) When no other method suggests itself, the equation
may be transformed , by the use of the fundamental rela-
tions, into an equation containing only one function . The
equation thus obtained may be solved algebraically for the
function involved , from which the values of the angle may
be obtained . Thus
2 -
10 cos³ a tan α - 9 cos² α 10 sin a + 9 = 0
CSC α

10 sin α (1 - - sin² α) -
− sin² α) — 9 (1 — — 12 sin a + 9 = 0
10 sin α ― - 10 sin³ a +9 sin² a - - 12 sin α = 0
... sin α = 0 or 10 sin² a - 9 sin a +2 = 0
from which sin α = 0,, or .
.. α = 0°, 23° 35', 30°, 150°, 156° 25 ', or 180°.
A trigonometric equation is considered completely solved
when every positive angle less than 360° which satisfies it
has been determined. All other angles coterminal with
these angles also satisfy the equation.
In the solution of trigonometric equations extraneous
roots may occur. These may be detected by substitution in
the original equation.
 FUNDAMENTAL RELATIONS 51

56. EXAMPLES

Prove the following trigonometric identities :

1. sin 0 = cos 0 tan 0. cot 0
3. cos 0 =
2. tan sin 0 sec 0. CSC 0

4. (1 − sin x) (1 + sin x) = cos² î.

5. (secx -tan x) (sec x + tan x) = 1.
6. (sin x + cos x)² = 2 sin x cos x + 1.

√1 + cot² x
7. = sec x.
cot x

8. cos² a tan² a + sin² a cot² a = 1.

9. Given cos α = §, a being in the fourth quadrant , find
the values of the remaining trigonometric functions .
SOLUTION. Since sin² a + cos² α = 1,
sin2 a = 1 cos² α = 1 − = {f.
.. sin α = - 56
Also tan α = sin a - V14 =-· √14 ;
COS α 50
1 1 5
cot α = == V14 ;
tan a √14 2√14
1 =1 =
sec α =
COS α
= 1
CSC α = ਝੰ x V14 .
sin a -- √14 2√14
Compare with the method of examples 26 and 27 , Art. 27.
10. Given tan y = 4 , y being in the third quadrant, find
the values of the remaining trigonometric functions.
SOLUTION. Since sec² y = 1 + tan² y,
sec y = √1 + 16 = −√17.
1 =
Also cot y =
tan y
csc2 y - 1 + cot² y = 1 + 1 = 17 ;
csc y = √17 ;
 te

52 TRIGONOMETRY

1 = 1
sin y = √17 ;
CSC y
1
cos y = = 1 11 √17 .
sec y - V17
W 11. Given sin = 3,0 terminating in the second quadrant,
find the values of the remaining trigonometric functions.
12. Given cot , terminating in the first quadrant,
find the values of the remaining trigonometric functions .
13. Given sec 02, 0 being in the third quadrant,
find the values of the remaining trigonometric functions .
14. Given tan a = -4, find the remaining functions of
the angles less than 360° which satisfy the equation.

Solve the following trigonometric equations for angles

less than 90° :
15. 5 sin x + 8 = 3 (4 -— sin x) .
16. sin u --cos u = 0.
17. 2 cos2 x - 3 cos x + 1 = 0.

18. (tan 0-1) (tan 0 — √3) = 0 .

19. Solve sin x = cot x for sin x.

Some of the following examples are identities and others

are equations. Establish the identities and solve the equa-
tions for angles less than 180°.
20. sin¹ x = 1-2 cos² x + cos¹ x.
21. sin¹ x = 2 - 6 cos² x + cos¹ x.
sin 2 cos 0
22. (√3 + 1 ) + = sin + cos 0.
tan 0 cot 0
23. 2sin e cos V3
+ = sin + cos 0 + V³
tan 0 cot 0 2
24. tan u + cot u = sec u csc u.
= 7.
25. 2 sin² y csc y + 3 csc y =
 FUNDAMENTAL RELATIONS 53

Prove the following trigonometric identities :

26. tan² + cot20 = sec² 0 csc² 0 — 2.

27. sec² ßcos2 B = tan² ß sin² ß +2.

28. csc² y ― sec² y = cos² γ csc² y sin² y sec² y.
sin atan a
29. sin a tan α =
cot a csc α
30. cot² α - cos² a cot² a cos² α.
1-2 cos² 0
31. tan cot 0.
sin cos 0

32. (sin + cos 0)2 + (sin 0 - cos 0)² = 2.

33. sin² x + vers² x = 2(1 cos x) .

34. sec² a csc² a (1 — tan² a)² = 4.

tan2 a

Solve the following trigonometric equations for angles

less than 180° :
35. 2 cos² α - 3 sin α = 0.
36. sec² a + cot² a = 43.
37. 1 + tan² x —- 4 cos² x =: 0.
38. tan x + cot x = 2.
39. 2 sin² x + 3 cos x = 0.
40. √3 cos x + sin x ==√2.
41. csc² x - 4 sin² x = 0.

42. cot x + csc² x = 3.

LINE VALUES

57. Representation of the trigonometric functions by lines.

The trigonometric functions of an angle have been studied
solely from the standpoint of ratios ; but each function can
also be represented in magnitude and sign by a single line.
54 TRIGONOMETRY

Let LOP be any angle. Take OP = 1. Draw the ordi-

nate and abscissa of the point P. About O as the center
construct a circle with OP as a radius. Draw the tangents
to this circle at L and F, the beginning of the first and second
quadrants respectively, and produce them to intersect the
terminal line, or the terminal line produced , in M and G.
M
G G F
r=
1

y y
α
X A L
Ax O
O

M
G F

M
А х a OC A
L
y
T=1 y
r=1
a

Then M
sin α = y = AP = AP = AP
31

or sin α = AP
ОР 1
818

OA ОА
COS α == = OA or COS α = OA
OP 1
218 S8

AP LM = LM
tan α = y = = or tan α = LM
OA OL
OA FG
cot α = = = FG or cot α = FG
y AP OF
/
8

r OP OM
sec α === = = OM or sec α = OM
ОА OL
 FUNDAMENTAL RELATIONS 55

r OP = OG
CSC α == = OG or CSC α = OG
y AP OF

Thus the trigonometric functions are represented by the

segments AP, OA, LM, FG, OM and OG. It is evident
that these segments represent the trigonometric functions
in magnitude. They also represent the trigonometric func-
tions in sign. In accordance with the conventions of Arts.
6 and 11 , the segments AP and LM are positive when drawn
upward from the X-axis and negative when drawn down-
ward ; the segments OA and FG are positive when drawn
from the Y-axis to the right and negative when drawn to
the left ; the segments OM and OG are positive when they
coincide with the terminal line of the angle and negative
when they coincide with the terminal line produced.
It is evident that the sign of each trigonometric function
is determined by the segment representing the function,
since in each quadrant the segment is positive whenever the
ratio defining the function is positive, and negative whenever
the ratio is negative. Thus in each quadrant LM has the

same sign as the ratio 2, and similarly for the other func-
tions. Therefore the segments represent the trigonometric
functions in sign as well as in magnitude.
The segments which represent the trigonometric functions
are called the line values of the functions.

PROBLEM. Represent vers a and covers a by line values.

58. Variations of the trigonometric functions as shown by

line values. The line values of the trigonometric functions
give a simple method of tracing the variations in the func
tions as the angle varies from 0° to 360°. Thus as the point
P, in the figures of Art. 57, describes the circle of radius
unity, the changes in the segments AP, OA, LM, etc.,
represent the variations in the sine, cosine, tangent, etc. ,
respectively.
56 TRIGONOMETRY

Numerous figures, with three or four values of the angle in

each quadrant, serve to suggest these variations.

59. Fundamental relations by line values. By the use of

line values the fundamental relations of Art. 52 may be
simply obtained and easily memorized.
Fk- cot a G G cot a- F

-co
sec

sec
-co -a

a
-sin
a-
sec a-
DUNIL

a
α
-cos -a A A cos a

---

D_UDI_
-se
a
c M
Thus
From the triangle OAP,
AP + OA = OP or sin2a + cos2a = 1.
From the triangle OLM,
LM²+ OLOM² or tan² a + 1 = sec² a.
From the triangle OGF,
FG² + OF² = OG² or cot² a + 1 = csc² α.
From definitions,
AP sin a sin a
tan α = or tan a =
OA COS α cos a
cos a
cot α = OA COS α or cot a =
AP sin a sin a
OP 1 1
sec α = = or sec a =
OA COS α cos a
ОР 1 1
CSC α = = or csc α =
AP sin a sin a
 FUNDAMENTAL RELATIONS 57

OA OL 1 1
cot α = = = or cot a =
AP LM tan α tan a

The process of derivation of these formulas applies

equally well to an angle of the third or fourth quadrant ;
hence the formulas are true for all values of α.
To memorize these formulas most easily, form a clear
mental picture of the figure for the first quadrant and read
each formula directly from the figure, applying the ratio
definitions and the Pythagorean theorem.

60. EXAMPLES
1. Construct the line values of an angle terminating in
the third quadrant.
2. Construct the line values of an angle terminating in
the fourth quadrant.
3. Obtain the fundamental relations for an angle in the
third quadrant, by the use of line values.
4. Obtain the fundamental relations for an angle termi-
nating in the fourth quadrant, by the use of line values.
5. Deduce the relations between the functions of 90° + x
and the functions of x by means of line values.
SUGGESTION. Construct two figures, one for the angle 90° + x and
the other for the angle x.

6. Deduce the relations between the functions of 180° .-x

and the functions of x by means of line values.
7. Deduce the relations between the functions of 90° --
and the functions of 270° + by means of line values.
By means of line values, trace the variations in the follow-
ing functions as a varies from 0° to 360° :
8. sin α. 11. cot a.
9. cos α. 12. sec α.
10. tan α. 13. csc α.
58 TRIGONOMETRY

Prove the following trigonometric identities :

1
14. = sin x cos x.
cot x + tan x
15. cosa (1+ cot² a)= cot² a.
16. sin cot² 0 = csc0 - sin 0.

17. tan a tan a sin² α = sin a cos α.

18. cos a tan² α = sec a - COS α.

COS α sin a sin³ a + cos³ α

19. +
tan a cot a sin a cos a

sin³ a + cos³ α = 1 - sin a cos α.

20.
sin a 1 COS α
sin x tan x sec x 2 cot x + 1 .
21. +
COS X cot x CSC x cot2 x

1 -- COS X sec x 1·
22.
1 + cos x secx + 1
1 COS X sin² x
23. =
1 + cos x (1 + cos x)²
1 - COS X (1 - cos x)² .
24.
1 + cos x sinx

25. 2 sin y cos² y + (2 cos2y - 1) sin y = 3 siny - 4 sin³ y.

26. cos¹ α - sin¹ α = cos² α- sin² α.

27. sec² a + cosec² a = sec² a csc² α.

28. tan x + tan y = secx + sec y ·

sec x - sec y tan x - tan y

29. tantu - cot¹ u = (tan² u + cot² u) (sec² u - csc² u).

30. tan x + tan y tan x tan y.

cot x + coty

31 . tan x -tan y ==- tan x tan y.

cot x - cot y
 FUNDAMENTAL RELATIONS 59

tan x + cot y = tan x

32.
cot x + tan y • tan y
33. Express sin²x - cos2x in terms of tan x.
34. Express vers x - covers in terms of sin x.

35. Express cot²x + csc²x in terms of cos x.

vers x
36. Express in terms of tan x.
Covers x

37. Express tan² x + sec² x in terms of cot x.

38. Express (4 sin³ 0 - 3 sin 0) (2 cos² – 1)

+ (3 cos 0 - 4 cos³ 0) (2 sin cos 0) in
terms of sin 0.

39. Given sin = a, find the remaining functions of 0.

40. Given cot 0 = b, find the remaining functions of 0.
41. Express each trigonometric function of in terms of
cos 0.

42. Express each trigonometric function of in terms of

tan 0.

43. Simplify (a + b) sin 30° - b cos 60° + a tan 180°.

44. Simplify sin (270° — x) + m cos (180° + x)
+ n sin (90° — x).

45. Simplify a sin 135° + (a − b) cos 225° + b cos 315º.

46. Simplify tan (-120°) + cot 150° -tan 210° + cot 240°.

Find the positive values of 0, less than 180°, that satisfy

the following equations :
47. sin cos 0 = 0.
48. sin + cos 0 = 0.
49. sin (2 sin 0-1) (2 cos 0-1) = 0.
50. sin cos 0 cot 0 = 2.
60 TRIGONOMETRY

51. sin cos 0 = 1.

52. 2 sin cos 0+ sin 0-2 cos 0 = 1.
53. 2 cos 0+ sec 0 = 3.
54. sec + tan 0 = 2.
55. 2 sin 0 + 5 cos 0 = 2.
56. 1 + sin² = 3 sin cos 0.
57. tan¹ 0 --4 tan2 0-5 = 0.
58. What negative angles, numerically less than 180°,
satisfy the equation sin² x + sin x = cos² x -
−1?
59. Given 9 cos² u +9 sin u = 11, find tan u.
60. Given tan² x - 5 sec x + 7 = 0, find sin x.

Find the positive values of 0, less than 360°, that satisfy

the following equations :
61. sin 0 =- cos 285°.
62. tan 0 = cot ( -144°).
63. cos ( 0) = sin 190°.
64. sin 0 —— sin 50°.

65. If sin 122° = k, prove that tan 32° =

k
1
66. If cot 255° = a, prove that cos 345° =
√1 + a²
√1 -
– k²
67. If cos ( -100°) = k, prove that tan 80° =
k
Solve the following equations for any trigonometric func-
tion of a.
68. 2 sin a + csc α = 1. 71. tan² a + 4 sec α = 5.
69. csc a cot α = ૐ. 72. tan a + cot a =2.
70. 2 sin a + cos² α = 1.
73. Given sin uk sin v and tanu = 7 tan v, find sin u
and sin v.
 Test on choph #mon
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learn
CHAPTER VI

FUNCTIONS OF THE SUM OF TWO ANGLES

DOUBLE ANGLES. HALF ANGLES

61. We have thus far considered the properties and rela-

tions of the functions of a single angle. We have also
shown that the functions of the angles n 90 a depend
upon the functions of the angle a.
In the present chapter we consider the relations between
the functions of the sum of two independent angles and the
functions of the separate angles, and develops some related
formulas.

62. The sine of the sum of two acute angles expressed in

terms of the sines and cosines of the angles.
P P

90%
S

R T
R T

τα a
A B X B X

Let a and ẞ be any given acute angles.

Construct the angle ( « + ẞ) , Art. 12.
Then (a + B) may be acute as in Fig. 1, or obtuse as in
Fig. 2.
From any point P, in the terminal line of the angle
(a + B), draw PA perpendicular to OX, and PQ perpendicu-
lar to OS. Through Q draw RQT parallel to OX, and QB
perpendicular to OX.
61
62 TRIGONOMETRY

Then the angle TQP is equal to 90° + a.

By definition
AP AR + RP = BQ RP
sin (a + B)= +
OP OP OP ОР
BQ OQ RP QP
+
OQ OP QP OP
ᎡᏢ
But BQ = sin α, OQ = cos B, = sin (90° + α) = cos α,
0Q OP QP
and QP = sin ẞ,
OP
therefore sin (a + B) = sin a cos ẞ + cos a sin ẞ. (1)
PROBLEM 1 . Show that formula (1) is true when either
angle is 90°.
PROBLEM 2. Show that formula (1) is true when each
angle is 90°.

63. The cosine of the sum of two acute angles expressed in

.
terms of the sines and cosines of the angles. Referring to the
figures of the previous article, we have by definition
OA , QR
cos (α + B) = = OB + BA (Art. 2) == OB +
OP ОР ОР OP
OB • OQ , QR QP
+
OQ OP QP OP
OB OQ
But = cos α, = cos ß,
OQ OP
QR QP =
= cos (90° + α) = — sin α, and sin ß,
QP OP
therefore cos (a + B) = cos a cos Bẞ — sin a sin ẞ. (1)
PROBLEM 1. Show that the formula (1) is true when
either angle is 90°.
PROBLEM 2. Show that formula (1) is true when each
angle is 90°.

64. The formulas developed in the last two articles are

of the utmost importance, since many other formulas are
 FUNCTIONS OF THE SUM OF TWO ANGLES 63

derived from them. They form the basis of the present

chapter. In developing these formulas a and ẞ were con-
sidered positive acute angles , but the formulas are true for
all values of α
a and ẞ, as may be shown either geometrically
or analytically.
It is shown geometrically by constructing figures in
which a and ẞ are of any magnitude, and following the
method of proof given above for acute angles.
We present the analytic demonstration as the more satis-
factory.

65. To prove that

sin ( a + ß) = sin a cos ẞ + cos a sin ẞ (1)

and cos (a + B) = cos a cos ẞ. sin a sin ß (2)
are true for all values of a and B.
First. To show that a can be replaced by a', where a' =
α + 90°.
Let a' = a + 90° where a is acute.

As a varies from 0° to 90° , a' varies from 90° to 180°.

Also sin a' = sin (a + 90°) = cos α, (3)
cos a' = cos (α + 90°) ==
= sin α. (4)
Now sin (a' + B) = sin (90° + a + ß) = cos ( a + B).
Since a and B are both acute, cos (a + B) may be ex-
panded by (2), hence
sin (a' + B) = cos (α + B) = cos a cos ẞ- sin a sin ß.

Therefore, by (3) and (4) ,

sin (a' + B) = sin a' cos ẞ + cos a' sin ß. (5)
Similarly,
cos(a' + B) = cos (90° + a + B) = − sin ( α + B)
=― sin a cos --- cos a sin ß.
64 TRIGONOMETRY

Therefore, by (3) and (4) ,

cos (a' + B) = cos a' cos ẞ - sin a' sin ß. (6)
Formulas (5) and (6) show that one angle, a, in (1) and
(2) may be extended to 180°.

Second. To show that a can be replaced by a" where a" =

α + 180°.
Let a" = a + 180°.

As a varies from 0° to 180°, a" varies from 180° to 360°.

Also sin a" = sin (α + 180°) = — sin a, (7)
cos a" = cos (a + 180°) = cos α. (8)
Now sin (a" + B) = sin (180° + a + B) sin (a + B).
Since a is less than 180° and ẞ acute, sin (a + ẞ) may be
expanded by (1) , as extended in the first part of the proof,
hence

sin (a" + B) = — sin ( α + ß) =-

: sin a cos B cos a sin ẞ.
Therefore, by (7) and (8) ,

sin (a" + B) = sin a" cos ẞ + cos a" sin ß. (9)

Similarly,

cos (a" + B) = cos (180° + a + B) = − cos ( α + B)

== α sin ß.
cos a cos ẞ + sin a
Therefore, by (7) and (8) ,
-
cos (α" + B) = cos a" cos ẞ — sin œ” sin ß. (10)
Formulas (9) and (10) show that one angle, a, of (1) and
(2) may be extended to 360°.

Third. In a similar manner it may be shown that (1) and

(2) are true when ẞ varies from 0° to 360°, « having any
value from 0° to 360°, from which it easily follows that (1)
and (2) are true for all positive values of a and ß.
 FUNCTIONS OF THE SUM OF TWO ANGLES 65

Fourth. Formulas (1) and (2 ) may be shown to be true

when either a or ẞ or both are negative , by the use of the
substitutions
α =α n 360°
B' = B n 360° ;

hence (1 ) and (2) are true for all positive and negative
· values of a and ß.

66. To find the tangent of the sum of any two given angles
in terms of the tangents of the given angles.
Let a and ẞ be the given angles.
sin (a + B) - sin a cos ẞ + cos a sin B
Then tan (α + B) =
cos (a + B) - α sin ß
cos a cos ẞ sin a
Dividing numerator and denominator of the last fraction
by cos a cos ẞ and simplifying, we have

= tan a + tan B.
tan (a + B)
1 ― tan a tan ẞ

67. To find the cotangent of the sum of any two given

angles in terms of the cotangents ofthe given angles.
Let a and ẞ be the given angles .

Then cot (a + 8)= cos

sin (a sin a sin ß.
(a +
+ B)
B) = cos a cos B
sin a cos ẞ + cos a sin ß
Dividing numerator and denominator of the last fraction
by sin a sin ẞ and simplifying we have

cot a cot ẞ- 1
cot (a + B) =
cot B + cot a

68. Addition formulas. Collecting the formulas for the

sum of two angles for convenience of reference, we have

sin (a + ẞ) = sin a cos ẞ + cos a sin ß (1)

α sin ß
cos (a + B) := cos a cos ẞ - sin a (2)
66 TRIGONOMETRY

tan (a + B)= tan a +tan ß (3)

1 tan a tan B
cot a cot B - 1
cot (a + B)= (4)
cot B + cot a

69. To find the sine, cosine, tangent, and cotangent of the

difference oftwo given angles.
Since the formulas of Art. 68 are true for all values of a
and ẞ, they are true when - B is substituted for ß.
Hence
-
sin (a - B) = sin a cos (— ẞ) + cos a sin ( — ß)
cos (α - B)= cos a cos ( — ẞ) -
— sin α
a sin (— ß)
tan atan (- ß)
tan (α- B) ==
1- tan a tan (— ẞ)
cot a cot( B) -1
cot (α- B):=
cot ( B) + cot a
But remembering that
sin ( — ẞ) = -— sin ß, cos ( — ß) = cos ß,
tan ( B) =-tan ẞ, and cot ( B) = — cot ß,

‫لم‬
these formulas become
-
sin (α- ẞ) = sin a cos ẞ — cos a sin ß (1)
: cos a cos ẞ + sin a sin ß
cos (α- B))= (2)
tan a tan B
<

tan (α- B):- (3)

1 + tan a tan ẞ
= cot a cot B +1.
cot (a - B)= (4)
cot ẞ- cot a

70. EXERCISES
1. Find sin 75°.
SOLUTION. 75° = sin (45° + 30° ) = sin 45° cos 30° + cos 45° sin 30°
•
= {√2 (√3 + 1) .
 FUNCTIONS OF THE SUM OF TWO ANGLES 67

2. Find cos 75°. 7. Find sin (90° - B).

3. Find sin 15°. 8. Find tan (90° + α).
4. Find cos 15°. 9. Find cos (180° -— α).
5. Find tan 75°. 10. Find sec 15°.
6. Find cot 15°. 11 . Find csc (90° + α).

71. Double angles. To find the sine, cosine, tangent, and

cotangent of twice a given angle in terms of the functions of
the given angle.
From the formulas of Art. 68, letting ß =: α, we have,
after reduction,
sin 2 a = 2 sin a cos a
cos 2 a = cos² a - sin² a (2)
= 1-2 sin2 a (3)
= 2 cos² a - 1 (4)
2 tan a
tan 2 a = (5)
1 - tan2 a
cot² a - 1
cot 2 a = (6)
2 cot a
To express clearly the real significance of these formulas,
we may state them from two points of view.

If a be the angle under consideration, the formula

sin 2 α = 2 sin a cos α

may be stated : The sine of twice an angle is equal to twice

the sine ofthe angle times the cosine of the angle.
If 2 a be the angle under consideration , the same formula
may be stated : The sine of an angle is equal to twice the
sine of halfthe angle times the cosine ofhalf the angle.
It then follows that

sin a = 2 sina cosa. (7)

Similarly, if a be the angle under consideration, the

formula cos 2 α = cos² α- sin² a
68 TRIGONOMETRY

may be stated : The cosine of twice an angle is equal to the

square of the cosine of the angle minus the square of the sine
of the angle.
If 2 a be the angle under consideration , the same formula
may be stated : The cosine of an angle is equal to the square
ofthe cosine of half the angle minus the square of the sine of
half the angle.
It then follows that

cos a = cos² a - sin²a. (8)

Similarly,
from cos 2 α = 1 − 2 sin² α we have

cos α = 1 - 2 sin² α, (9)

from cos 2 α = 2 cos² α - 1 we have

cos α == 2 cos² a-
− 1, (10)
2 tan a
from tan 2 α = we have
1-
. tan² α

tana
tan a = 2
1- tan² a (11)

cot2 α ― 1
from cot 2 α = we have
2 cot a

cot a =
cot² a- 1
(12)
2 cot a

72. Half angles. To find the sine, cosine, tangent, and co-
tangent of one half a given angle in terms of functions of the
given angle.

From formula (9) , Art. 71 , we have

α
COS α = 1 - 2 sin²
 FUNCTIONS OF THE SUM OF TWO ANGLES 69

COS
or = ± (1)
sin 2
→= 2
From formula (10) , Art. 71 , we have
α
cos α = 2 cos² 2 — 1 ,

1+ cos a
or COS - (2)
2
From (1) and (2) ,
82

1
1 cos a
tan = ? (3)
+ cos a
1 + cos a
and cot = ±√ 1 - cos (4)
2 a

In each of these formulas the positive or negative sign

is chosen to agree with the sign of the function of 2

2 , depend-
α
ing on the quadrant in which lies.
2

These formulas may be considered from two view points.

For example, formula (1) may be stated : The sine of half
an angle is equal to the square root of the fraction whose
numerator is one minus the cosine of the angle, and whose
denominator is two ; or, The sine of an angle is equal to the
square root of the fraction whose numerator is one minus the
cosine of twice the angle, and whose denominator is two.

73. To find the sum and difference of the sines of any two
angles, also the sum and difference of the cosines of any two
angles.
From the formulas of Arts. 68 and 69 we have, by ad-
dition and subtraction ,

sin (a + B) + sin (aẞ) = 2 sin a cos ẞB

sin (a + B) sin (a - B) = 2 cos a sin B
cos (a + B) + cos (a — ẞ) = 2 cos a cos ß
-ẞ) = - 2 sin a sin ß.
cos (a + B) - cos (a —
70 TRIGONOMETRY

Let aẞy and a - ẞ = d. Solving for a and B, we

have α = (y + 3) and ẞ = 1 (y - 3) . Substituting these
values in the above equation, it follows that
sin y + sin a = 2 sin (Y + ) cos † (Y - a), (1)
sin y - sin Ə = 2 cos (y + d) sin † (y — ~) , (2)
COS Y + cos d = 2 cos (y + ) cos (Y - a), (3)
COS Y cos a = -2 sin (y + ) sin } (y -
— √) . (4)
Equations (1), (2) , (3) , and (4) may be read from two
view points .
Regarding y and as the given angles, (1) may be
stated : The sum of the sines of two angles is equal to twice
the product of the sine of half the sum of the given angles into
the cosine of half the difference of the given angles.
Thus, sin 6x + sin 4 x = 2 sin 5 x cos x.
Regarding (y + ) and (y -— a) as the given angles , it is
clear that their sum is y and their difference d. Then, by
reading the second member first, equation (1) may be stated :
Twice the sine of any angle times the cosine of any other angle
is equal to the sine ofthe sum of the angles plus the sine of the
difference ofthe angles.
Thus, 2 sin 20° cos 5° = sin 25° + sin 15°.

74. Equations and identities. The formulas developed in

the present chapter are true for all values of the angles
involved ; hence they are trigonometric identities . By the
use of these identities many others may be established.
The remarks of Art. 54 , concerning the use of the funda-
mental relations in establishing identities, apply here.
The identities of the present chapter are also useful in
solving trigonometric equations. By their aid an equation
involving functions of multiple angles may be transformed
into an equation containing functions of a single angle
(see Ex. 33, Art. 75) . This transformed equation can then
be solved as indicated in Art. 55. Frequently equations
 FUNCTIONS OF THE SUM OF TWO ANGLES 71

may be much simplified by reducing sums or differences of

sines and cosines to products by the relations of Art. 73
(see Ex. 41, Art. 75) .
75. EXAMPLES
1. Find sin 221 °, cos 2210, tan 2210, and cot 2210.
2. Given cos α = ; find sin 2a, cos 2a, tan 2a, and
cot 2 α.
3. Given tan α = 3 ; find sinα, cosa, tanα, and
cota.

Prove the following identities :

4. (cos a + sin a) (cos a - sin α):= cos 2 α.
5. (sin a + cos a)2 = 1 + sin 2α.
6. sin 3 α = 3 sin a ―- 4 sin³ α.

SUGGESTION : sin 3α = sin(2 α + α).

7. cos 3 α = 4 cos³a - 3 cos α.
3 tan a - tan³ α
8. tan 3 α = •
1-3 tan²α
sin x
9. tan } =
1+ cos x
sin x
10. cot } = 1 - COS X

1 +tan x 1 + sin x
11. =
1- tan x COS X
1- cos 2 α
12. tan²α =
1 + cos 2 α
sec² a
13. sec 2α = ·
2 - sec²α
14. 4 sin²α cos² α = 1 — cos² α.
15. sin 4 α + sin 2 α = 2 sin 3 a cos α. (See Art. 73. )
16. cos 6 a - cos 2 α = - 2 sin 4 a sin 2 α.
72 TRIGONOMETRY

17. sin (45° + α) -— sin (45° - α) = √2 sin α.

18. sin (30° + α ) + sin (30° -
— α) = COS α.
19. Express cos 4 a sin 3 a as the difference of two sines.
20. Express cos 5 a cos a as the sum of two cosines.

Provethe following identities :

21. cosa — cos²ß —— sin (a + B) sin (α - ẞ).
sin 2 a + sin a 3α
22 . tan •
cos 2 α + cos α 2
sin α- sin B a + B.
23. = cot
cos B COS α 2
2 tan 10 •
24. sin 0 =
1 +tan²10
25. sin } X +2 sin } æ cos } æ cotx = sin x cos đư
26. 2 tan csc x = 1 + tan² 1 x.
27. cos (a + B) cos B − cos ( a + y) cos y =
sin (x +y) sin y sin (a + B) sin ß.
28. cos 2 a = 8 sina - 8 sin² a α +1 .
29 . COS 2 α - COS α = 2 (4 sin α - 3 sin² α).
30 .
(1. cos 2 a) cot² 1α = cos 2 α + 4 cos x + 3.
31. 2 sin² cot 0 - csc 20+ csc 0 = cot 2 0 + sin 0.
32. Given tan x = a tan x ; find tan x in terms of a .

Solve the following equations for all positive values of a

less than 180° :
33. sin 2 α - 4 cos² --- sin a + 3 = 0 .
α-

SOLUTION. 2 sin α cos α - 4 1+ cos a - sin α + 3 = 0,

2
or 2 sin a cos α — 2 cosa sin a + 1 = 0,
or (2 cos a - 1) (sin α - 1 ) = 0,
.. COS α = or sin α = 1 .
and α =: 60° or 90°.
 FUNCTIONS OF THE SUM OF TWO ANGLES 73

34. sin 2 α - cos α = 0.

35. sin 2 +sin α = 0.
36 . sin 2 a + cos 2 α =
= 0.
37. sin a + cos 2 α = 1 .
38. cos 3 a + 2 cos 2 α - 8 cos² α + 2 sin² a +5 cos α = 0.
39. cos 2a + 2 sin² α - 1 = 0.
40 sin 2 a + cos 2 a + sin α = 1.
41. sin 5 α- sin 3 a + sin α == 0 .

SOLUTION. 2 sin 3 α cos 2 α- sin 3 α = 0. Art. 73.

or sin 3 α (2 cos 2 α -
− 1) = 0.
sin 3 α -
= 0, or cos 2 α = .
:::

3 α = 0°, 180°, 360°, and 2 α = 60°, 300°.

α = 0°, 60°, 120°, 30, 150°.

42. cos 3 a + sin 2 a COS α = 0.

43. sin 3 a + sin 2 α + sin α == 0.
44. cos 3 α - sin 2 a + cos α == 0.
45. sin 3 a + cos 3 a sin α — COS α == 0.
46. sin x + sin 2 x + sin 3x = 1 + cos x + cos 2 x.
1- tan x -
47. 2 cos 2 x.
1 + tan x
Prove the following identities :
2 cos 2 α ― 1
48. tan (30° + α) tan (30° - α)
2 cos 2 α + 1
49. tan a + cot α = 2 csc 2 α.
50. sin 80° = sin 40° + sin 20°.
- COS α
51. 1 + sin a α
= tan •
1 + sin a + cos α
52. cos² α - sin (30° + α) sin (30° — α) = 4.
sin α + sin ß α++ B.
53. tan a ß.
cos a + cos B 2
 CHAPTER VII

INVERSE FUNCTIONS

76. Inverse trigonometric functions are closely related to

the trigonometric functions previously studied.
After introducing the fundamental idea of an inverse
function, it will be shown that they lead to new relations,
closely allied to the relations already developed .

77. Fundamental idea of an inverse function. From the

equation sin α = u, it is evident that a is an angle whose
sine is u. The statement a is an
angle whose sine is u is abbreviated
u α
into
X' X α = sin- ¹ u.

The equation u = sin a expresses

u in terms of a.
The equation a = sin-¹ u expresses a in terms of u .
We thus have two methods of expressing the relation
between an angle and its sine.
The symbol sin - ¹u is the inverse sine of u. It may be
read the inverse sine of u, the anti sine of u, arc sine u, or an
angle whose sine is u. The last form should be used until
the conception of an inverse function is perfectly clear.
Corresponding to each direct function there is an inverse
function. Thus,

a = sin-¹ u corresponds to sin a = u,

a = cos¹ u corresponds to cos α = u,
a = tan-¹ u corresponds to tan a = u, etc.
CAUTION. Since sin¹u is an inverse function, the - - 1
74
 INVERSE FUNCTIONS 75

cannot be an exponent. It is simply part of a symbol for an

inverse function. When a function is affected by --
- 1 as an
exponent, it must be written with parentheses, thus (sin x)-¹.

78. Multiple values of an inverse function . It has been

shown that the trigonometric functions are single-valued
functions. Thus , if a is given, there is only one value for
sin α. See Arts. 25 and 41.
On the contrary, the inverse functions are multiple-valued
functions. Thus, if u is given there are an infinite number
of values for sin -¹u. See Arts . 26 and 41. A few ex-
amples will illustrate this property of inverse functions ,
and show that all the values of any given inverse function
may be combined in a single expression.

1
To find all the values of tan-¹
√3
1
tan- = 30°
√3
= 180° + 30°
= 360° + 30°

== 180° + 30°, or - - 150°

=-·360° + 30°, or -- 330°

= -540° 30° , or - 510°

All these angles may be expressed by n 180° + 30°, n

being any positive or negative integer. Hence
1 π
tan-1 =
√3 6

In general, if a is an angle whose tangent is u, it may be

shown that tan-¹ u = nπ + a.
76 TRIGONOMETRY

To find all the values of cos-11.

cos-1 == 60°
―- 60°
= 360° + 60°
= 360° - 60°
= 720° + 60°
= 720° - 60°

- 360° + 60°
= -360° - 60°
== 720° + 60°
- 720° - 60°
==

All these angles may be expressed by n 360° ± 60°, n

being any positive or negative integer. Hence
π
cos-¹ 1 = 2nπ ± ·
3
In general, if a is an angle whose cosine is u, it may be
shown that cos-¹ u = 2 nπ ± α.

To find all the values of sin-¹ .

sin-¹ = 30°
= 180° - 30°
= 360° + 30°
= 540° - 30°
= 720° + 30°
= 900° - 30°

= - 180° 30°
=—- 360° + 30°
= - 540° — 30°
= · 720° + 30°
•
 INVERSE FUNCTIONS 77

All these angles may be expressed by n 180 ° + ( - 1)" 30°,

n being any positive or negative integer. Hence

-1
sin-¹ ‡ = n″ + ( − ) 1″ ™.

In general, if a is an angle whose sine is u, it may be

shown that
sin-¹ u = nπ + ( − 1 )” a.

In a similar manner it may be shown that

-1
cot-lunπ + α,
sec-¹u = 2 nπ ± α,
=
csc-lun + (- 1)" α.

79. Principal values. The smallest numerical value of an

inverse function is called its principal value, preference be-
ing given to positive angles in case of ambiguity.
The principal values of the inverse sine and the inverse
П π
cosecant lie between and ; of the inverse cosine and
2 2
the inverse secant, between 0 and π ; of the inverse tangent
π π
and the inverse cotangent, between - and 2
2
The principal values of an inverse function are sometimes
distinguished from the general values by the use of a capital
letter.

Thus Sin-1 -

while sin-¹ = nñ + ( −1)″* •

80. To interpret sin sin - ¹u and sin-¹ sin a.

The expression sin sin -¹u is read : the sine of the angle
whose sine is u. This sine is evidently u, hence

sin sin-¹ u = u.
78 TRIGONOMETRY

The expression sin-¹ sin a is read : the angle whose sine

is the sine of α. This angle is evidently a, hence
sin-1 sin α = α,

or more generally,
sin‍¹ sin α = në + ( − 1)”α.

Similar relations exist between any direct function and

the corresponding inverse function.
Thus cos cos-¹ u = u ;
cos-¹ cos α = α, or cos-¹ cos α = 2 nπ ± α ;
tan tan-¹ u = u ;

tan-¹ tan α = α, or tan-¹ tan α = n + α, etc.

81. Application of the fundamental relations to angles ex-

pressed as inverse functions. The fundamental relations ,
being true for all angles, must necessarily be true when
the angles are expressed as inverse functions.
Thus, letting α = tan-¹ u in the identity
sin² a + cos² α =
we have (sin tan-¹ u) 2 + ( cos tan -¹ u)² = 1.
Similarly (sin csc-1 u)2 + (cos csc-¹ u) 2 = 1 ;
(tan sec-¹ u)2 + 1 = (sec sec-1 u)2 ;

sin cos-1 u = 1
csc cos-1 u

By expressing the angle of the fundamental relations as

an inverse function, we may develop relations between the
inverse functions.

82. Given an angle, expressed as an inverse function of u,

to find the value of any function of the angle in terms of u.
By the application of one or more of the fundamental
relations, it is always possible to solve the stated problem.
 INVERSE FUNCTIONS 79

Several illustrations are given below. The method em-

ployed can be readily applied to the other functions.
1. To find the value of tan cos-¹ u in terms of u.
If tan cos-¹ u is expressed in terms of the cosine of
cos-¹ u, the problem is solved , since cos cos¯¹ u = u.
This may be done as follows :

sin cos-1 u -
tan cos-1 u = = ± √1- (cos cos u)2 =
cos cos-1 u и и

This result may be obtained geometrically. Since u is

given, it is evident that cos¹u represents, among others,
two positive angles , a₁ and α2, each less than 360°.
Let us assume u positive and let us construct these angles
defined by cos¯¹ u.
Then from the figure and the definition of the tangent,

- u2
tan α₁ =
И C2
α1 и
tan d2 = VI - U2.
and
и

Since the tangent of any angle co-

terminal with α1 is + √1 - u² and the tangent of any
И
V1 - u2
angle coterminal with a2 is and since cos-¹ u
W
represents all angles coterminal with either a₁ or α2, we have

-2
tan cos-1 u = ± √1
И

2. To find the value of sec cot-¹ u in terms ofu.

To solve this problem it is only necessary to express
sec cot-¹u in terms of cot cot-¹ u.
80 TRIGONOMETRY

Thus
1
sec cot-¹ u = ± √1 + (tan cot−¹ u) ² : 1+
(cot cot-¹u)2
± 1 √u² + 1
= 1+ ==
V иг и
This result may be obtained geometrically. Construct
the angles given by cot-¹ u. Let us assume in this problem
that u is negative and hence that - u is positive. If the
cotangent of an
+ VI+ u2 angle is nega-
tive the angle
CC2
-u must terminate
น in either the
second or fourth
u2
B quadrant. Since
OA and OB are
the terminal lines of a₁ and a respectively, and since the
terminal line is always positive, we have
OA = OB = + √1 + u².
+ √1 + u² and se α2 + √1 + u²
Then sec α1 = c =
и —И
or by considerations similar to those in the previous ex-
ample, we have
sec cot-1 u =· + √1 + u² =
_ ± √1 + u²
±u и
3. To find the value of sin cos -¹ u in terms of u.
We have sin cos-¹ u = ± √1 -− (cos cos¯¹ u) ² = ± √1 — u².
4. To find the value of cot vers-¹ u in terms of u.
We have
cos vers-1 И
cot vers -1 u =
± √1- (cos vers¯¹ u)²
1.- vers vers 1 u 1- u
± √1- (1 vers vers¯¹ u)2 ± √1 -
− (1 − u)²
1- u
± √2u - u²
 INVERSE FUNCTIONS 81

83. Some inverse functions expressed in terms of other in-

verse functions.

1. To express cos-¹ u in terms of an inverse tangent.

± √1 — u²
From tan cos- ¹ u = " (Art. 82, prob. 1) by
И
taking the inverse tangent of each member (Art. 80) , there
results ± √1 -— u²
cos-1 utan-1.
и

2. To express the cot-¹ u in terms of an inverse secant.

From sec cot-¹ u = ± √1 + u² (Art. 82, prob. 2) there

и
results cot-¹ u = sec-¹ ± √1 + u²
и

3. Similarly from sin cos¹ u = ± √1 - u² there results

-1
cos-¹ usin¹ ( ± √1 - — u²).
1- u
4. Also from cot vers -1 u = there results
+ √2 u- u²
1-и
vers-1 u cot-1.
± √2 u — u²

By the method exemplified in Arts. 82 and 83 it is possi-

ble to express any inverse function in terms of any other
inverse function.
In applying the above formulas care must be exercised
in selecting the angles , since each inverse function repre-
sents an infinite number of angles and one member of
the equation may represent angles not represented by the
other. For example, in problem 1 , if u be positive the
cos¹u represents angles terminating in the first and fourth
quadrants ; but tan-ı ± √1 — u² represents angles terminat-
u
ing in the second and third quadrants as well as angles
terminating in the first and fourth quadrants.
82 TRIGONOMETRY

84. Some relations between inverse functions derived from

the formulas for double angles, half angles , and the addition
formulas.

The general method applicable to this class of problems

will be illustrated by a few examples.

1. To express cos (2 sec-¹ u) in terms of u.

cos (2 sec-¹ u) = 2 (cos sec¯¹ u)² ― 1 Art. 71 , Eq. 4.
2 2
= 1 = - 1.
(sec sec-¹ u)² u2
From this relation it follows that,

2 sec-¹ u = cos-1
(2-1).

2. To express tan (½ cos-¹ u) in terms of u.

1 COS COS-1 и 1- И
tan (½ cos-¹ u) = ± √1 + cos cos¹ u = ±√
1 +u
Art. 72, Eq. 3.
From this relation it follows that,
1- U
cos¹ u = tan- ¹ ±
1+ u

3. To express sin ( sin-¹ u + cos-¹ v) in terms of u and v.

sin (sin-¹ u + cos¯¹ v) = sin sin-¹ u · cos cos-1 v
+ cos sin-¹ u . sin cos-¹v
Art. 62 , Eq. 1.
- u² √1 — v².
= uv ± √1 —
From this relation it follows that,

sin-¹ u + cos¹ v = sin-¹ (uv ± √1 - u² √1 — v²) .

85. EXAMPLES
Find the value of each of the following :
1. sin-¹√3. 3. tan-11 .
2. cos¹(−√3) . 4. tan cot-¹ 4.
5. sin cot-¹ 4.
 INVERSE FUNCTIONS 83

Express the following in terms of u and v :

6. cos cot-¹ u. 17. cos (2 cos-¹u).
7. sec cot-¹ u. 18. cos (2 sin-¹u).
8. csc cot-¹u. 19. cos (2 tan-¹u).
9. cos sin- u. 20. sin (sinu + sin-¹v).
10. cos tan-¹ u. 21. cos (sin-¹u + sin −¹v) .
11. cos sec-¹ u.
22. tan (tan-¹u + cot¯¹v).
12. cos csc-1 u. 23. tan (sec-¹u + sec−¹v) .
13. sin (2 cos-¹u). 24. cos (sec- ¹ u + csc¯¹ v).
14. tan (2 tan-¹u). 25. sin ( cos-¹u).
15. tan (2 sec-¹u). 26. cos ( cos¹u) .
16. tan (2 cos-¹u). 27. sin ( sec-¹u).
28. sin ( tan-¹u) .

Find x in terms of a.

29. tan-¹x = cot-¹a.

30. sin -1 x = tan-¹a.
31. cos -1x = 2 sin-¹ a.

32. cos-¹x = sin-¹a + tan-¹a.

33. sin¹sec-¹a.

Find x in terms of a and b.

34. tan-¹x = sin - ¹a + sin-¹b.
35. cos-¹x sec -¹a - sec-1 b.

36. sin-¹x = 2 cos¹a + cos¹b.

 CHAPTER VIII

OBLIQUE TRIANGLE

86. In the present chapter we develop the formulas by

means of which a triangle may be completely solved when
any three independent parts are given.
87. Law of sines. In a plane triangle any two sides are to
each other as the sines of the opposite angles.

b α
α

с с

Let a, b, c be the sides of a triangle and a, ẞ, y the angles

opposite these sides, respectively.
From the vertex of y draw h perpendicular to the side c,
or c produced .
h
Then, for each figure, sin a = Art. 21
b'
and h
sin B = • Art. 29
α
Dividing the first equation by the second, we have
α sin a
=
b sin ß
In a similar manner, dropping a perpendicular from the
vertex of a, it is seen that
b sin ß .
с sin y
The last two equations may be written
a b с
sin a sin B sin y
84
 OBLIQUE TRIANGLE 85

88. Law of tangents. The tangent of half the difference of

two angles is to the tangent of half their sum, as the difference
ofthe corresponding opposite sides is to their sum.
From the law of sines we have
a = sin a
b sin B
By division and composition, this becomes
α - b - sin α - sin ß
a+b sin a + sin ß'
which reduces to
α - b 2 cos (a + B)sin † (a - B) Art. 73
=
a+b 2 sin (a + B) cos ½ (a — ẞ)
= cot (a + ẞ) tan ½ (α — ß)
tan (a - B) a ---- b
or = (1)
tan (a + B) a+b
tan (BY) b C
Similarly = (2)
tan (B + y) b + c '
tan (y - a) = с a
and (3)
tan (y + a) c + a

89. Cyclic interchange of letters. Each formula pertaining

to the oblique triangle gives rise to two other formulas of
the same type by a cyclic interchange of α
a
letters. A cyclic interchange of letters.
may be accomplished by arranging the
letters around the circumference of a circle b
as in the figure, and then replacing each
letter by the next in order as indicated by
the arrows . Thus by this cyclic interchange of letters
formula (1) of Art. 88 gives rise to formula (2) ; likewise
formula (2) gives rise to formula (3) .
90. Law of cosines. The square of any side of a plane tri-
angle is equal to the sum of the squares of the other sides
minus twice the product of those sides into the cosine of the
included angle.
86 TRIGONOMETRY

α α

B a
B D A B

For each figure

ABAD + DB, or DB = AB - AD. Art. 2
But AB = c, AD = b cos a, hence DB = c -− b cos a.
Also DC b sin α.

From the right triangle CDB we have

BC² = DC² + DB³.

Substituting values, this equation becomes

a² = (b sin α)² + (c -
− b cos α)²
= b² sin² a + c² - 2 bc cos a + b² cos² α
= b² (sin² a + cos² α) + c² — 2 bc cos α.
Hence a² = b² + c² - 2 bc cos a.
Similarly b² = c² + a² —- 2 ca cos ẞ,
and c² = + 62-2 ab cos y.

91. To find the sine of half an angle of a plane triangle in

terms ofthe sides of the triangle.

From equation (1) , Art. 72,

α COS α
sin =±
2
α
whence 2 sin² = COS α. (1)

From the cosine law

b² + c² - a²
· COS α = (2)
2 bc
 OBLIQUE TRIANGLE 87

From equations (1) and (2)

α b² + c² - a²
2 sin² = 1-
2 bc

2 bcb2c² + a²
2 bc

a² -
− (b -— c)²
2 bc

(a− b + c) (a + b − c) .
2 bc (3)

Let a + b + c = 2 s. (4)

Subtracting 2a, 2b, and 2 c from each member of (4) we

have respectively
a + b + c = 2 (s — a)
a - b + c = 2 (s — b)
a + b - c = 2 (8- c).

Then equation (3) becomes

(s — b)(s - c).
sin =+
bc

sin
β= - c) ―− a) ,
Similarly +
са

a -
b)
and sing=
ab

In these formulas the positive sign is given to the radical,

since it is known that half an angle of any plane triangle is
less than 90°. The same applies to the corresponding for-
mulas for the cosine and the tangent of half an angle.

2. To find the cosine of half an angle of a plane triangle

in terms of the sides ofthe triangle.
88 TRIGONOMETRY

From equation (2), Art. 72, we have

α
2 cos2 = 1 + cos α.
2
α 1 b² + c² - a²
Then 2== +
2 cos²9
/
2 bc

= (b + c)² - a²
2 bc

(a + b + c)( a + b + c)
2 bc

and cos2 s (s − a) .
bc
1-
s(s a).
8

Hence COS +
bc
32

β- s(s - b)
Similarly COS +
са

con =+√s((s
3− c) .
— c).
and
os = + ab

93. To find the tangent of half an angle of a plane tri-

angle in terms of the sides of the triangle.

sin
α-
Since tan
2
COS

S - C
tan =+ b)(s
(1)
s(sa)
32

C S -— a)
Similarly tan =+ (2)
an V
s(s - b)
72

tan = (sa)(s — b). (3)

and +V
s(s - c)
 OBLIQUE TRIANGLE 89

Formula (1) may be written .

α 1 (s a) (s — b) (s -
tan =
2 S α S

a - S --
Letting r= + (4)

812
tan =
32 a (5)

r
Similarly tan β = (6)
S - b'
72

and = r
tan (7)
C

94. To find the area of a plane triangle in terms oftwo

sides and the included angle.

α
b α

a B

Let A be the area and h the altitude. Then in each figure

A= ch,
and h = b sin α.
Therefore A= bc sin a.

Similarly A= ca sin ẞ,
and A= ab sin y.

95. To find the area of a plane triangle in terms of a side

and two adjacent angles.
From Art. 94, A= bc sin a.
90 TRIGONOMETRY

From the sine law

b = c sin B,
sin y

c² sin a sin ẞ
A=
2 sin y
Then since α + B + y = 180°,
sin a sin ẞ.
A = c²
2 sin(a + B)

96. To find the area of a plane triangle in terms of the

three sides.
From Art. 94.
A= bc sin a.
α COS
Since sin a 2 sin
2'
α
Abc sin COS
2
α
Substituting the values of sin 2 and cos 84as found in

Arts. 91 and 92, we have , after reduction ,

A = √s (sa)(s — b) (s — c).

97. Formulas for solving an oblique triangle. The formu-

las developed in the present chapter are sufficient to solve a
plane triangle when three independent parts are given.
The law of sines
α b C
=
sin a sin ß
B sin γ
y
is used when two of the given parts are an angle and the
opposite side.
The law of tangents
α- b
tan (α- ẞ) = tan (α + B)
a+b
is used when two sides and the included angle are given.
 OBLIQUE TRIANGLE 91

If a, b, and y are the given parts, (a + B) is obtained from

the relation a + B + y = 180°. The formula then gives the
value of (α - B), which, united with the value of (a + B),
gives a and B.
The laws ofhalf angles

α S - ·b) (s — c) ,
sin
bc
S S -a)
812

α
COS
bc
α (s — b) (s— r
tan =
2 V - -s
a
s (s − a)
are used when the three sides are given . The last formula
is the most accurate, since the tangent varies more rapidly
than either the sine or the cosine. The formula involving
r is advantageous when all the angles are to be computed.

The law ofcosines

a² = b² + c² - 2 bc cos a
may be used to determine the third side when two sides
and an angle are given. It may also be used to determine
an angle when the three sides are given.
This formula is used with natural functions, not being
adapted to logarithmic computation.

98. Check formulas. Any formula which was not used

in the solution of the triangle may be used as a check
formula.
The relation + B + y = 180 ° cannot be used as a check
when a problem has been solved by the law of tangents,
since the law of tangents involves this relation .
When two equations from the sine law have been used to
find two elements of a triangle, the third equation from the
sine law cannot be used as a check, since the first two
equations involve the third.
92 TRIGONOMETRY

99. Illustrative problems.

1. Given c = 127.32 to find a •
a = 71° 58' 22" b
B== 52° 19' 40" y.
SOLUTION. Construction and estimates.

a = 140
b = 120
Y = 60°

с
Outline
Check
c sin a a-b
α=
sin Y tan (α - B) = tan (α + B) .
a+ b
с a- b
α a+ b
β (a + B)
α +β loga - b)
γ colog (a + b)
log sin a log tan (α + B)
log c log tan (α- B)
colog sin y (α - B)
log a (α + B)
α α
β
b - c sin B
sin Y Or, more compactly,

log sin a
log

log sin B
a

log c log c
log

colog sin y
b

colog sin y
log b log sin ß
b log a
log b
α
b
 OBLIQUE TRIANGLE 93

Filling in the above outline, the completed work appears as follows :

c sin a
α=
sin Y
с 127.32 Check
α 71° 58' 22''
a-b
β 52° 19' 40" tan (α - 8):= tan (α + B)
124° 18' 2/ a+ b
α +β
γ 55° 41' 58" a-b 24.57
log sin a 9.97814-10 a + b 268.55
log c 2.10490 ( α + B) 62° 9' 1"
colog sin y 0.08297 log (a - b) 1.39041
log a 2.16601 colog (a + b) 7.57098
а 146.56 log tan (a + B) 0.27708
log tan (α - B) 9.23847-10
b = c sin p (α - B) 9°49' 28"
sin Y
(α + B) 62° 9' 1 "
log sinẞ 9.89846-10 α 71° 58' 29"
log c 2.10490 β 52° 19' 33"
colog sin y 0.08297
log b 2.08633
b 121.99
Or, in the more compact form,
log sin α 9.97814-10
log

log c 2.10490
a
૧ ૩૦૫

colog sin y 0.08297

log sin ß 9.89846
log a 2.16601
logb 2.08633
α 146.56
b 121.99
815

2. Given a = 1674.3 to find a

= 1021.7 γ
b.
B = 28° 44'39 "

Estimates
α = 120°
Y = 30°
b = 900.
C

1
94 TRIGONOMETRY

α-
tan (α -
− y) = tan (α + y) b = c sin B
a+ c sin Y
α 1674.3 log c 3.00932
с 1021.7 log sin ß 9.68205-10
β 28° 44' 39/ colog sin y 0.27268
a-c 652.6 logb 2.96405
a+ c 2696.0 b 920.56
α+ γ 151° 15' 21'
(α + r) 75° 37' 40" Check
log (a - c) 2.81465
colog (a + c) 6.56928-10 b = a sin ß
0.59135 sin a
log tan ( +7)
log tan (α- y) 9.97528-10 log a 3.22384
(α - 7) 43° 22' 12!! log sin ẞ 9.68205-10
(α + r) 75° 37' 40" colog sin a 0.05817
α 118° 59' 52!! logb 2.96406
γ 32° 15' 28"
3. Given α == 1.4932 to find α Estimates
b = 2.8711 α = 25°
β
β := 120°
c = 1.9005 Y. Y = 35°
Ъ
r= a) (s — b) (s - c)
α S
log (s - a) 0.21463
с log (8b) 9.41714 10
8/2 4/2

tan α log (s - c) 0.09058

S a colog s 9.50412 10
tan β = ↑ log r2 19.22647 - 20
8 b log r 9.61324 10
tan - r log tan 9.39861 10
EN

2 S с
R2
22
IN

log tan 0.19610

α 1.4932
log tan y 9.5226610
b 2.8711
с 1.9005 a 14° 3' 26"
2
2s 6.2648 57° 31' 2"
8 3.1324 2
Y 18° 25' 34"
8- α 1.6392
S -- b 0.2613 α 28° 6' 52!!
-S
с 1.2319 B 115° 2' 4"
8 3.1324 γ 36° 51' 8"
Check: a + B + 180° 00' 4"
 OBLIQUE TRIANGLE 95

4. Given b = .0060041 to find B

88
c =.0093284 α

y =44° 47' 58"

Estimates
b а с B = 30°
απ= 105°
B
a = .012.
α
Check
b sin y α —с
sin ẞ tan (α- y) = a + c tan (α + y)
с
b .0060041 α .012574
с .0093284 с .0093284
Y 44° 47' 58" α- с .0032456
log b 7.77845 - 10 a+c .021902
colog c 2.03019 α+ γ 153° 1 ' 48"
log sin y 9.84796 - 10 (α + y) 76° 30' 54"
log sin ẞ 9.65660 - — 10 log (ac) 7.51129 - 10
β 26° 58' 12'! colog (a + c 1.65952
β+γ 71° 46' 10" log tan (α + y) | 0.62015
α 108° 13' 50" log tan (α - ) 9.79096 - 10
(α - 7) 31° 42' 51
α = c sin a (α + r) 76° 30' 54"
sin Y
α 108° 13' 45''
log c 7.96981 44° 48' 3"
-10
colog sin y 0.15204
log sin a 9.97764 - 10
log a 8.09949 - 10
α 0.012574

100. The ambiguous case. When two sides and an angle

opposite one of them are given, the triangle may admit of
no solution, of one solution , or of two solutions.
Let a, b, a be given. The formula
b sin a
sin ß:-
α
determines B.
96 TRIGONOMETRY

If the calculated
α
sin ẞ is greater than 1 , b
there can be no solu- a < b sin a
tion. a

If the calculated
sin ẞ equals 1 , ẞ =

ain
=

sb
a = b sin a
90° and there is one
solution. a

bsin
If the calculated b a >b sin a
a

sin B is less than 1, a< b

two supplementary α
bsina

values of ẞ are deter- b α

mined, giving two so- ab
a
lutions unless the
larger value of ẞ plus
α a >b
a is equal to or greater
than 180°.
388

Given b = 420 to find ẞ

c = 389.73 α
y = 53° 47' 20"
18

Estimates Two solutions

ъ C B= 65° B' = 115°
α = 60° α = 10°
α = 390. a' = 90.
B
a! a
 OBLIQUE TRIANGLE 97

Check of 1st solution

sin B - b sin Y α -C
tan (α ):- tan (α + y)
с a+ c
b 420 α 440.61
с 389.73 с 389.73
γ 53°47' 20' a- c 50.88
log 2.62325 a + c 830.34
colog c 7.40924-10 α + γ 119° 35' 51'
log sin y 9.90679 - 10 (α + y) 59° 47' 50"
log sin ẞ 9.93928 - 10 log (a - c) 1.70655
β 60° 24' 9" colog (a + c) 7.08074 - 10
=
180° - BB' 119° 35' 51 " log tan ( +7) 0.23502
β + γ 114° 11' 29'/ log tan (α - 2) 9.0223110
B' +y 173° 22' 11" (α - 7) 6° 0' 34"
α 65° 48' 31' (α + r) 59° 47' 50"
αι 6° 37'49" α 65° 48' 24"
γ 53° 47' 16'!

Check of 2d solution
с a'
tan (y - α') = tan (y + α')
c + a'
с 389.73
c sin α
α= a' 55.771
sin y
C-- a' 333.96
c sin a' c + a' 445.50
a' =- γ + αι 60° 25' 9"
sin Y
(y + α') 30° 12' 34"
log sin a 9.96008-10 log (c - a') 2.52370
log c 2.59076 colog (c + a') 7.35115-10
colog sin y 0.09321 log tan (y + a') 9.76509 - 10
-
[ log sin a' 9.06244 – 10 log tan (y - α') 9.63994 - 10
log a 2.64405 (r- α') 23° 34' 45'
log a' 1.74641 & (r+ α') 30° 12' 34"
α 440.61 γ 53° 47' 19/1
a' 55.771 α 6° 37' 49"

FIRST SOLUTION SECOND SOLUTION

B = 60° 24' 9" B' = 119° 35' 51"
απ:65° 48' 31" - 6°37' 49'
a =440.61 a' = 55.771
98 TRIGONOMETRY

101. EXAMPLES

Solve the following triangles, using a three-place table or

a slide-rule.
1. a = 26 2. a == 48
α = 53° B= 61°
B = 49° y = 69
3. α = 73° 4. α = 69°
B = 59° a = 80
b = 55 b = 64
5. α = 54° 40' 6. a = 163
b = 122 b = 241
c = 110 γ = 34° 20'
7. a = 42 8. b = 115
b = 28 c = 96
y== 72° α = 110 °
9. a = 51 10. a == 8.03
b = 63 b = 6.42
c = 70 c = 7.15
12 .
11. α = 20° y = 43° 50'
a = 15 a = .34
b = 25 c = .30

Solve the following triangles :

13. b = 63.67 14. 620.007
В = 100° 10' απ= 40° 27' 30"
α = 40° 0' 10" y = 42° 30' 15"
15. a 238.61 α = 8.0038
/16. b = 4.6259
X
b = 216.77
c = 98.435 c = 4.3167
17. b = .76328 18. b = 85.249
18.
C = 2.4359 c = 105.63
y = 120° 46' 18" α = 50° 40' 24"
 OBLIQUE TRIANGLE 99

19. a 1.4562 20. a = 83.831

c = .45296 b = 56.479
B = 74° 19′ 38″ c = 74.025

21. a 2.1469 22. c 7.2693

b = 3.2824 a = .54871
= 4.0026 a = 5° 41' 30"

23. b = .06532 24. b 10.246

c = .01846 c = 18.075
y = 8° 0′20″ B = 33° 30′ 5″
25. a 764.38 26, a 962.27
α = 143° 18' 31" b = 637.34
B = 13° 34′ 26″ c = 655.80

Find the areas of the following triangles :

27. a = 15 28. a = 172
b = 20 b = 103
c = 25 c= 141

29. a 20.46 30. a = 18.3

b = 19.72 b = 22.4
c== 15.04 Y =32°

31. b = 3.46 32. c = 435.3

c = 4.09 a = 289.6
απ 56° 10' B = 31° 7'

33. a = 48 34. b = 10.34

B = 26° α = 83° 22'
y =43° y = 60° 40'

35. The horizontal distance from a point on top of a

tower to a distant flagpole is 468 ft. The angle of elevation
of the top of the flagpole is 5° 8 ' 30" . The angle of depres-
sion of the foot of the pole is 15° 36'. Find the height of
the flagpole.
 100 TRIGONOMETRY

36. A tower is situated on a hill which inclines at an

angle of 23° 19' 10 " to the horizontal. The angle of eleva-
tion of the top of the tower, from a point on the hillside,
was measured and found to be 43° 39′ 50″. At a point 75.5
ft. farther down, the angle of elevation was found to be
39° 23' 20". How high is the tower ?

37. From a point 5 miles from one end of a lake and

3 miles from the other end, the lake subtends an angle of
47° 34' 30" . Find the length of the lake.

38. Find the altitudes of a triangle whose sides are 125.4,

230.6, and 179.8.

39. A flagpole stands on the summit of a hill. The hill

inclines 32° 18' 20 " to the horizontal . At a point 25.5 ft.
from the base of the flagpole, measured along the incline,
the angle subtended by the flagpole was found to be 41° 24'.
Find the height of the flagpole.
d
n 40 Two observers, A and B,
a
H stationed 4000 ft. apart, at the same
instant observe the angles BAC and
CBA to an automobile traveling on
A B
a straight road. Three minutes
later they measure the angles DAB and ABD to the second
position of the automobile.
If BAC = 136° 28',
▲ CBA = 32° 8',
Z DAB = 40° 12',
ZABD = 118° 44',
what is the rate of the automobile ?

41. A man wishes to measure the length of a lake from

his position on a hill top 185 ft. above the level of the lake.
He finds the angles of depression of the ends of the lake to be
6° 18' and 2° 30' . The angle subtended by the lake, formed
 OBLIQUE TRIANGLE 101

by the two lines of sight, is 66° 27' . Findthe length of

the lake.

42 The angles of elevation of a cloud , directly above a

straight road, from two points of the road on opposite sides
of the cloud, are 78° 15' 20" and 59° 47 ' 40 " . Find the height
of the cloud, the distance between the two points of observa-
tion being 5000 ft.

43. Two observers at A and

Z
B, whose longitudes are the
same, simultaneously observe
the moon and find the angles
ZAM and Z'BMto be 35° 2' 20"
E
and 51° 17′ 10″ respectively .
The latitude of A (Greenwich)
is N. 51° 17' 15 " and the lati-
tude of B (Cape of Good Hope) is S. 33° 45 ′ 16 ″ . The moon
is in the plane determined by A, E, and B. Find EM, the
distance from the center of the earth to the moon, the
radius of the earth being 3960 miles.
A 44. Show that twice the radius, 2 R, of a
α circle circumscribing a triangle is given by
the equations
B α b с
2 R= =
sin α sin B sin y
SUGGESTION. LBAC = LDOC.
45. Find the radius of a circle in-
scribed in a triangle whose sides are
given.
SOLUTION. Representing the area of the
triangle by A, we have a
A = 12 ar + 1 br + } cr = rs.
But A = 's(s - Art. 96 .
— a ) (s — b ) (sc) .
Therefore (8 -
− a) ( 8 -— b) (sc) . See Art. 93.
S
 MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES

102. 1. An angle of 4 radians, having its vertex at the

center of a circle, intercepts an arc of 7 inches ; find the
radius of the circle .
Π 2π
2. Express the following in degrees : radians, radi-
5
3п
ans, radians.
4

3. Express the following in radian measure : 40°, 55°,

38°, 52° 16'.
4. Reduceradians to degrees.
5. Find the number of degrees in a central angle which
intercepts an arc of 5 feet in a circle whose radius is 8 feet.
6. An arc of 12 inches subtends a central angle of 50 ° ;
find the radius of the circle .
7. The number of minutes in an angle is 7½ times the
number of degrees in its supplement ; find the number of
radians in the angle.

8. An angle exceeds another by 8 radians, and their sum

is 160° ; express each angle in radian measure.

9. The angles of a triangle are to each other as 2 : 3 : 4 ;
express each angle in radian measure.
10. The angles of a triangle are in arithmetical progres-
sion, and the mean angle is twice the smallest ; express each
angle in radian measure .
102
 MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES 103

11. The circumference of a circle is divided into 7 parts

in arithmetical progression, the greatest part being 10 times
the least ; express in radians the angle which each arc sub-
tends at the center.
12. An arc of 40° on a circle whose radius is 6 inches is
equal in length to an arc of 25° on another circle ; what is
the radius of the latter circle ?

Prove each of the following :

13. sin a cos a = sin³ a cos a + cos³ a sin a.
1
14. cot a csc α = ·
sec a COS α
1+ tan² a sin² α
15.
1+ cot² a Cos² α
sin B - cos B
16. sin ß + cos B.
cot B - 1 - tan B
17. sina + cos α = 1 -- 3 sin² a cos² α.
18. cot a tan α = csc a sec α (1 − 2 sin² α) .
- tan B
19 . 1 = cot B - 1
1 + tan ẞ cot ẞ + 1
20. sec¹ α tan¹ α = 2 sec² α- 1.
21. tan 15° = 2 – √3.
22. sin 4x4 (cos³ x sin x sin³ x cos x).
23. cos 4x = 4 cos* x + 4 sin¹ x -3.
24. sin 5x = 16 sin³ x ― 20 sin³x + 5 sin x.
25. cos 5 x = 16 cos x - 20 cos³x + 5 cos x.
26. sin (a + B + y) = sin a cos ẞ cos y
+ cos a sin ẞ cos y
+ cos a cos ẞsin y
sin a sin ẞ sin y.
tana +tan ß + tan y ― tan a tan ß tan y
27. tan(a +B + y) = .
1 - tan ẞtany - tan y tan a - tan atan ß
104 TRIGONOMETRY

-
28. 2 sin (a — B) cos a = sin (2 a — ß) — sin ß.
1- tan² α ·
29. cos 2 α =
1 + tan² a

sin 0 + cos 0
30. sin ( +0) √2

31 . COS =sin + cos

4
8(표 ) √2

1 + tan 0 •
32. tan +0) =
1( + 0) 1 - tan 0

sin (a + B).
33. tan a + tan ß =
cos α cos B
sin (α + B) .
34. cot a + cot ß =
=
sin α
a sin ß

35. cos (a + B) cos (a - B) = cos²α - sin²ß.

1- tan² 10
36. cos 0 =
1 + tan² 10

cot 0 + tan 0
37. sec 20:=
cottan

38. tan 0 + cot 02 cosec 2 0.

cos α + sin a
39. = tan 2a + sec 2 α.
COS α - sin a

40. cos (45° + 0) sec 20― tan 20.

-
cos (45° — 0)

41. sin (a + B) cos (a − B) + cos ( a +ß) șin ( a− ß) = sin 2 α.

42 . sin a sin B = tan α-

cos α + cos B 2
 MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES 105

43. tan 2 α- tan α = tan a sec 2 α.

cos² α
44. sin α = 2
cota

45. cos 3 a cos a + sin 3 a sin a = cos 2a.

46.
2 ) + cos ( +1)]
[sin ( +9 2
α-
2 sin a + cos B.
(
[sin (6 )+
9) + cos ( 4)]-

47. 4 sin sin (60° - 6) sin (60° + 0) = sin 30.

2 sin ― sin 20 ·
48. tan² + 0 =
2 sin + sin 20

Solve each of the following equations for all values of

the unknown quantity less than 360°.
49. tan sin 0.
50. (3-4 cos² α) cos 2 α = 0.
51. sin a + cos a cot a = 2.
52. tan (45° + 6) = 3 tan (45° -0).
53. 5 sin 0 = tan 0.
54. 1+ sin² a = 3 sin a cos α.
55. 2 cos x + secx = 3.
56. tan¹y - 4 tan² y + 3 = 0.
-
57. sec B + tan ẞ = 2.
58. 2 sin a + 5 cos α == 2.
59. sin 5x + sin 3 x = 0.
60. cos 7 x - cos x = 0.
61. tan 60 = 1 .
62. tan 20 tan 0 = 1.
63. sin 40+ sin 20+ cos 0 = 0.
106 TRIGONOMETRY

64. sin 20-2 cos 0 + 2 sin 0-2 = 0.

0 cos 20-1.
65. sin20 + sin 302 sin @
66. tan 20 cot - tan 20+ cot 0-1 = 0.
67. cos 70+ cos 50+ cos 30 = 0.
68. sec² 0 csc² 0 + 4 = 4 csc² 0 + sec² 0.
69. Given tan ß = u, find sin 2 ß.
70. Given tan 0 = csc 2 0 , find cos 0.
71. Given cos x = 1, find cos x.
72. Given cos x = , find tan and tan 2 x.

73. Given tan 2 x = m, find tan x.

74. If a + B + y = 180°, show that
tana + tan ẞ + tan y = tan a tan ẞ tan y.
75. If α + B + y = 180°, show that
α α
Y.
cot 2 +cot 2 + cotcoteotcot 2.

76. If a + B + y = 180°, show that

sin a + sin B + sin y = 4 cos coscos 2.

Prove the following :

3120

kit

1 =
77. tan-¹ + tan -¹
4
14 π
/ + tan-1 27
78. tan-¹1 + tan-¹1

-1 k + l
79. tan-¹k + tan- 17 =tan-
1- kl
- u³
80. 3 tan -¹utan -13 u •
1-3 u²
1 11
•
81. 2 tan-¹ + tan -1
 MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES 107

m m
82. sin-1 = tan-1
m+n n
m n
83. cos-1 = cosec 1
n n m
k2 - 2 --
84. cot-1 2 csc-¹k.
2Vk2-1

Solve the following for y:

85. 2 sin -11 + cot-1

ལྤ = 5 •
π·
86. sin-¹y + sin-12y =

87. π
cot 13 y = 2 tan-¹y.
2
88. tan-¹ysin -¹a + cos¬¹b.

89. Prove that in a plane triangle, right-angled at y,

sin 2 α = 2 ab cos 2 α =
b² - a²
b²+ a²; b² + a²
90. In a right triangle, c being the hypothenuse , prove
that
1 c-b 1 c+ b
sin² α = cos² 2α =
2c ; 2c
91. In an isosceles triangle in which a = b, prove that
C c²
COS α = -; vers y = 2 a2
2a
92. In a triangle in which y = 60°, prove that
+b
- a2
cos (60° — B) : c

93. Show that the area of a regular polygon, inscribed in

nr2 2π
a circle whose radius is r, is sin
2 n
108 TRIGONOMETRY

94. Show that the area of a regular polygon, circum-

π
scribed about a circle whose radius is r, is nr² tan n

95. Show that the area of a regular polygon of n sides is

na² π
cot a being the length of a side.
4 n
96. Prove that the areas of an equilateral triangle and of
a regular hexagon, of equal perimeters, are to each other as
2 : 3.

97. A flagpole 125 ft. high, standing on a horizontal

plane, casts a shadow 250 ft . long ; find the altitude of the
sun.
98. From the top of a rock that rises vertically 325.6 ft.
out of the water, the angle of depression of a boat was found
to be 24° 35' ; find the distance of the boat from the rock.
99. A balloon is directly above a station A. From a
second station B, in the same horizontal plane with A, the
angle of elevation of the balloon is 60° 30' . If AB = 300 ft.,
find the height of the balloon.
100. From a tower 64 ft. high the angles of depression
of two objects in the same horizontal line with the base of
the tower and on the same side of the tower, are measured
and found to be 28° 14' and 42° 47' respectively ; find the
distance between the objects .
101. Find the area of a triangular field whose sides are
48 rods, 62 rods, and 74 rods.
102. The earth subtends an angle of 171" at the sun ; find
the distance of the sun from the earth, the radius of the
earth being 3960 mi.
103. A vertical tower makes an angle of 113° 12' with the
inclined plane on which it stands ; and at a distance of 89 ft.
8 in. from its base, measured down the plane, the angle sub-
tended by the tower is 23° 26 '. Find the height of the tower.
 MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES 109

104. In a circle of radius 8, find the area of a sector with

an arc of 50°.

105. In a circle of radius 12, find the area of a segment

with an arc of 132°.

106. In a circle of radius r, find the area of a sector with

an arc of 1 radian.

107. The area of a square inscribed in a circle is 200 sq . ft.;

find the area of an equilateral triangle inscribed in the same
circle.

108. Find the area of a triangle of which two sides are

6+ √5 and 6 - √5, the included angle being 32° 12'.
109. At what latitude is the radius of the circle of latitude
equal to the radius of the earth ?

110. From the top of a lighthouse 85 feet high, standing

on a rock, the angle of depression of a ship was 3° 38 ', and
at the bottom of the lighthouse the angle of depression was
2° 43' ; find the horizontal distance of the vessel and the
height of the rock.

111. At a point directly south of a flagpole, in the hori-

zontal plane of its base, I observed its elevation, 45° ; then
going east 200 ft. its elevation was 35°. Find the height
of the flagpole .

112. A castle and a monument stand on the same hori-

zontal plane. The angles of depression of the top and the
bottom of the monument viewed from the top of the castle
are 40° 32′ 18″ and 80° 17 ′ 46 ", and the height of the castle
is 104 feet. Find the height of the monument.

113. At the distance a from the foot of a tower the angle

of elevation & of the top of the tower is the complement of
the angle of elevation of a flagstaff on top of the tower ;
show that the length of the staff is 2 a cot 2 a.
110 TRIGONOMETRY

114. A flagstaff a feet high is on a tower 3 a feet high ;

the observer's eye is on a level with the top of the staff,
and the staff and tower subtend equal angles. How far is
the observer from the top of the staff ?
115. Two towers on a horizontal plane are 120 feet apart.
A person standing successively at their bases observes that
the angular elevation of one is double that of the other ;
but, when he is halfway between them, the elevations are
complementary. Find the heights of the towers.
116. An observer sailing north sees two lighthouses 8
miles apart, in a line due west ; after an hour's sailing one
lighthouse bears S. W., and the other S. S. W. Find the
ship's rate.

117. From the top of a house 42 ft. high, the angle of

elevation of the top of a pole is 14° 26 ' 9 " ; at the bottom of
the house it is 23° 21 ' 33" ; find the height of the pole.
118. From the top of a hill I observe that the angles of
depression of two successive milestones in the horizontal
plain below, in a straight line before me, are 14° 20 ′ 24″
and 5° 31 ' 14". Find the height of the hill.
119. Along the bank of a river is measured a line 500
ft. in length ; the angles between this line and the lines
of sight from its extremities to an object on the opposite
bank are 53° 1 ' 7 " and 79° 44′ 55" . Find the breadth of
the river.
120. A cape bears N. by E. ( of 90° E. of N.) , as seen
from a ship. The ship sails N. W. 30 miles and then the
cape bears E. How far is it from the second point of
observation ?
121. Find the height of a precipice, its angles of eleva-
tion at two stations in a horizontal line with its base being
39° 30' and 34° 15 ' and the distance between the stations
being 145 ft.
 MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES 111

122. From the summit of a hill, 360 ft. above a plain,

the angles of depression of the top and bottom of a tower
standing on the plain were 41 ° and 54° ; required the height
of the tower.

123. At one side of a canal is a flagstaff 21 feet high

fixed on the top of a wall 15 feet high ; on the other side.
of the canal, at a point on the ground directly opposite, the
flagstaff and the wall subtend equal angles. Find the width
of the canal.

124. From the top C of a cliff 600 feet high, the angle of
elevation of a balloon B was observed to be 47° 22', and the
angle of depression of its shadow S upon the sea was 61°
10' ; find the height of the balloon, the altitude of the sun
being 65° 31 ' and B, S, C being in the same vertical plane
and the sun being behind the observer.

125. At each extremity of a base AB = 758 yards , the

angles between the other extremity and two objects C and
D were observed , viz. CAB = 103° 50 ′ 41 ″ , DAB = 53° 17'
24" , DBA = 85° 47 ' 30 ", and CBA = 46° 13′ 27 " ; find CD.
126. Show that if be the radius of the earth , h the
height of the observer above the sea, and d the angle of

= √(2r + h)h
depression of the horizon ; then tan d =
r
127. A privateer lies 12.75 miles S. W. of a harbor, and
a merchantman leaves the harbor in a direction E. by S. , at
the rate of 10 miles an hour ; on what course and at what
rate must the privateer sail in order to overtake the mer-
chantman in 1 hours ?

128. From the top of a hill the angles of depression of

two objects in the plain at its base were observed to be 45°
and 30°, and the horizontal angle between them is also 30° ;
find the height of the hill in terms of the distance a be-
tween the objects.
112 TRIGONOMETRY

129. The topmast, 120 feet above the water line of a

man-of-war coming into port at the rate of 10 miles an hour,
was first seen on the horizon at 8.45 A.M. by a person swim-
ming near the water's edge ; and at 10.06 A.M. she cast
anchor. Find an approximate value for the radius of the
earth.

130. A railway curve which is a circular quadrant has

telegraph poles at its extremities and at equal distance
along the arc, the whole number of poles being 10. A per-
son in one of the extreme radii produced and at a distance
of 300 feet from its extremity, sees the third and sixth
poles in line. Find the radius of the curve.
 CHAPTER IX

DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM WITH APPLICATIONS

103. In the present chapter De Moivre's theorem is

introduced with some of its applications, including the
demonstration of the fundamental series by means of which
we may calculate the trigonometric tables.
A few preliminary considerations pertaining to the com-
plex number furnish the necessary basis .

104. Geometric representation of a complex number. In

algebra it is shown that every complex number can be re-
duced to the form a + b√− 1 or a + ib where a and b are
any real numbers, and iv - 1.
Having given a complex number a + ib, we can construct
a point P whose coordinates are Y
a and b. This point may be
considered the geometric repre-
r
sentation of the complex num- b
ber. It is thus seen that to α
X'- α X
every complex number there cor-
responds a point in the plane.
Conversely, to every point in
the plane there corresponds a
complex number, since the coor-
dinates of the point represent the two elements , a and b, of
the complex number.
The line OP, instead of the point P, may be considered
the geometric representation of the complex number.
113
114 TRIGONOMETRY

From the figure it is evident that

a = r cos α,
and b = r sin α.
Therefore a + ib = r cos a + ir sin a.
Hence any complex number, a + ib , can be reduced to the
form
r(cos a + i sin α). (1)
The form (1 ) includes all real and all pure imaginary
numbers as special cases. Letting a = 0° or 180°, (1) reduces
tor or -- r, which represents any real number since r repre-
sents any real positive number. Letting a = 90° or 270°,
(1) reduces to ± ri, any pure imaginary number.
The angle XOP or a is the argument of the complex num-
ber a + ib. It is determined by the equation
b
tan a = .
α
The distance OP or r is the modulus of the complex num.
ber a + ib. It is determined by the equation
r= √a² + b².
105. To show that

[r (cos a + i sin a) ] " r" (cos na + i sin na),

n being a positive integer.
Squaring the quantity r ( cos a + i sin «) , we have
[r (cos a + i sin α) ] ² = r² ( cos² α ·- - sin² a +2 i sin a cos α)
= r² (cos 2a + i sin 2 a) by Art. 71 . (1)
Multiplying each member of (1) by r(cos a + i sin a) we
have
[r (cos a + i sin a) ] ³ = r³[ (cos 2 α cos α - sin 2 a sin α)
+ i (sin 2 a cosa + sin a cos 2 α)]
= (cos 3 a + i sin 3 a) by Art. 68. (2)
From (2) we have, similarly,
[r (cos a + i sin a) ] * = r * (cos 4 a + i sin 4 α) . (3)
.
Equations (1), (2), and (3) have the form
[r (cos a + i sin a) ] ” = r ” (cos na + i sin na) . (4)
 DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM WITH APPLICATIONS 115

Multiplying both members of (4) by r (cos a + i sin a), we

have

[r (cos a +i sin a) ]n+ ¹ = r²+ ¹ [ cos ( n + 1 ) a + i sin ( n +1) α] . (5)

Hence, assuming the law expressed in (4) to be true,
equation (5) shows that it is true when n is increased by
unity. But the law is true for n = 4, by equation (3) ;
hence it is true for n = 5. Being true for n = 5, it must
also be true for n = 6, etc. Hence equation (4) is true for
all positive integral values of n.
It can be shown that equation (4) is still true when n is a
negative integer, or a fraction.
From equation (4) it is seen that the nth power of a com-
plex number is a complex number having an argument n
times the argument of the given number and a modulus

@ETB
equal to the nth power of the given modulus.
Letting r = 1 , equations (1 ) , (2 ) , (3) , and (4) become
(cos a + i sin α) ² = cos 2 a + i sin 2 α (5)
(cos a + i sin a)³ = cos 3 a + i sin 3 a (6)
(cos a + i sin a)* = cos 4 a + i sin 4 a (7)
(cos a + i sina)" = cos na + i sin na. (8)
The last equation is known as De Moivre's theorem.
PROB. Show De Moivre's theorem is true when n = —
- 3.
106. Geometric Interpretation P₂
Since each of the complex num- P₁
bers cos a + i sin a P3 2a
cos 2 a + i sin 2 α за a
cos 3 a + i sin 3 a 4a P
cos 4 a + i sin 4 a
has a modulus equal to unity, P
the lines representing these num-
bers terminate in points lying
on the circumference of a circle whose radius is unity.
The arguments of any two consecutive integral powers of
cos a + i sin a differ by a, hence the lines representing any
two consecutive powers differ in direction by a.
116 TRIGONOMETRY

107. Applications of De Moivre's theorem. De Moivre's

theorem may be used to find the various roots of unity, to
extract any root of a complex number, to obtain the sine
and cosine of any multiple of an angle, and to expand the
sine and cosine of an angle in a series of powers of the
angle.

108. To find the cube roots of unity.

If the cube roots of unity are real numbers, or complex
numbers, we may assume, by Art. 104, that

VI = r(cos a + i sin a). (1)

Then, cubing, 1 = ³ (cos 3 a + i sin 3 α) . (2)
Also 1 = r³ cos (3α - 2 nπ) + ir³ sin (3 α -
− 2 nπ), (3)
n being an integer.
Equating the real and imaginary parts of equation (3) , we
have
7³ cos (3 α - 2 nπ) = 1
and 73 sin (3 α — 2 nя) = 0 .
These equations of condition are satisfied when
3 α - 2 nπ = 0 and r = 1 ,
η
whence α = 2 π
3

When n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.
4 π 6π 8π
α = 0, 2 π " etc., respectively. (4)
3 3 3 • 3

Every angle in this series is coterminal with either 0, 2T,

or hence all the values of sin a and cos a are obtained

4T
3;
by using only the first three values of a. Substituting
these values of a in equation (1) , and remembering that r = 1 ,
we have
 DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM WITH APPLICATIONS 117

V1 = 1 for n =
= 0, Pa

V1 = − + i ↓ √3 for n =
= 1,
for n = 2. +13 π
V1 = -1 - it√3 3
-+ P
The three cube roots of unity
are represented geometrically by
P1, P2, and P3.
We can now write the three
P3
cube roots of any real number
a, for letting a₁, a2, and a, be the cube roots of a, we have
a .· 1 , a₂ = Va
a₁ = √ã √α ( − † + i ‡ √³) , a, = √a ( − ‡ — i † √3) ,
where Va is the arithmetical cube root.

PROBLEM. Show that ( + i√3)3 = 1, thus justifying

the assumption made in Eq. 1.

109. To find the fifth roots of unity.

Let V1 = r (cos a + i sin α). (1)
Then, raising each member to the fifth power,
1 = r (cos 5 a + i sin 5 α). (2)
Also 1 = 75 cos (5 α - 2 nя) + i sin (5 а — 2 nπ), (3)
n being an integer.
Equating the real and imaginary parts of equation (3) , we
have 75 cos (5 α - 2 nπ) = 1,
and sin (5α - 2 nя) = 0.
These equations of condition are satisfied when
5α - 2 ηπ = 0, and r = 1.
2 NT
Therefore απ
5
When n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.
2π 4π 6π 8π
απ 0, " etc. , respectively. (4)
5 5 5
118 TRIGONOMETRY

Substituting the values from (4) in equation (1) , and

remembering that r = 1, we have
P₂ VI = 1 for n = 0,
2π 2 π
P3 V1 := COS +isin2T for n == 1,

Απ
VI = COS + isin ? for n =
= 2,
P₁ 5 5
6π σπ for n =
= COS + i sin = 3,
5 5
ΡΑ 8π
8π
Vi = COS + i sin for n = 4.
P5

110. To extract the square root of a + ib.

Let Va + ib = r (cos a + i sin α). (1)
Squaring, a + ib = r² (cos 2 a + i sin 2 a). (2)
Also -
a + ib = r² [cos(2 α — 2 nπ) + i sin (2α- 2 nπ) ] , (3)
where n is any integer.
Equating the real and imaginary parts,
2.2 cos (2α - 2 nπ) = α, (4)
r² sin (2α - 2 nπT) = b. (5)
Squaring and adding, we have
get = a² + b², (6)
or p² = √a² + b², (7)
and r = √a² + b². (8)
Equation (8) gives the value of r in terms of the known
numbers a and b.
From equations (4) and (7)
α α
cos (2 α - 2 nπ):=
√a² + b²
α
whence 2 α- 2 nπ = COS -1
Va² + b²²
the quadrant of 2 a - 2 nm being determined by (4) and (5).
 DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM WITH APPLICATIONS 119

α for n = 0,
Then α= cos -1 (9)
√a² + b²
α
and απ π + COS -¹ for n = 1. (10)
Va² + b²
The values of a for n = 2, 3, 4, etc., are coterminal with
the values of a in equations (9) or (10) . Hence there are
only two values for sin a and cos a ; namely those for which
n = 0 and n =: 1.
Substituting these values of a in equation (1) , we have,
finally,
a
√a + ib =
+ ib = √a² + b² | cos |(+ cos¹
Va² + b²,
α
+ i sin( cos-¹ (11)
cos√ Va² + )]
+ b²
α
and √a + ib = √a² + b² cos ( + cos¹
Va² + b²
α
+ isin( x + cos ) (12)

These values of Va + ib, while more complicated than

Vaib itself, are nevertheless in the standard form of
complex numbers,
r (cos a + i sin α).

111. To extract the kth root of a + ib.

Let Va + ib = r (cos a + i sin a). (1)

Then = (cos ka + i sin kα)
a + ibr* (2)
= [cos (kα- 2 nπ) + i sin (kα - 2 nm) ] , (3)
where n is an integer.
Equating the real and imaginary parts of equation (3), we
have cos (kα - 2 nπ) = α, (4)
and -
* sin (kα — 2nπ) = b. (5)
120 TRIGONOMETRY

-Squaring and adding equations (4) and (5) , we have

p2k = a² + b². (6)
Then got = √a² + b², (7)
2k 2
and /a²+ b².
r == ² (8)
From equations (4) and (7), we have
= α
cos (kα- 2 NT) =
√a² + b²
α
or Κα - 2 nπ = cos -1
Va² + b²²
the quadrant of ka - 2 nm being determined by the signs of
(4) and (5).
2 ηπ 1 s α
Therefore α = Co -1 (9)
k k √a² + b²'
1 S α
whence α= CO -1 for n =
= 0, (10)
k Va² + b²
1-

2π α
α= Cos -1 for n = 1 , (11)
+

k k Va² + b²
4π 1 a
α= + cos-1 for n =
= 2. (12)
k √a² + b²

Substituting the values for r and a as found in equations

(8), (10), (11) , ( 12), etc., in equation (1) , we have the several
kth roots of a + ib.
When k is an integer there are k roots. Consecutive
2π
values of α, as given by (9) , differ by " hence all the
k
values of a after the kth are coterminal with one of the
first k values.

112. To express sin na and cos na in terms of sin a and

COS α.
We have
cos na + i sin na = (cos a + i sin a)".
 DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM WITH APPLICATIONS 121

Expanding the second member by the binomial theorem

and equating the real and imaginary parts, the problem is
solved.
Thus, for sin 4 a and cos 4 a we have
cos 4 a + i sin 4 α = (cos a + i sin α)¹ = cos¹ α,
+4 i cos³ α sin α -6 cos² a sin² α - 4 i cos a sin³ α + sin α.
Therefore sin 4 a 4 cos³ a sin a -4 cos a sin³ a.
and cos 4 α == cos¹ α 6 cos2 a sin² a + sin¹ α.

113. Comparison of the values of sin a, a, and tan a, a being

an acute angle. Let a be any acute angle expressed in ra-
dians. With the vertex O as
a center and any radius OB,
describe the arc BC. Draw AC
and BD perpendicular to OB,
and join B with C.
The area of the triangle OBC A
B
is less than the area of the
sector OBC, and the sector OBC is less than the triangle
OBD.
But since
AC OC sin a, BD = OB tan a, and arc BC = OB •· α, Art. 17,
the area of the triangle OBC is equal to ½ · OB · OC sin α,
the area of the sector OBC is equal to · OB · OB · α,
and the area of the triangle OBD is equal to · OB · OB tan a
Hence
·
· OB OC sin α < ½ · OB · OB · α < · OB · OB tan α,
or sin a < a < tan a.

sin a
114. Value of for small values of a. In Art. 40 we

saw that sin a approaches 0 as a approaches 0. The value

sin a 0
of therefore approaches as a approaches 0.
α
122 TRIGONOMETRY

But from the previous article

sin a < a < tan α.
Dividing by sin α, we have
α 1
1<
sin α COS α
sin a
or 1> > cos α.
α
sin a sin a
Since lies between 1 and cos α, must approach
α α
1 as a approaches 0, since cos a approaches 1.
Then for very small angles sin a may be replaced by a,
expressed in radians. The error thus introduced is so small
that it may be neglected in many problems. Thus, to five
decimal places ,
sin 1° = 0.01745 1° - 0.01745 radians
sin 2° = 0.03490 2° = 0.03491 radians
sin 3° = 0.05234 3° = 0.05236 radians
sin 4° = 0.06976 4° = 0.06981 radians

115. To develop sin a and cos a in terms of a.

By De Moivre's theorem ,
cos no + i sin nə✪ = (cos 0 + i sin 0) ".
On expanding the second member by the binomial theorem,
we have
cos no + i sin n✪ = cos " 0 + in cos"-10 sin 0.
n (n —
− 1) Cos 20 sin20 - i n(n - 1 ) (n - 2) cos"-30 sin³0
12 13
n (n − 1) (n − 2) (n − 3) cos"-40 sin¹0
+ + ···· (1)
4
Equating the imaginary parts, we have
n(n - 1) (n - 2) cos" -30 sin³ 0
sin non cos"-10 sin
13
n(n − 1) (n − 2) (n − 3) (n − 4) cos"-50 sin5 0 - ....
+ (2)
15
Let no = a. Then equation (2) may be written
 DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM WITH APPLICATIONS 123

α
α 00
5 ( -1)(5-2) cos"-30 sin³ /
sin α = cos"-10 sin 0
0 3
α α α
3
00
+ Cos -5 0 sin³ 0 (3)
5
sin 0 α(α - 0)(α - 20)
or sin α = α cos"-1 COS"n- 3 0
0 13 (sine6
)
œ(x — 0) ( x − 2 0) ( α − 3 0) ( α − 4 0) sin5
+ -Cos"-50 inº 0) — ... (4)
5 05

Let a remain constant while n increases indefinitely.

Then necessarily decreases indefinitely , since në = α, a
sin 0
constant. By Art. 114 , when approaches 0, 0 ар-

proaches 1, and cos approaches 1. Making these substi-

tutions in equation (4), we have
a³ αδ a
sin a = a ― + +
3 15 17

Equating the real parts of equation (1) , we have

n (n - 1 )
cos no cos" - cos"-20 sin² 0
12
-
n(n − 1) (n − 2) (n − 3) cos"-40 sin¹0 -
+ (5)
14
By the same process as above, equation (5) becomes
a² a¹ a®
cos a = 1 + ....
|2 + 4 6

The series for sin a and cos a are convergent for all finite
values of α.* They enable us to compute the sine and
cosine of any angle. It is then possible to construct a table
of natural functions, from which the logarithmic functions
may be obtained. In using these series a must, of course,
be expressed in radian measure.
* See any College Algebra on the convergency of series.
124 TRIGONOMETRY

116. EXAMPLES

1. Find the four fourth roots of unity by De Moivre's

theorem .

2. Find the six sixth roots of unity by De Moivre's

theorem .
3. Find the square root of 5 ― 3 i.

SOLUTION. Let√5-3ir (cos a + i sin α) . (1)

Then 5-3i2 (cos 2 α + i sin 2 α)
= r²[ cos (2 α – 2 nπ) + i sin ( 2α -
— 2 nπ) ] .
Equating the real and the imaginary parts,
r² cos (2 α -– 2 nπ) = 5, (2)
and 2 sin (2 α- 2 nπ) = — — 3. (3)
Squaring and adding (2 ) and (3) , we have
p4 = 34, ... r² = √34, and r = /34. (4)
5
Then cos (2 α- 2 NT) =
√34
and 2 α - 2 nπ 329° 2′, (5)
the quadrant being determined by (2) and (3) .
When n = 0, α = 164° 31 ' ; (6)
n = 1 , α ==344° 31'. (7)
Substituting from (4) and (6 ) in ( 1 ) , we have
√5-3i - 2.3271 + .6446 i.
Substituting from (4 ) and (7) in ( 1) , we have
√5-3i2.3271 - .6446 i.

4. Find the square root of 3 + 4 i.

5. Find the square root of 3 --4 i.
6. Find the square root of 1 + 2 i.
7. Find the square root of i.
8. Find the square root of — i .
9. Find the cube root of 2-3 i.

SOLUTION. - Let 2-3 ir (cos a + i sin α) . (1)

Then 2-3 ir³ (cos 3 a + i sin 3 α)
=r3 [cos(3 α- 2 nm ) + i sin (3 α - 2 ) ].
 DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM WITH APPLICATIONS 125

Equating the real and imaginary parts,

r³ cos (3 α - 2 nπ) = 2 ; (2)
and 3 sin (3 α - 2 nπ) — — 3. (3)
Squaring and adding (2) and (3) , we have
p6 = 13, = √13, and r = 13. (4)
2
Then cos (3 α- 2 nπ) =·
V13
and 3 α- 2 nπ = 303° 41' ; (5)
the quadrant being determined by (2) and (3) .
When n = 0, α =: 101° 14' ; (6)
n = 1, α == 221° 14' ; (7)
n = 2, α = 341° 14'. (8)
Substituting from (4) and (6 ) in ( 1 ) , we have
3/2-3 i = - .2987 +1.5041 i.
Substituting from (4) and (7) in ( 1 ) , we have
2-3 i == =- 1.1530 1.0107 i.
Substituting from (4) and ( 8) in (1 ) , we have
3
2-3 i = 1.4518 — .4933 i.
We have thus found the three cube roots of 2 - 3 i.

10. Find the cube root of 1 + i.

11. Find the cube root of -1 + i.
12. Find the cube root of 2 + 3 i.
13. Find the values of sin 3x and cos 3x in terms of
sin x and cos x.
14. Find the values of sin 5x and cos 5x in terms of
sin x and cos x.
15. Prove by De Moivre's theorem that
α α α α
sin α = 2 sin cos 2 also cos α = cos² - sin2
2 2

α α12
SUGGESTION. cos a + i sin α = COS + i sin •
( 2
α α
- 3 cos &sin α
16. Show that cos α =: Cos³
3 3 3'
α α α
sin α = 3 cos² & sin - sin³
3
1
 SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY

CHAPTER X

FUNDAMENTAL FORMULAS

117. The spherical triangle. * Spherical trigonometry

treats of the relations between the various parts of a
spherical triangle and of the methods of solving the spheri-
cal triangle.
The sides of a spherical triangle
are always arcs of great circles.
Having given a spherical triangle
ABC, situated upon a sphere S, a A
triedral angle O-ABC may be formed
by passing planes through O, the
center of the sphere, and through S
the sides of the triangle.
It is known from geometry that the arc AB and the
angle AOB contain the same number of degrees , and that
the angle CAB and the diedral angle C- AO-B contain the
same number of degrees .
The sides and angles of a spherical triangle may have
any values between 0° and 360°.
A triangle having one or more of its parts greater than
180° is called a general spherical triangle.
A triangle having each of its parts less than 180° is called
a spherical triangle.
We shall consider only those triangles whose parts are
each less than 180°.

* For a course on the right spherical triangle read Arts. 117 and 126
and from Art. 128 to end of Chapter XI.
127
128 TRIGONOMETRY

118. Law of sines. To find the relation between two sides

ofa spherical triangle and the angles opposite.

r
2

α
F
R
F R
Ᏸ
с
B > 90°, b > 90°.

Given a spherical triangle and its accompanying triedral

angle ; through the vertex P pass planes perpendicular to
OR and OQ, intersecting in PF a line perpendicular
to the plane ORQ.
FP FP
Then sin α = and sin ẞ =
=
QP RP'
sin a ᎡᏢ
therefore =
sin B QP
Also sin a = ᎡᏢ and sin b =- QP
OP OP'
sin a ᎡᏢ
therefore =
sin b QP
sin a sin a
Hence
sin ẞ sin b

Likewise sin ẞ = sin b

sin y sin c

Uniting these equations, we have

sin a sin b sin c
= = (1)
sin a sin B sin Y
 FUNDAMENTAL FORMULAS 129

This demonstration applies to similar figures drawn for

all possible cases,* hence the theorem is always true.
119. Law of cosines. To find the relation between the three
sides and an angle.
Given a spherical tri-
angle and its accompany- n
r ta
ing triedral angle ; pass
r sec b

tani
a plane through the ver- C
a
tex A perpendicular to
OA, intersecting the a r sec c
planes of the triedral
angle in the lines AB,
B
AC, and BC.
b <90°, c <90 ° ; a < 180 ° , a < 180°.
Then AB = r tan c, OB := r sec c, AC = r tan b, OC = r secb.
From the triangle OBC, by Art. 90,
2
BC = (r sec b)² + (r sec c) — 2 (r secb) (r sec c) cos a. (1)
Likewise from the triangle ABC,
BC² = (r tan b)² + (r tan c)³ — 2 (r tan b) (r tan c) cos a. (2)
Subtracting (2 ) from (1), we have
0 = r² (sec² b - tan² b) + r² (sec² c - tan² c)
- 22 secb sec c cos a +2 r² tan b tan c cos α,
which reduces to
01 - secb sec c cos a + tan b tan c cos α,
or cos a = cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos a. (3)
Also cos b = cos c cos a + sin c sin a cos ẞ, (4)
and cos c = cos a cos b + sin a sin b cos y. (5)
* The following seven cases can arise :
(1) 3 sides < 90°, 3 angles < 90° (4) 1 side < 90° , 2 angles < 90°
(2) 3 sides < 90°, 2 angles < 90° (5) 1 side < 90°, 1 angle < 90°
(3) 2 sides < 90', 2 angles < 90° (6) 1 side 90°, 0 angle < 90°
(7) 0 side < 90°, 0 angle < 90°.
It is to be understood that all parts not mentioned are greater
than 90°.
130 TRIGONOMETRY

120. To extend the law of cosines.

In the derivation of the formula
cos a = cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos a,
b and c were less than 90°, while a and a were less than 180°.
To show that the formula is true in general, it is necessary
to consider two additional cases :
1st. Both b and c greater than 90°.
2d. Either b or c greater than 90°.
Since ẞ and y do not enter the formula, they may have
any value consistent with the above conditions .
First. Given the triangle ABC in
which b > 90° and c > 90°.
Extend the sides b and c of the tri-
angle ABC, forming the lune whose
angle is a. Then in the triangle A'BC,
the sides A'B and A'C are each less
than 90°, hence by Art. 119
B cos a = cos (180° - b) cos (180° — c)
α
+ sin (180° - b) sin (180° - c) cos α,
or cos a = cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos a.
180
-C

09
-

Hence the law of cosines holds when

A
both b and c are greater than 90°.
Second. Given the triangle ABC, 180 - C B
in which b < 90° and c > 90°. 180 °-a
Extend the sides a and c of the
triangle ABC, forming the lune.
whose angle is B. Then in the tri-
angle AB'C, the sides AB' and AC
are each less than 90°, and the
C
angle B'AC is equal to 180° . α.
B a
Then, by Art. 119,
cos (180° a) = cos b cos (180° - c)
+ sin b sin (180° — c) cos (180° — α),
or cos a = cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos α.
 FUNDAMENTAL FORMULAS 131

Hence the law of cosines holds when either b or c is greater

than 90°. The law of cosines is therefore true in general.

121. To find the relation between one side and the three
angles.
Let a, b, and c be the sides of any
spherical triangle, and a ', b ', c' the sides
B a'a
of its polar triangle.
Applying the law of cosines to the
polar triangle, we have
cos a' cos b ' cos c' + sin b' sin c' cos a'.
But
a' = 180° α, b' = 180° - ß, etc.
Therefore
- -
cos (180° — α) = cos (180° — ẞ) cos (180° — y)
+ sin (180° – B) sin (180° -— y) cos (180° — a),
or COS α = - cos B cos y + sin ß sin γ cos a. (1)
Also cos B cos y cos a + sin y sin a cos b, (2)
and COS Y -=
cos a cos ẞ + sin a sin ß cos c. (3)

122. The sine - cosine law. To find the relation between

three sides and two angles.
We have
cos a = cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos α, (1)
and cos b = cos c cos a + sin c sin a cos ß. (2)
Eliminating cos a by substitution ,
cos b = cos b cos² c + sin b sin c cos c cos a + sin c sin a cos ẞ.
Transposing and factoring,
-
cos b (1 — cos² c) = sin b sin c cos e cos a + sin a sin c cos ß.
Replacing (1 - cos² c) by sin² c, and dividing by sinc, we
have
cos b sin c = sin b cos c cos a + sin a cos ß.
Rearranging terms,
sin a cos ẞ = cos b sin c -- sin b cos c cos α. (3)
132 TRIGONOMETRY

Also sin b cos y = cos c sin a - sin c cos a cos ß, (4)

and sin c cos α = cos a sin b - sin a cos b cos γ. (5)
Interchanging ẞ and y and consequently b and c, we have
from (3)
sin a cos y = cos c sin b — sin c cos b cos a. (6)
Similarly from (4)
sin b cos α = cos a sin c -
- sin a cos c cos B, (7)
and from (5)
sin c cos B cos b sin a sin b cos a cos y. (8)

123. To find the relation between two sides and the three
angles.
Applying the sine-cosine law to the polar of the given
triangle, we have
sin a' cos B' = cos b' sin c'- sin b' cos c' cos a' .
But a ' = 180° - α, ß ' = 180 ° — b, etc.
Then

sin (180° - a) cos (180° - b) = cos (180° - ß) sin (180° — y)

- sin (180° -B) cos (180° -y) cos (180° — a).
Therefore sin a cos b = cos ẞ sin y + sin ẞ cos y cos a. (1)
Also sin ẞ cos c = cos γ sin ɑ + sin γ cos a cos b, (2)
sin γ cos a = cos a sin ß + sin a cos ẞ cos c, (3)
sin a cos c = cos y sin ẞ + sin y cos ẞ cos a, (4)
sin ẞ cos a = cos a sin y + sin a cos y cos b, (5)
sin γ COS b = cos ß sin a + sin ẞ cos a cos c. (6)

124. To find the relation between two sides and two angles,
one ofthe angles being included between the given sides.
From Art. 122
sin a cos ẞ = cos b sin c- sin b cos c cos a.
Dividing this equation by
sin a sin ẞ = sin b sin α, Art. 118
 FUNDAMENTAL FORMULAS 133

member by member, we have

cot b sin c - COS C COS α
cot B =
sin a

Therefore sin a cot ß = cot b sin c - COS C COS α. (1)

Similarly sin ß cot y = cot c sin a -- cos a cos ß, (2)
and sin γ cot a cot a sin b - cos b cos y. (3)
Interchanging a and ẞ and consequently a and b, we
have from (1)
sin ẞ cot a cot a sin c cos c cos B. (4)
Similarly from (2)
sin γ cot ẞ = cot b sin a -cos a cos y, (5)
and from (3)
sin a cot y = cot c sin b - cos b cos α. (6)

125. Formulas independent of the radius of the sphere. It

will be noticed that r, the radius of the sphere, does not
enter any of the formulas thus far developed ; hence they
are independent of the radius of the sphere, and may be
applied, without modification, to triangles on any sphere.
The fact is serviceable in problems of Astronomy and Ge-
odesy where the formulas are applied to triangles situated
upon the celestial and terrestrial spheres.
 CHAPTER XI

SPHERICAL RIGHT TRIANGLE

126. The spherical right triangle is a spherical triangle

one of whose angles is a right angle. The other parts may
have any values between 0° and 180°.
In the work that follows the angle y will be taken as the
right angle.

127. Formulas for the solution of right triangles. The

formulas for the solution of any spherical right triangle are
obtained from the general formulas of Chapter X by letting
y = 90°. We thus have

from eq. (1) Art. 118 sin a = sin c sin a

from eq. (1 ) Art. 118 sin b = sin c sin ß
from eq. (5) Art. 119 cos c = cos a cos b
from eq. (1) Art. 121 cos α = sin ẞ cos a
from eq. (2) Art. 121 cos ẞ - sin a cos b
from eq. (3) Art. 121 cos c = cot a cot ß
from eq. (2) Art. 124 cos ẞtan a cot c
from eq. (3) Art. 124_sin b = cot a tan a
from eq. (5) Art. 124 sin a = cot ß tan b
from eq. (6) Art. 124 cos a tan b cot c.

128. Direct geometric derivation of formulas. Let a and b

be the sides of a given spherical right triangle, a and ẞ the
angles opposite, and c its hypotenuse .
Let O-ABC be its accompanying triedral angle.
Through the vertex B pass a plane perpendicular to OA,
intersecting the planes of the triedral angle in AB, BC,
and CA.
134
 SPHERICAL RIGHT TRIANGLE 135

Then / BAC = α, ▲ BOC = a , ▲ AOC= b, and ▲ AOB = c.

Also BCA, BCO, Z CAO, BAO are each a right angle.
From the triangle ABC we have
CB
OB sin a B
sin α = CB
(1)
AB AB sin
OB
AC
AC OA tan b
COS α = (2) 90 C
AB AB tan c
ОА C
CB
CB Ос tan a
tan α = = (3)
AC AC sin b
ос

By interchanging a and ẞ and consequently a and b , or

by passing a plane through D1 to OB and proceeding as
above, we have
sin b
=
sin B= (4)
sin c
tan a
cos B: (5)
tan c
tan b
tan B =
= (6)
sin a
Also from the figure,
ОА
OA ос cos b = cos a cos b.
COS C = (7)
OB ов sec a
ос
Dividing (1) by (5) and reducing by (7) we have
sin α = cos B" (8)
cos b
and by interchange of letters as before
COS α
sin ẞ = • (9)
cos a
136 TRIGONOMETRY

Substituting the values of cos a and cos b from (8) and (9)
in (7) , we have, after reduction,
cos c = cot a cot ß. (10)
In the demonstration of formulas (1) to (10) the parts
a, ẞ, a, b, and c were assumed less than 90 °. To show that
these formulas are true in general, it is necessary to con-
sider two additional cases : viz. (1) when one side and the
hypotenuse are each greater than 90°, and (2) when the two
sides are each greater than 90°.
1. When a > 90° and c > 90°.
с A Let ABC be the given
180 -c
180-a spherical right triangle.
Вор b 80BOB'
a Draw the lune BB'. Then
01
C.9 in the right triangle AB'C
a each part is less than 90°.
and formulas (1 ) to (10) are applicable.
sin (180° - a)
From (1) sin (180° -
— α) =
sin (180° c)
sin a
or sin α =
sin c
which shows that (1) holds when a and c are each greater
than 90°.
tan b
From (2) cos (180° - α) =
tan (180° — c)
tan b
or COS α =
tan c'
which shows that (2) also holds in this case.
Similarly it may be shown that formulas (3) to (10) hold
when a and c are each greater than 90°.
2. When a > 90° and b > 90°. 180
-6
Let ABC be the given spherical
right triangle. Draw the lune CC' .
อง
18°-0B

Then in the right triangle ABC" c

-a 0
18

each part is less than 90° and for-

B
mulas (1) to (10) are applicable .
B
 SPHERICAL RIGHT TRIANGLE 137

sin (180 ° -a)

From (1) sin (180 ° — α) =
=
sin c
sin a
or sin α =
sin c
which shows that (1) holds when a and b are each greater
than 90°.
tan (180° -— b)
From (2) cos (180° - α) =
tan c
tan b
or COS α =
tan c
which shows that (2) also holds in this case.
Similarly it may be shown that formulas (3) to (10) hold
when a and b are each greater than 90 °.

129. Sufficiency of formulas. It will be noticed that the

ten formulas of Arts. 127 and 128 contain all possible com-
binations of the five parts of a spherical right triangle, taken
three at a time ; hence they are sufficient to solve any spheri-
cal right triangle directly from two given parts.

130. Comparison of formulas of plane and spherical right

triangles. By rearranging the formulas of the previous
article, the analogy between the formulas of the plane and
the spherical right triangles is made apparent.
IN PLANE RIGHT TRIANGLES * IN SPHERICAL RIGHT TRIANGLES
α b sin a sin b
sin απ sin B sin α = sin ß =
с с sin c sin c
b tan b tan a
COS α = cos B COS α = =
tan c cos B = tan c
b tan a tan b
tan α = tan B tan α = tan B =
a sin b sin a
sin α = cos B sin ß= COS α
sin a = cos ẞ sin ß:= COS α
cos b cos a
c² = a² + b² cos c = cos a cos b
1 = cot a cot ß. cos ccot a cot ß.
* The above comparison is taken from Chauvenet's " Plane and
Spherical Trigonometry ."
138 TRIGONOMETRY

131. Napier's Rules. The ten formulas used in the solution

of spherical right triangles can all be expressed by means
co 3 of two rules, known as Napier's rules
of circular parts.
Napier's circular parts are the

со с α sides a and b, the complements of the

angles opposite or 90° -a, 90° -— ß,
and the complement of the hypot-
со а enuse or 90° — C.
They are usually written

a, b, co α, сов, сос.

It will be noticed that the right angle

is not one of the circular parts. сов
Let the five circular parts be placed со с α
in the sectors of a circle in the order
in which they occur in the triangle. со а
b
Whenever any three parts are considered,
it is always possible to select one of
them in such a manner that the other two parts will either
be adjacent to this part, or opposite this part. The part
having the other two parts adjacent to it or opposite it is
called the middle part.
Thus let co a, b, and a be the parts under consideration.
Then b is the middle part and co a and a are adjacent parts.
If co c, co ẞ, and b are the parts under consideration, b is
the middle part and co c and co ẞ are opposite parts.
Napier's rules may now be stated as follows :
The sine ofthe middle part is equal to the product of the
cosines ofthe opposite parts.
The sine ofthe middle part is equal to the product ofthe
tangents of the adjacent parts. *

* To associate cosine with opposite and tangent with adjacent, it

may be noticed that the words cosine and opposite have the same
vowels ; likewise the words tangent and adjacent.
 SPHERICAL RIGHT TRIANGLE 139

132. Theorem. In a spherical right triangle, a side and

the angle opposite terminate in the same quadrant.
From the equation
cos a = cos a sin ß
it is seen that cos a and cos a must always have the same
sign, since sin ẞ is always positive. Hence a and a termi-
nate in the same quadrant.

133. Theorem. Of the three parts a, b, c, if any two ter-

minate in the same quadrant, the third terminates in the first
quadrant ; if any two terminate in different quadrants, the
third terminates in the second quadrant.
This follows directly from the equation
cos c = cos a cos b
by noticing that if any two of the quantities cos a, cos b,
and cos c have like signs, the third is positive ; if any two
have unlike signs, the third is negative.

134. Two parts determine a triangle. In order to solve a

spherical right triangle two parts, in addition to the right
angle, must be given. Each of the required parts should be
obtained directly from the given parts.
Thus, given
* b = 50°, c == 110°
cos 110°
we have cos α = "
cos 50°
cos a = tan 50° cot 110°,
sin 50°
sin ß
= sin 110°'
using the formulas for spherical right triangles, or Napier's
Rules. If, in the solution of a problem, the sine of any
required part is found to be negative, no triangle is possible,
since no part of a spherical triangle can be greater than 180°.
Likewise if the logarithmic sine or cosine of any required
part is found to be greater than zero, the triangle is impossi-
ble, since no sine or cosine is numerically greater than unity.
140 TRIGONOMETRY

135. The quadrant of any required part. Since the parts

of a spherical triangle may have any value between 0° and
180°, it is always necessary to determine whether the required
parts are greater or less than 90°. This can be done by the
theorems of Arts . 132 and 133.
Thus, given
b = 50°, c = 110°,
we have a > 90°, a > 90°, and ẞ < 90°.

The quadrant in which any required part terminates may

also be determined from the formula used in calculating that
part, by observing the signs of the functions involved. But
when the unknown part is determined from its sine, the part
terminates in both quadrants , giving two solutions , unless
limited by the theorems of Arts. 132 and 133.
Thus, given
b = 50°, c = 110°,

by writing the signs of each function above the function, we

have
cos 110 °
cos α =
+
cos 50°
+
cos atan 50° cot 110°,
+
sin 50°
sin ß: +
sin 110°

Then a > 90° and a > 90°, since their cosines are negative,
and ẞ < 90° by Art. 132.

136. Check formula. The formula containing the three

computed parts may always be used as a check formula.
Thus, having given
b = 50°, c = 110°,
the check formula is

cos a = cos a sin ß.

 SPHERICAL RIGHT TRIANGLE 141

137. Solution of a right triangle.

Given b = 77° 35′ 16" and a = 112° 19′ 42″

tan a = sin b + + +
cos ẞ = cos b sin a
cot a
b 77° 35' 16" log cos b 9.33233 -- 10
a112° 19' 42" log sin a 9.96615 - 10
log sin b9.98973 - 10 log cos B 9.29848 - 10
log cot a9.61353 - 10 B 78° 31' 53"
log tan a0.37620
67° 11' 30"
a 112° 48' 30"
Check
cot c = COS α +
+ cos B tan a cot c
tan b
log cos a 9.57969 - 10 log tan a 0.37620
log tan b 0.65740 log cot c 8.92229 - 10
log cot c 8.92229 - 10 log cos B 9.29849 - 10
85° 13' 13"
c 94° 46' 47 "

138. Two solutions or the ambiguous case. Whenever a

side and the angle opposite are given, there are two solutions.
Thus if a and a are given, the only formulas by which b,
ẞ, and c can be determined are
sin b = tan a cot a,
COS α
sinẞ =
cos a
sin a
sin c =
sin a

Since the unknown parts are obtained from their sines,

each may have two values , giving two solutions, the
theorems of Arts. 132 and 133 not restricting the values of
the parts to one solution.
Having found the two values for each part, the theorems
142 TRIGONOMETRY

of Arts. 132 and 133 determine the values that belong to

each solution.
Thus, given a = 155° 27' 45" to find b
α = 100° 21' 50" C
β

SOLUTION
+ + COS α
sin b = tan a cot a sin B =
cos a
α 155° 27' 45' log cos α 9.25503-10
α 100° 21' 50' log cos a 9.95889 - 10
log tan a 9.6594510 log sin ẞ 9.29614 - 10
log cot a 9.2621710 β 11° 24' 22" and
log sin b 8.9216210 168° 35' 38''
b 4° 47' 20" and
175° 12' 40"

Check
+
+ sin a + + +
sin c = sin b sin c sin
+
sin α
log sin a 9.61835 - - 10 log sin c 9.62549-10
log sin α 9.99286 - 10 log sin ẞ 9.29614 - 10
log sin c 9.62549 -- 10 log sin b 8.92163 - 10
с 24° 58' 18' and
155° 1' 42''

B₁ FIRST SOLUTION SECOND SOLUTION

b2
b₁ = 4° 47' 20" b2 =175° 12' 40"
a B₁ = 11° 24' 22'' B =168° 35' 38"
C₁ = 155° 1' 42" C₂ 24° 58' 18"
C1

90°
 SPHERICAL RIGHT TRIANGLE 143

139. EXAMPLES

Solve the following spherical right triangles, right-

angled at y.

1. b = 10° 32' 9. a 132° 25'

α = 12° 3' α =107° 30'

2. a 25° 18' 10. c = 80° 3' 20"

b = 32° 41' B= 135° 16' 30"
3. c = 120° 37' 11. b = 171° 3 ' 15"
B= 9° 49' c = 12° 20' 30"

4. c 46° 40' 12. a = 35° 54' 20"

α = 20° 50' α = 47° 6' 10"

5. a = 115° 6' 13. b = 15° 2' 30"

b = 123° 14' B = 20° 11' 40"

6. a 112° 43' 30" 14. α = 20° 26' 20"

c = 85° 10 ' 10" B== 84° 41' 40"

7. a 15° 18' 20" 15. a 25° 41' 30"

c = 21° 30' 40" α = 34° 25′ 40″

8. b = 168° 13' 45"

c = 150° 9' 20"

140. Quadrantal triangles. A quadrantal triangle is a

triangle one of whose sides is 90° . Its polar triangle is
then a right triangle. The solution of a quadrantal tri-
angle is effected through the solution of its polar triangle.

141. Isosceles triangles. The solution of an isosceles

triangle is effected by solving the two equal right triangles
formed by dropping a perpendicular from the vertex to the
base.
144 TRIGONOMETRY

142. EXAMPLES

Solve the following triangles.

1. α = 117° 54' 30" 3. B:= 153° 16'
b = 95° 42' 20" a = 19° 3'
C = 90° c= 90°
2. α = 69° 45' 4. a = 159° 33'40"
B = 94° 40' b = 95° 18' 20"
c = 90° c = 90°

5. The base of an isosceles triangle is 51° 8'. The equal

angles are each 41° 57' . Find the equal sides and the
angle at the vertex.

6. The base angles of an isosceles triangle are each

100 ° 12'30 ", the vertical angle is 50° 19 ' 40 " . Find the
equal sides and the base.
 CHAPTER XII

OBLIQUE SPHERICAL TRIANGLE

143. In the present chapter the general formulas of

spherical trigonometry, already developed (Chap. X) are
transformed into standard formulas adapted to logarithmic
computation ; and the problem of the solution of the spheri-
cal triangle is discussed.

GENERAL SOLUTION

144. To find the angles when the three sides are given.
From Art. 119, we have
cos a = cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos a.
cos a - cos b cos c
Therefore COS α = (1)
sin b sin c
But 2 sin²α = 1- cos a
sin b sin c - cos a + cos b cos c
sin b sin c
cos a - cos (b −c) .
sin b sin c
Applying formula (4) of Art. 73, we have

sin²α = sin (a +b - c) sin (a − b + c) .

sin b sin c

Letting 2 s = a + b + c, we have
-
sina = sin (s b) sin (s c) . (2)
=V sin'b sin c
145
146 TRIGONOMETRY

Similarly uniting (1) with

2 cos² α = 1 + cos α,
sin b sin c + cos a - cos b cos c
we have 2 cos² α=
sin b sin c

cos (b + c) — cos a
sin b sin c

2 sin (a + b + c) sin † ( − a + b +c) .

sin b sin c

sin s sin a
Therefore cos a= (3)
sin b sin c
Uniting (2) and (3) ,

sin (s - b) sin (s - tan r • (4)

tana =
sin s sin (s - a) sin (s - a)

sin (s ― c) sin ( sa ) tan r

Similarly tanẞ = 1 (5)
sin s sin (s — b) sin (s — b)'

and tan
sin a) sin (s 6) = tan r
y =V (6)
sin s sin (s c) sin c)'

where tan r = sin ( s- a) sin (sb) sin (s -- c) . (7)

sin s

145. Tofind the sides when the three angles are given.
Following the method of the last article, the equation
cos a = cos ẞ cos y + sin ẞ sin γ cos a

cos S cos (S
gives sin a =
J sin ẞ sin Y

and cos a= cos (S — ß) cos (S − y) ,

sin ẞ sin y

and tana = √ cos S cos (Sa) =

tan R cos (S - a)
cos (SB) cos (S — y)
 OBLIQUE SPHERICAL TRIANGLE 147

where 2S = α + B + y,

- cos S
and tan R =
V
cos (S― a) cos ( S — B) cos (S− y)
146. Delambre's or Gauss's formulas express relations be-
tween the six parts.
By Art. 68
sin (x + 6) = sina cos ẞ + cosa sin ẞ.
Substituting for sin a, cosa, sinẞ, and cosẞ their
values in terms of the sides of the triangle, and simplifying,
we have
sin (sb) sin (sa) sin s sin (sc)
sin (α + B) = sin c sin a sin b

2 sin (2 s - a - b) cos (a —b) • cosy.

2 sinc cosc

cos (a - b) · COS
Then sin (a + ẞ) = Y. (1)
cos c
sin (a - b)
Similarly sin (α- ß) = COSY, (2)
sinc

cos (a + b) . sin † Y,
and cos (a + B) = (3)
cos c

sin (a + b)
and cos (a -— ẞ) sinc
siny. (4)

147. Napier's analogies express relations between five parts

of a triangle. They are easily obtained from Gauss's formulas.
Dividing (1) by (2), Art. 146,
sin (a + ẞ) = tanc
(1)
sin (a - ẞ) tan (a - b)
Dividing (3) by (4),

cos (a + B) = tanc
(2)
cos (a — ẞ) tan (a + b)
148 TRIGONOMETRY

Dividing (4) by (2),

sin (a + b) = coty
(3)
sin (a - b) tan (a11 B)

Dividing (3) by (1),

cos (a + b) = coty
(4)
cos (a - b) tan (a + ẞ)

148. Formulas collected . The following formulas are suf-

ficient to solve a spherical triangle when any three parts
are given :
sin ( sb ) sin (s — c) = tan r
*tan α = I
sin s sin (s - a) sin (s - a)

tana-= cos S cos (S- a) -

tan R cos (S- α) II
cos (S — B) cos (S — y)
sin (a + B) = tanc
III
sin (α - B) tan (a - b)

cos (α + B) = tanc
IV
cos (α - B) tan (a + b)
sin (a + b) = coty
V
sin (a - b) tan (α -
— ẞ)
cos (a + b) = coty
VI
cos (a - b) tan (a + B)
sin a sin b
= VII
sin a sin ß

Formula I is used to determine an angle when the three

sides are given.
Formula II is used to determine a side when the three
angles are given.
Formulas III and IV are used when two angles and the

* These formulas are typical . Other formulas of the same type are
obtained by a cyclic change of letters.
 OBLIQUE SPHERICAL TRIANGLE 149

included side are given. Formula III determines (a - b)

and formula IV determines (a + b ) , from which a and b
are obtained . Either formula may also be used to deter
mine the side c when the other two sides and their opposite
angles are given.
Formulas V and VI are used when two sides and the in-
cluded angle are given. Formula V determines (α - B)
and formula VI determines (a + B), from which a and ẞ
are obtained . Either formula may also be used to deter-
mine the angle y when the other two angles and their op-
posite sides are given.
Formula VII is used when an angle and the side opposite
are among the given parts.

149. Whenever the formulas I to VI are employed in the

solution of a spherical triangle as indicated above, the
quadrant in which any part terminates may always be deter-
mined by noticing the signs of the functions involved.
But when the law of sines is employed, two values are
found for the required part. This leads to two solutions
unless limited to one solution by the following principles.

150. Theorem. Halfthe sum of any two angles is in the

same quadrant as half the sum of the sides opposite.
This follows from a consideration of the signs of the
functions involved in

cos (α + B) = tant c
cos (α - B) tan (a + b)
Since each part is less than 180° , tan c and cos ( α —-B)
are always positive. Hence cos (a + B) and tan 1 (a + b)
must always have the same sign. Hence (a + ẞ) and
(a + b) terminate in the same quadrant.

151. Theorem . A side which differs more from 90° than an-
other side, terminates in the same quadrant as its opposite angle.
150 TRIGONOMETRY

We have from Art. 119

cos a — cos b cos c
COS α =
sin b sin c
If a differs more from 90° than b, cos a is numerically
greater than cos b. Cos a is also greater than cos b cos c,
since cos c is not greater than unity. Hence the numerator
of this fraction has the same sign as cos a. The denominator
being always positive, cos a and cos a have the same sign.
Hence a and a terminate in the same quadrant.
The negative of this theorem is not true.
Thus given, a = 165°, b = 120°, ß = 135°,
a terminates in the second quadrant, since a differs more
from 90° than b.

152. Theorem. An angle which differs more from 90° than

another angle, terminates in the same quadrant as its opposite
side.
This follows from
cos α = cos a + cos ẞ cos Y
sin ẞ sin γ
by considerations similar to those of the previous article.
Thus given, α = 80°, y = 140°, and a = 120°,
c terminates in the second quadrant, since γ differs more
from 90° than α.

153. Illustrative examples.

1. Given the three sides, a = 105° 27′ 20 ″ , b = 83° 14′ 40 ″,
c = 96° 53' 10'', to find α, ß, and Y.
α 105° 27' 20" sin (s - a) sin (s — b ) sin -c
tan r =
b 83° 14' 40" sin s
с 96° 53' 10'' tan r
tan } =
2s 284° 94' 70' sin (s - a)
S 142° 47' 35' tan r
tan 8:
s- a 37° 20' 15" sin (s - b)
S- b 59° 32' 55'' tan r
tan y =
S с 45° 54' 25'' sin (s - c)
Check : s 142° 47' 35''
 OBLIQUE SPHERICAL TRIANGLE 151

log sin (s - a) | 9.78284-10 Check

log sin (s - b) 9.93553-10
log sin (s - c) 9.85623-10 = sin (a + b) tan (α- ẞ)
coty=
sin (a - b)
colog sin s 0.21846
2 log tan r 9.79306-10 a+ b 188° 42′ 0
log tan r 9.89653-10 a-b 22° 12' 40'
log tanα 0.11369 (a + b) 94°21' 0'
log tan 9.96100-10 (a - b) 11° 6' 20'
log tany 0.04030 (α - B) 9° 59' 4'
να 52° 24' 55' log sin (a + b) 9.99875 - 10
Ιβ 42° 25' 51" logtan (α - B) 9.24563 - 10
47° 39' 17'' colog sin (a - b) 0.71531
α 104° 49' 50" log coty 9.95969 10
β 84° 51' 42/ log tany 0.04031
γ 95° 18' 34"

2. Given two sides and the included angle, a = 29° 18 ' ,

b = 37° 30 ', y = 51° 52' , to find α, ß, and c.
sin (b -
− a) coty
tan (B - α) ==
sin (b + a)
coty
tan (B + α) = cos (b- a)
cos (b + a)
tanc = sin (B + α) tan (b -
− a)
sin (ẞ - α)

b 37° 30' log cos (b -

− a) | 9.99889 - 10
a 29° 18' log coty 0.31310
γ 51° 52' colog cos (b + a) 0.07839
b -α 8° 12/ log tan (B + α) 0.39038
b + a 66° 48' (8 + α) 67° 51 ′ 8″
(b - a) 4° 6' (8 - α) 14° 57′ 14″
(b + a) 33° 24' β 82° 48' 22'
γ . 25° 56' α 52° 53' 54"
log sin (ba) 8.85429-10
log coty 0.31310 log tan (ba) 8.85540 - 10
colog sin (b + a) | 0.25926 log sin (B + α) 9.96671 - 10
log tan (ẞ -– α) | 9.42665 – 10 colog sin (B - α) 0.58831
- α) | 14° 57′ 14″
(B – log tanc 9.41042 10
c 14° 25′ 43″
с 28° 51' 26'
152 TRIGONOMETRY

Check
sin a = sin b = sin c
sin a sin B sin Y

log sin a 9.68965-10 log sin b 9.78445-10 log sin c 9.68361-10

log sin a 9.90177-10 log sin ß 9.99656 – 10 log sin y 9.89574–10
9.78788-10 9.7878910 9.78787-10

3. Given two sides, and an angle opposite one of them,

a = 63° 24' 50" , b = 17° 36 ' 40 ", a = 44° 48 ' 20", to find ẞ, y,
and c.
sin a
sin B = sin b
sin a

coty= sin (a + b) tan (α -

— ẞ)
sin (a - b)
tanc = sin (α + B)
tan (a - b)
sin (α- ß)
α 63° 24′ 50″ log sin (a + b) | 9.71445 —- 10
a 44° 48' 20" log tan (α - B) 9.57083 - 10
b 17° 36' 40" colog sin (a - b) 0.62876
a+b 62° 25' 0" log coty 9.91404 - 10
ab 27° 11' 40" Αγ 50° 38' 0"
(a + b) 31° 12 ' 30" γ 101° 16' 0'
(a - b) 13° 35' 50"
log sin a 9.95147 10
logsin b 9.48081 10 log sin (α + B) 9.83375 - 10
colog sin a 0.15200 log tan (a - b) 9.38359-10
log sin B 9.58428 -- 10 colog sin (α - B) 0.45735
B 22° 34' 44" log tan c 9.67469 -. 10
α B 40° 50' 6" c25° 18' 20"
a +B 85° 59' 34" с 50° 36' 40'
(α - B) 20° 25' 3"
(α + B) 42° 59' 47"
Check
sin b sin c
sin ß sin Y
log sin b 9.48081 - - 10 log sin c 9.88810 -- 10
log sin ẞ 9.58428 10 log sin y 9.99155 10
9.89653 -. 10 9.89655-- 10
 OBLIQUE SPHERICAL TRIANGLE 153

154. Two solutions. There are two solutions , if any, when-

ever two sides and an angle opposite one of them, or two an-
gles and a side opposite one of them, are given, unless limited
to one solution by the principles of Arts . 150 , 151 , and 152.
Thus, having given ẞ = 45° 15′ 12 ″ , b = 56° 49 ′ 46 ″ , a =
68° 52′ 48", to find α, y, and C.

sin α = sinB sin a

sin b

a 68° 52' 48" α 52° 19' 33" 127° 40' 27"

b 56° 49' 46' α +β 97° 34' 45' 172° 55' 39'
β 45° 15' 12/ α -- B 7° 4/ 21/ 82° 25' 15/
log sin B 9.85140 1 ( α + B) 48° 47' 22'' 86° 27' 50"
log sin a 9.96980 (α - B) 3° 32' 10" 41° 12' 38"
colog sin b 0.07725 a + b 125° 42' 34"
• log sin a 9.89845 a-b 12° 3' 2"
α 52° 19' 33" , or (a + b) 62° 51' 17''
127° 40' 27" (a - b) 6° 1′31 ″

tan c = sin (a + B) tan (a — b)

sin (α- ß)

log sin (a + B) 9.87639 9.99917

logtan (a - b) 9.02346 9.02346
colog sin (α - B) 1.20984 0.18124
log tanc 0.10969 9.20387
1c 52° 9'35" 9° 5' 711
с 104° 19' 10" 18° 10' 14"

coty = sin (a + b) tan (α - B)

sin (a - b)

log sin (a + b) 9.94932 9.94932

log tan (α- ẞ) 8.79099 9.94238
colog sin (a - b) 0.97895 0.97895
log coty 9.71926 0.87065
62° 21' 1" 7° 40' 16'
Y 124° 42' 2!! 15° 20' 32"
154 TRIGONOMETRY

FIRST SOLUTION Check

α = 52° 19' 33" tanc = cos (α + B) tan (a + b)
C = 104° 19' 10" cos (α- ẞ)
y = 124° 42′ 2″ log cos (α + B) 9.81877 8.79013
log tan (a + b) 0.29012 0.29012
colog cos (α- B) 0.00083 0.12361
log tanc 0.10972 9.20386

SECOND SOLUTION cot Y = cos (a + b) tan (α + B)

cos (a - b)
a = 127° 40′ 27″ log cos (a + b) 9.65920 9.65920
c = 18° 10′ 14″ log tan (a + B) 0.05762 0.20904
y = 15° 20' 32" colog cos ( a — b) 0.00241 0.00241
log coty 9.71923 0.87065

155. Area of spherical triangle. Representing the area of

a sphere, S, by 720 spherical degrees, it is demonstrated in
geometry that the area of a spherical triangle, A, in terms
of spherical degrees, is equal to its spherical excess ; or
A = (a + B + y - 180) spherical degrees
Α
A_α + B + y - 180
Hence
S 720
Let A' and S' represent the area of the triangle and the
sphere respectively, in terms of the unit in which r is ex-
pressed. Since the ratio of the area of the spherical tri-
angle to the area of the sphere is independent of the units
used, we have A' A
=
S' S
A' a + B +y - 180
Therefore
S' 720
But the area of the sphere expressed in terms of r is
42, therefore the area of the triangle is given by
A' = π² α + B + y − 180
180

156. EXAMPLES
Solve the following spherical triangles and check the
results :
 OBLIQUE SPHERICAL TRIANGLE 155

1. b 10° 0'10" 11. α = 61° 8'

c = 114° 40' 40" ß== 59° 12'
α = 92° 28' 20" y = 78° 25'
2. b 85° 4' 19" 12. a 76° 43' 15 "
c= 139° 58' 25" b = 83° 35' 27"
α = 12° 20' 31 " c= 98° 26' 38"

3. c 82° 3' 4" 13. α == 110° 35'

a = 70° 14' 12" B= 135° 42'
B = 84° 20' 9" y = 146° 8'
4. a =, 95° 3' 30" 14. y= 11° 34'10 "
b = 128° 38' 50" b:= 82° 56' 30"
y = 170° 52' 20" c = 27° 9'40"

5. a 29° 18' 15. α = 32° 4'10"

b== 37° 30' B = 128° 56' 20"
y= 51° 52' a = 39° 50' 30"

6. α = 11° 21'10" 16. B = 80° 40 ′ 2″

Y:= 19° 0'20" c = 75° 54' 0"
b = 66° 19' 30" b = 100° 21 ' 28"

7. y = 179° 22' 11 " 17. α = 21° 1'10"

a = 148° 17' 17" y = 17° 22' 50"
b = 25° 39' 34" a = 14° 13' 30"

8. a 108° 5' 18" 18. B = 77° 44′ 55″

b = 170° 30' 46" y = 92° 17'24"
c= 85° 50' 22'' a = 26° 29' 39"

9. α = 105° 27' 20" 19. α = 114° 23' 9"

b = 83° 14' 40" . B= 88° 41'11 "
c = 96° 53' 10" y = 79° 0' 4"

10. a 34° 19' 30" 20. B = 99° 4' 12''

b = 28° 37' 10" y = 106° 0' 9"
c = 22° 44' 40" a =161° 2' 10"
156 TRIGONOMETRY

21. c 100° 10 ' 40" 23. b = 42° 15′ 20″

a = 65° 20' 30" c = 127° 3' 30"
y = 94° 30' 10" B = 31° 44′ 20 "

22. a = 103° 19' 50" 24. y=127° 4' 10"

B= 92° 37' 30" a = 88° 12' 0"
y= 128° 54' 20" c= 141° 20' 30"

SOLUTION WHEN ONLY ONE PART IS REQUIRED

157. In many problems of astronomy and geodesy , it is re-

quired to find only one or two of the unknown parts of a spher-
ical triangle, the other unknown parts being of no importance
in the problem . It then becomes desirable to have a method
whereby the required parts can be computed without being
under the necessity of first computing any part not desired.
It has already been shown that any angle can be found
directly from three given sides (Art. 144) , and that any
side can be found directly from three given angles (Art. 145).
It is evident that any part can be found from any three
given parts by the use of the general formulas containing
the required part and the three given parts. By the intro-
duction of auxiliary quantities, these formulas will now be
adapted to logarithmic computation.

158. Given two sides and the included angle, to find any
one of the remaining parts.
Let a, b, y be the given parts.
First. To find c.
The relation between a, b , y, and c is (Art. 119),
cos c = cos a cos b + sin a sin b cossy. (1)
To adapt this formula to logarithmic computation, let
m sin M = sin b cos y, (2)
and m cos M = cos b. (3)
 OBLIQUE SPHERICAL TRIANGLE 157

Then eliminating b by uniting (1) , (2) , and (3) , we have

cos c = m (cos a cos M+ sin a sin M) ,
or cos cm cos (a — M) . (4)
From (2) and (3)
tan M:= tan b cos y, (5)
and from (3) and (4)
COS C = cos b cos (a - M) . (6)
COS M
Equations (5) and (6) enable us to find c.
ILLUSTRATION . Given a = 75° 38 ′ 20″ , b = 54° 54′ 38 ″, and
y= 30° 17'43 ".
tan M tan b cos Y
a 75°38' 20" COS C = cos b cos (a - M)
COS M
b 54° 54' 38"
γ 30° 17' 43' log cos b 9.75956
log tanb 0.15333 log cos (a - M) 9.95808
log cos y 9.93623 colog cos M 0.19987
log tan M 0.08956 log cos c 9.91751
M 50° 51' 58' с 34° 12' 27"
α--M 24° 46' 22''

Second. To find B.

The relation between a , b, y, and ẞ is given by Art. 124,

(equation 5) , from which we have
cot b sin a - cos a cosy.
=
cot B = (7)
sin y
Multiplying numerator and denominator by sin b,
cos b sin a - sin b cos a cosy.
cot B =
= (8)
sin b siny
Again using equations (2) and (3) we have
m (cos M sin a ― sin M cos a)
cot B:= (9)
sin b siny

m sin (a -— M).
or cot B:= (10)
sin b sin y
158 TRIGONOMETRY

As before tan M = tan b cos y. (11)

From (2) and ( 10)
cot y sin (a - M)
cot B== (12)
sin M

Equations (11 ) and (12) enable us to find B.

Third. To find y.

By interchanging a and b and consequently a and ẞ in

(11 ) and (12) we have, calling the auxiliary angle N,

tan N = tan a cos y (13)

and cot α = cot y sin (b - N) (14)

sin N
to determine α.

159. Two parts required. It will be noticed that the same

auxiliary quantity Mis used to find both c and ß. We thus
have a convenient method, much used in astronomy, for
finding a side and an angle when two sides and the included
angle are given.
For finding c and ẞ we have, collecting our formulas,

tan M = tan b cos y

COS C = cos b cos (a - M)

COS M

= y sin (a - M)
cotty
cot B =
sin M

Dividing equation (10) of Art. 158 by equation (4) , we have

cot B tan (a - M)
COS C sin b siny
which serves as a check upon c and B.
Similarly , for finding c and a, we have
 OBLIQUE SPHERICAL TRIANGLE 159

tan N = tan a cos y

COS C = cos a cos (b – N)

cos N

cot α = cot y sin (b― N) .

sin N

160. PROBLEMS

An arc of 1 ' on the earth's surface is equal to one English

geographical mile .

1. Find the distance between Boston, latitude 42° 21 ' N. ,

longitude 71° 41 ' W. , and San Francisco, latitude 37° 48' N.
and longitude 122° 28' W. P

SOLUTION. -Let APD be the me-

ridian of Greenwich from which longi-
tude is measured , ABCD the equator,
and P the north pole. A D
Let the positions of San Francisco B
and Boston be represented by E and F
respectively . The desired distance is
EF.
Then angle DPE = 122° 28' ,
angle DPF = 71° 41',
arc EB 37° 48',
arc CF = 42° 21',
arc PB = arc PC = 90°.
But PE = PB - EB = 52° 12',
PF = PC - FC := 47° 39',
LFPE = LDPE - ZDPF = 50° 47′ .
Letting LFPE , PE = a, PF = b,

we may find EF or c by the formulas

-
tan M = tan b cos y, cos c = cos b cos (a M) .
cos M
160 TRIGONOMETRY

tan Mtan b cos y COS C = cos b cos (a - M)

COS M
a 52° 12/ log cos b 9.82844-10
b 47° 39' log cos (a - M) 9.97951 - 10
Y 50° 47' colog cos M 0.08526
log tan b 0.04023 log cos c 9.89321 - - 10
log cos y 9.80089 - 10 C 38° 33' 20" , or
log tan M 9.84112 - 10 2313 miles
M 34° 44' 23"
a-M 17° 27' 37"

2. Find the distance between New York (lat. 40 ° 43′ N. ,

long. 74° 0' W. ) and San Francisco (lat. 37° 48 ′ N. , long.
122° 28' W.).
3. Find the distance between Calcutta (lat. 22° 33′ N.,
long. 88° 19 ' E.) and Greenwich (lat. 51 ° 29′ N.) .
4. Find the distance between Baltimore (lat. 39° 17' N.,
long. 76° 37' W. ) and Calcutta.

161. Given two angles and the included side, to find any
one ofthe remaining parts.
Let a, ẞ, c be the given parts.

First. To find y.
The relation between α, ß, c, and y is, Art. 121 , eq. (3),
cos y == cos a cos ẞ + sin a sin ß cos c. (1)
Let m sin M = cos α, (2)
and m cos M = sin a cos c. (3)
Uniting (1) , (2) , and (3)
COS y == m ( — sin M cos ẞ + cos Msin ß),
or CO S Y = m sin (ẞ -— M). (4)
From (2) and (3)
cot M = tan a cos c, (5)
 OBLIQUE SPHERICAL TRIANGLE 161

and from (2) and (4)

COS γ = cos a sin (BM) . (6)

sin M

Equations (5) and (6) enable us to find y.

Second. To find a.
The relation between a, ß, c, and a is given by Art. 124,
equation (4) , from which

cot a = sin ß cot a + cos e cos ß,

sin c (7)

or cot a = sin ẞ cos a + sin a cos c cos B. (8)

sin a sin c
Uniting equations (2) , (3) , and (8) ,
cot a = m (sin ß sir M+cos ß cos M) , (9)
sin a sin c
-
or cot a = m cos (ẞ — M) . (10)
sin a sin c
From (2), (3), and (10)
cot Mtan a cos c (11)
and cot a = cot c cos (B - M) (12)
cos M
from which a is found.

Third. To find b.
From (11) and (12) by interchanging a and ẞ, and conse-
quently a and b, we have, calling the auxiliary quantity N,
cot N - tan ẞ cos c (13)
and cot b = cot c cos (α- N) (14)
cos N
to determine b.

162. Given two sides and an angle opposite one of them, to

find any one of the remaining parts.
Let a, b, a be the given parts.
162 TRIGONOMETRY

First. To find c.
The relation between a, b, a and c is
cos a = cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos α. (1)
Let m sin M := sin b cos α, (2)
and m cos M = cos b. (3)
Then cos a = m cos (c — M) . (4)
From equations (2) , (3) , and (4) ,
tan M = tan b cos α (5)
cos a cos M
and cos (c - M ) = (6)
cos b
Equation (5) determines M and equation (6) determines
c - M. Adding these values, we have c.
In general there are 2 solutions for c. We may limit M
to positive values less than 180°. By equation (6) c - M
may have two values, numerically equal but opposite in
sign, giving two values for c unless the sum M + (c − M )
is greater than 180° or negative, in which case there is but
one solution.

Second. To find y.
The relation between a, b, a, and y is
sin γ cot a cot a sin b- cos b cos y.

Multiplying by sin a and rearranging, we have

sin y cos a + cos y sin a cos b = sin a cot a sin b. (7)
Let n cos N = cos α, (8)
and n sin N = sin a cos b. (9)
From (7) , (8) , and (9) we have
n sin (y + N) = sin a cot a sin b. (10)
Then from (8) , (9), and (10) ,
tan N - tan a cos b, (11)
and sin (y + N) = sin N cot a tan b. (12)
Equation (12) determines y + N and equation (11) deter-
mines N. Subtracting the second value from the first gives y.
 OBLIQUE SPHERICAL TRIANGLE 163

In general there are two solutions, since y + N may have

two values.

Third. To find ß.
The angle ẞ is found from
sin b sin a
sin B:= (13)
sin a

which in general gives two values.

163. Given two angles and a side opposite one of them, to

find any one of the remaining parts.
Let a, ẞ, a be the given parts .

First. To find y.

The relation between a, ẞ, a, and y is

COS α = - cos B cos y + sin ẞ sin y cos a. (1)
Let m sin M = cos ß, (2)
and m cos M = sin ẞ cos a. (3)
Then cos α = m sin (y — M) . (4)
From (2), (3) , and (4)
cot M= tan ẞ cos a, (5)
cos a sin M
and sin (y- M ) == (6)
cos B
Equations (5) and (6) determine M and y - M, from
which y is found.
Two solutions may be possible, as in Art. 162.
Second. To find c.
The relation between a, ß, a, and c is
sin ẞ cot α = cot a sin c -- cos c cos B. (7)
Multiplying by sin a and transposing,
-
cos a sin c sin a cos c cos ẞ = sin ẞ sin a cot a. (8)
Let n cos N = cos a, (9)
and n sin N = sin a cos ß. (10)
164 TRIGONOMETRY

Then uniting (8), (9) , and (10)

n sin (c- N) = sin ẞ sin a cot α. (11)
From (9), (10) , and (11)
tan N = tan a cos ß, (12)
and sin (c - N) = tan ẞ cot a sin N. (13)
Equations (12) and ( 13) determine N and c - N, from
which c is found.
There may be two solutions.

Third. To find b.
We have sin b =sin ẞ sin a (14)
sin a

There are two values of b unless restricted to one solution

by the principles of Arts. 150, 151 , and 152 .

164. The general triangle. The parts of the general spheri-

cal triangle are not restricted to values less than 180°. It
can be shown that all the formulas developed for the oblique
spherical triangle are true for the general spherical triangle
if the double sign is introduced in the formulas of Arts.
144, 145, and 146.
 ANSWERS

Art. 19 ; Page 10
π π π
4. etc.
18' 6' 4'
5. 114° 35′ 28 ", 286° 28′ 40″ , etc.
6. 60°, 135°, -
— 300°, 57° 17′ 44″ , 36° 28′ 31″, etc.
7. 71 ft.
8. 2 radians, 137° .30′ 34″. 12. 247.16 R. P. M.
25.882.
9. 94° 3' 24". 13. 18.33 mi. per sec.
10. 19 ft. 14. 5236.
11. 2.7216 radians. 15. 9.6π
240 π ft. per min.

Art. 27 ; Page 20
1. 3d and 4th. 2. 1st and 4th. 3. 1st and 3d .
2π Απ
7. 2d. 8. 3d. 20. - 21. -
3 3
28. sin α₁ = 88855 √85, cos α1 =- 85 V85, cot a -7,
sec α1 √85, csc α1 = √85,
sin α = -85, cos α = 5 85, cot α = -- 7,
sec α = √85, csc α½ = — V85.
35. 19.
Art. 36 ; Page 29
1. b = 16.5 3. c.869 5. α = 27°
c = 17.5 a = .225 B = 63°
B = 70°. α = 15°. b = 72.6
2. a = 1.44 4. c = 65 6. α == 1810
b = 2.05 α == 23° B = 714°
B = 55°. B = 67° b = .00867
165
166 TRIGONOMETRY

7. a = 346 8. α = 27° 9. a = .029 10. α = 4010

C= = 507 B = 63° b = .089 a = 8.11
B = 47° a = 3.50 B = 72° b = 9.48

11. b:= 5161 12. a .1384 13. a = 1.446

c = 5489 b = .2878 c = 1.719
B = 70° 5' B== 64° 19' α = 57° 17'

14. c.00006294 15. b = 810.80 16. 17. etc.

α = 72° 26' α = 47° 31' 32" check your
B = 17° 34' B = 42° 28' 28" results.

31. Base 1331.1, vertical angle 149° 19' 10".

32. Base angles 39° 23′ 56″, base 1477.0.
33. Equal sides 1622.9, base angles 37° 59′ 37″.
34. Equal sides 219.75, base angles 68° 27' 19".
35. 37.504.

Art. 38 ; Page 31
1. 290.83 ft. 180° 12. 54.775 mi.
7. 2 nr tan
2. 405.24 ft. n
13. 153.72 lbs.
3. 263.92 ft. 8. 130.99 ft. 38° 31' 46".
289.93 ft. 9. 226.11 ft.
14. 739.38 mi. per
4. 21.442 ft. 10. 2572.5 ft. hr.
180° 11 . 21.360 in.
5. 2 nr sin 15. 16 ft. 35 in.
n 22.638 in.
6. 132.52 ft. 69° 26' 36". 16. 35° 16'.

Art. 50; Page 46

23

- cos 10°, --- sin 80°. 5. cos 20°, sin 70°.

+

- cot 20°, -- tan 70°. 6. - tan 80°, — cot 10°.

- sin 60°, - cos 30°.
4. -.cot 20°, -- tan 70°.
9. - tan 0. 10. -- tan 0. 11. - cos 0.
8. cos 0.
 ANSWERS 167

Art. 56 ; Page 51

11. cos√5, tan 0 = −√5, cot 0 = – 4√5,

sec 0 = -8√5, csc 0 = 3.
12. sin 01149, cos 0 = √149, tan 0 = 10,
sec 0 = √149, csc 0149.
15. x = 30°. 16. u = 45°. 17. x = 0°, 60°.
18. 0 = 45°, 60°. 19. sin ÷+ √5.
20. Identity. 22. 0120°. 24. Identity.
21. x 60°, 120°. 23. 030°. 25. y = 30°, 150.
35. α = 30°, 150°. 36. α = 30°, 60°, 120°, 150°.
37. x = 45°, 135°. 38. x = 45°.

Art. 60 ; Page 57
tan2 x - x
33. 1. 34. sin x√1 -
— sin² x. 35 . 1 + cos² ·
tan² x + 1 1 - cos²x
a
39. cos 0 = ± √1 —a², tan 0 =
± √1 — a²²
— a² 1
સાંહ
cot = sec = CSC =19
α + V1 - a2

41. sin 0 = = ± √1 - cos² 0

√1 - cos20, tan
Cos
cos sec = 1
cot e =
± √1 - cos20 cos '
1
csc =
+ V1 - cos2 0
43. • 47. 0°, 90°. 48. 135°. 49. 0°, 30°, 60°, 150°.
2
50. 30°, 150°. 51. 45°. 54. 36° 52'. (See tables. )
55. 46° 24′, 90°. 57. 65° 54', 114° 6'.
58. 0°, -30°, - 150°.
59. tan u = ± √5, ± ‡√2. 61. 195°, 345°.
60. sin x = ± √3, ± ‡√2. 62. 54°, 234°.
168 TRIGONOMETRY

Art. 70 ; Page 66

2. †√2(√3−1) . 3. ‡ √2( √3 −1) . 4. † √²(√3 + 1) .

5. 3 + √3 7. cos B. 8. -- cot a. 9. - cos α.

3 - √3

Art. 75 ; Page 71

1. †√2 −√2, † √2 + √2, √3 − 2√2, √3 + 2√2.

2. ± √15, - 39 ± √15, ± √15.

3. 10 ± √10 , etc.
20

3 α 36. 67° 30', 157° 30'.

32. 0, 1 1 - 3 a
40. 0°, 65° 42', 114° 18'. (See tables.)
34. 30°, 90°, 150°. 42. 0°, 30°, 90°, 150°.
35. 0°, 120°. 43. 0°, 90°, 120°.

Art. 85 ; Page 82
1. 60°, 120°, 420°, etc. 2. 150°, 210°, - 150°, etc.
3. 45°, 225°, — 135°, etc. 4. 1.
5. ± √17. И
6.
7. ± √u² + 1 ± √u² + 1
И
1 9. ± √1 - u².
10.
± √1 + u² 11. 1 .
И
13. 2 u√1- u².

14. 2u 15. ± 2√π² - 1

1 — u² 2. u2

20. ± u√1 — v² ± v√1 — u². 21. ± √1 − u²√1 — v² —uv.

 ANSWERS 169

-น И 1
25. ± 27. ±
2u
1
29. SOLUTION. x = tan cot-¹ a = -1
cot cot-¹ a a
τα
30. x = 31. 12 a².
√1 + a2

་
32. √1 - a² - a² 34. a√1 — b² + b√1 —a²
√1 + a² √1 - a2√1 - b2 -ab

- -
1/ (1 + √a² — 1√b² — 1 ) .
35. ab

Art. 101 ; Page 98

1. b = 24.5 2. α = 50°
c = 31.8 b = 54.9
Y = 78°. c = 58.6

3. a = 61.4 4. B = 48° 20'

c = 47.7 y = 62° 40'
Y = 48°. c = 76.1

5. B = 68° 22' 6. α = 40° 48'

γ = 56° 58' B:= 104° 52'
a = 107 c = 141 .

7. α = 69° 22' 8. B = 38° 37'

B = 38° 38' y = 31° 23′
c = 42.7 c = 173.

9. a 44° 42' 10. a 72° 21'

B = 60° 20' B = 49° 38'
y = 74° 54′ y = 58° 1'

11. ẞ = 34° 44′ or 146° 16' 12. α = 51° 44′ or 128° 16'
y = 125° 16′ or 13° 44' B = 84° 26′ or 7° 54′
c = 35.8 or 10.4 b = .431 or .059
170 TRIGONOMETRY

Art. 101 ; Page 98

13. y = 39° 49′ 50″ 14. a 13.081
α = 41.581 C = 13.620
2
C = 41.43 B== 97° 2′ 15″
15. α = 90° 20' 34" 16. α = 126° 59' 18"
B = 65° 17′ 34″ B = 27° 29′ 38″
y = 24° 21′ 50″ y = 25° 31′ 4″
17. a == 1.9555 18. y = 77° 22' 16"
α = 43° 36′ 35″ B = 51° 57′ 20″
B = 15° 37′ 7 " α = 83.732
19. a 87° 33′ 58″ 20. a 78° 40′ 32″
y = 18° 6' 24" B = 41° 20′ 47″
b = 1.4033 y = 59° 58′ 41″
21. a 32° 24′ 0″ 22. Impossible.
B = 55° 0' 28"
γ = 92° 35' 32"
23. α = 142° 28′ 9″ or 21° 31′ 11″
B = 29° 31′ 31" or 150° 28′ 29″
a = .080746 or .04862
24. y = 76° 50′ 20 ″ or 103° 9′ 40″
a = 69° 39′ 35″ or 43° 20′ 15″
a = 17.405 or 12.739
25. c 502.28 26. α = 96° 9' 32"
b== 300.25 В =:41° 11' 10"
y = 23° 7' 3" Y:= 42° 39' 18"
27. A = 150. 30. A = 108.61
33. A = 368.91. 35. 172.8 ft.
36. 106.1 ft. 37. 3.710 mi.
38. 97.14
124.59 39. 60.1 ft.
178.64
40. 57.93 mi. per hr. .41. 3888.0 ft.
42. 6328.7 ft. 43. 239600 mi.
 ANSWERS 171

Art. 102 ; Page 102

2 11 19π 196π
1. 14 in. 2. 60°, 72°, 135°. 3. 9 "
9 ' 36 90 675
ㅋㅋ

4. 42° 58' 18". 5. 35° 48′ 35″ . 6. 13.754 in.

5 73π • 2π п 4п •
8. 5 π 9.
7.9 144 ' 144 9'3' 9
π π 11. 4 10 16 π 22π 28 π 34 π 40 π •
10. "
6 ' 3' 2 77' 77 77 77 77 77 77
12. 9 in. 49. 0°, 180°.
50. 30°, 150°, 210°,9 330°, 45°, 135°, 225°, 315°.
51. 30°, 150°. 52. tan-¹ (2 ± √3). 53. 0°, 180°, cos-¹ .
54. 45°, 135°, 225°, 215°, sin¹ √ . 55. 60°, 300°, 90°, 270°.
56. 60°, 120°, 240°, 300°, 45°, 135°, 225°, 315°.
-1 .
57. tan-¹ 58. 90°, 270°, sin −¹ ( — 3}).
59. 0°, 45°, 90° , 135°, 180°, 225°, 270°, 315°.
60. 0°, 45°, 60°, 90 °, 120°, 180°, 225°, 240°, 270°, 300°, 315°.
61. 710, 3710, 6710, 9710, 12710, 1571°, etc.
62. 30°, 150°, 210°, 330°.
63. 90°, 270°, 70°, 110°, 190°, 230°, 310°, 350°.
64. 90°, 180°. 65. 210°, 330°.
66. 45°, 215°, 671°, 1571°, 24710, 3371°.
67. 60°, 120°, 240°, 300°, 18°, 54°, 90°, 126°, 162°, etc.
68. 60°, 90°, 120°, 240°, 270°, 300°.
2u
69. 70. 0, ± √ . 71. ± V3. 72.√10, √10.
1+u²² 2

73. -1 ± √1 + m²
85. √3. 86. √5. 87. 0, √3.
m
ab + V1 - a² . V1 - b2
88. 97. 26° 34', 98. 711.7.
bv1 - a² + a√1 - b²
172 TRIGONOMETRY

99. 532 . 100. 50.0. 101. 1478.5.

102. 93,470,000 mi. 103. 51.9 ft. 104. 27.925.
105. 112.36. 106. 12 107. 129.90 ft.

108. 8.2596. 109. 70° 31′ 43″ . 110. 5296 ft. , 251 ft.
111. 196. 112. 89.431 . 114. a√2.
115. 90 ft., 40 ft. 116. 13.66. 117. 103.97.
118. 820.54. 119. 535.4. 120. 25.43.
121. 567.3. 122. 132.6. 123. 36.7 ft.
124. 641. 125. 962.605. 127. 16.33 N. 75° 36′ E.
128. a. 129. 4009. 130. 1674.3.

Art. 116 ; Page 124

1. 1, i, 1, i.
-
2. 1, + √3i, −1 + † √³i, −1, − † — †√3i,
—
1-1√3 i.
4. (2 + i). 5. ± (1-2 ).
6. (1.272.786 i).

7. {√2 + { √2 i, — {√2 — { √2i.

8. — √2 + √2 i, §√2 – †√2 i.
10. 1.0842 + .29051 i,
— .79370 + .79370 i,
- .29051 - 1.0842 i.

Art. 139 ; Page 143

1. B = 78° 9′ 22″ 2. α= 41° 11′ 53″
c = 10° 45′55″ B = 56° 19′56″
α = 2° 14' 5" c = 40° 27'11"
3. b = 8°26′ 14″ 4. B = 75° 21′ 53″
α = 120° 59′ 19″ b = 44° 43′ 49″
α = 95° 2′10″ α =: 14°59′33″
 ANSWERS 173

5. α = 111° 23 ' 47" 6. ß = 101° 38 ' 28"

B = 120° 40 ′ 56″ απ 112° 13' 48 "
C = 76° 33' 24" b = 102° 35' 26"
7. B = 46° 1' 28" 8. α = 68° 42' 11"
b = 15° 18' 0" B = 155° 48 ' 0"
α = 46° 2' 40" a = 27° 37' 26"

9. B = 153° 31 ' 29" or 26° 28' 31 "

c = 50° 43' 22 " or 129° 16 ' 38"
b = 159° 48' 44" or 20° 11'16"

Art. 142 ; Page 144

1. a = 117° 45' 28" 2. y = 88° 23' 11"
B = 96° 27' 1" α = 69° 48' 42 "
y = 93° 0' 51" b = 94° 22' 46"
3. α = 8° 49′ 46 ″ 4. α = 160° 13' 48 "
y = 28° 3' 4" B = 105° 21′ 16″
b = 106 ° 56' 53" y== 104° 25' 45"
5. Sides , 32° 45' 6" 6. Sides, 112° 32' 20"
angles , 105° 49' 32" base, 46° 15' 12"

Art. 156 ; Page 154

1. B = 11° 0' 47" 2. B = 14° 53' 47"
y== 92° 8' 27" y =170° 26' 51 "
α = 114° 42' 50" a = 55° 56' 0"
3. α = 71° 1' 23" 6. a 24° 35 ' 10"
y== 84° 22' 25" c = 43° 29' 48"
b = 82° 1' 30" B=154° 19' 20"
= 133° 28 ' 34"
8. α = 9. α = 104° 49' 50"
B = 169° 38 ' 12" B= 84° 51 ′ 42"
y = 132° 6' 14" γ = 95° 18' 24"
10. α = 84° 57' 8"
B = 57° 47' 44"
y =43° 4' 36"
174 TRIGONOMETRY

14. α = 155° 14 ' 24" or 21° 52′ 40″

B = 25° 50' 58" or 154° 9' 2"
a = 107° 34' 50 " or 58° 0' 44"
15. Two solutions. 24. No solution.

Art. 160 ; Page 159

2. 2229 miles. 3. 4291 miles.