SFI 100 LABORATORY 3.

As water percolates → facilitates further weathering of the

bedrock [the O-horizon (humus), A-horizon, bedrock are
1ST SEM present]
4. (Through time) weathering of deeper profile → formation of
B- horizon
NOTES TO TAKE INTO CONSIDERATION
- WHY DO HORIZONS OCCUR
- Formed since weathering progresses downward from the
OUTLINE surface (degree of weathering decreases downwards)
- Exercise 3: Soil Profile - Weathered material is moved downwards in
- Exercise 4: Density and Pore Spaces o Water percolating towards the water table in
- Exercise 5: Soil Texture solution leaching
- Exercise 6: Aggregate Stability and Consistency o Fine particles (eluviation), where it may accumulate
- Exercise 7: Soil Water by chemical precipitation or physical deposition
- Exercise 8: Soil Colloids (illuvation)
- Exercise 9: Acidity and Lime Requirement of Soils - Water - one of the important factors in horizon formation
- Exercise 10: Principles of Soil Testing o As water move downward though percolation →
- Exercise 11: Fertilizers weathered materials are moved downward as well
(involves leaching of clay or smaller particles) →
leached particles accumulate by chemical
THE SOIL PROFILE precipitation/physical deposition (illuviation) in the
horizon at the deeper portion
SOIL
Hypothetical forest soil profile
- Natural body synthesized in profile form from a variable
mixture of broken and weathered minerals and decaying
organic matter
- Covers earth in a thin layer
- When supplied with adequate amounts of air and water →
provides mechanical support and sustenance to plants
- Soil horizons - (as soil develops) distinct layers or bands
parallel to the earth surface may form on landscapes
- Soil profile - vertical section of soil occurs from surface to
zone of normal root penetration // often exhibits horizons
-
- Shows all the horizons that may be observed in a soil profile
- Not all these horizons need to be present in every soil profile
as soils vary from place to place (depends on factors which
influence their formation // climate, organism, relief, parent
material, time)
- Solum - horizons above the parent material (A + B) //
constitute true soil
o Topsoil = A horizon
o Subsoil = B horizon
- - Regolith - unconsolidated mantle of weathered rock and soil
- Pedogenesis
material on earth's surface/loose earth materials above solid
o Formation of soil
rock
o Combined effect of physical, chemical, biological,
- Pedon - three-dimensional body depicting characteristics of
anthropogenic processes on soil parent material
a given soil
(distinctive layers or horizons are formed in soil
profile)
Soil horizon development
o Synonymous to: soil formation/soil development
- Additions - organic matter is constantly added to soil
o Process: Additions, losses, transformations,
surface (through vegetation, and other soil organisms) →
translocations of material that compose the soil
forms A horizon
- Removals - removal of soluble products of weathering (by
Soil formation process
water percolating through soil)
- Transfers - transfer of soil constituents (silicate clays, oxides
of iron and aluminum) from A or E horizon (eluviation) and
accumulated at B horizon (illuviation)
- Transformations - transformation of parent materials →
breakdown of primary minerals & synthesis of new ones

DESIGNATION & DESCRIPTION OF MAJOR SOIL HORIZONS

THAT CAN CONSTITUTE A FOREST SOIL PROFILE

1. Bedrock begins to disintegrate (due to physical and chemical O HORIZON

weathering) - Horizons/layers dominated by organic soil materials
2. When plants start to grow at surface and eventually wither → o Some saturated with water for long periods/were
organic matter is added to topsoil (further facilitates once saturated, now artificially drained
disintegration of the bedrock) o Others = never saturated
- On top of either mineral or organic soils
 - Some O layers may consist of: o Generally contains less organic matter than A
o Undecomposed/partially decomposed litter horizon
deposited on the surface (leaves, needles, twigs, - Color
moss, lichens) o That of the sand and silt particles
o Organic material deposited under saturated o (In many soils) coatings of iron oxides/other
conditions (decomposed to varying stages) compounds mask the color of primary particles
o Materials designated as O horizons or layers o Lighter color
- Mineral fraction - constitutes only a small percentage of o Less organic matter than A horizon
volume of material // generally much less than half of its - Eluvial horizons within or between parts of B horizon or
weight extend to depths greater than those of normal observation
- On surface of a mineral soil/at any depth below surface if can be assigned the letter E if they are pedogenic
buried
- Horizon formed by illuviation of organic material into a B HORIZON
mineral subsoil = not an O horizon (although some horizons - Formed below an A, E, or O horizon
formed in this manner contains large amount of organic - Dominated by obliteration of all/much of original rock
matter) structure
- Oi - Undergone changes during soil genesis → original parent is
o Organic horizon (original form of most vegetative no longer discernable
matter is visible to the naked eye) - Have materials accumulated from horizons above (illuviation
o “L layer” - freshly fallen litter layer layer)
o Slightly decomposed - Features shown one or more of the ff:
- Oe o Illuvial concentration of silicate clay, iron,
o Organic horizon where litter has undergone aluminum, humus, carbonates, gypsum, or silica,
advance stage of decomposition alone or in combination
o “F layer” - litter is under fermented stage o Evidence of removal/addition/transformation of
o Moderately decomposed carbonates and/or gypsum
- Oa o Residual concentration of oxides
o Organic horizon where original form of most o Coatings of sesquioxides making up the horizon
plant/animal matter can’t be recognized with naked conspicuously lower in color value (higher in
eye chroma/redder in hue without apparent illuviation of
o “H layer” - humus/humified iron)
o Highly decomposed o Alteration forming silicate clay/liberates oxides/both
→ forms granular, blocky, or prismatic structure (if
A HORIZON volume changes, accompany changes in moisture
- Mineral horizons formed at surface or below an O horizon content)
- Mineral, mixed with humus, dark-colored o Brittleness
- Exhibit obliteration of all or much of the original rock structure o Strong gleying
(show one or both of the following): - Different kinds of B horizons are, or were originally,
o Accumulation of humified organic matter closely subsurface horizons
mixed with mineral fraction // not dominated by - Examples included as B horizons (where contiguous to other
properties characteristic of E/B horizons (defined genetic horizons were layers of:
below) o Illuvial concentration of carbonates
o Properties resulting from cultivation, pasturing, or o Gypsum
similar kinds of disturbance o Silica
- Still A horizon = If surface horizon has properties of both A o Result of:
and E horizons but feature emphasized is an accumulation ▪ Pedogenic processes (may or may not be
of humified organic matter cemented)
- (In some areas // warm, arid climate) undisturbed surface ▪ Brittle layers showing other evidence of
horizon is less dark than adjacent underlying horizon // alteration (prismatic structure/illuvial
contains small amounts of organic matter accumulation of clay)
- Morphology - distinct from C layer // although mineral
fraction is unaltered/slightly altered by weathering C HORIZON
- Recent alluvial/eolian deposits - retain fine stratification // - Horizons/layers (excluding strongly cemented and harder
not considered to be A horizons unless cultivated bedrock) little affected by pedogenic processes and lack
properties of O, A, E, or B horizons
E HORIZON - Zone of least weathering (least affected by soil forming
- Mineral horizons which features loss of silicate clay, iron, processes)
aluminum (Al oxides)/some combination of these → leaves - Most are mineral layers
concentration of sand and silt particles - May be either like or unlike the material from R horizon
o Horizon of maximum eluviation of silicate clays, Fe, - May be modified (even if no evidence of pedogenesis)
Al oxides - Included as C layers (typically designated Cr):
- Exhibit obliteration of all/much of the original rock structure o Sediment
- Location: o Saprolite
o Near surface o Bedrock
o Below an O or A horizon o Other geologic materials moderately
o Above a B horizon cemented/less cemented
- Differentiated from an underlying B horizon in the same o Layers with accumulations of
sequum by: silica/carbonates/gypsum/more soluble salts (even
o Color of higher value/lower chroma/both if cemented)
(lighter/darker color) ▪ If a cemented layer formed through
o Coarser texture pedogenic processes → considered a B
o Combination of these properties horizon
 - Excavation difficulty in these materials commonly -
low/moderate
- (Some soils) form in material already highly weathered, and
if such material does not meet requirements for A, E, or B
horizons → designated by letter C
- Changes not considered pedogenic = not related to overlying
horizons

R HORIZON
- Consolidated rock, with little evidence of weathering
- Strongly cemented to indurated bedrock -
- Examples designated by letter R:
o Granite
o Basalt
o Quartzite
o Limestone
o Sandstone
- Excavation difficulty commonly exceeds high
- Sufficiently coherent when moist to make hand-digging with
a spade impractical (although layer may be
chipped/scraped)
- (Some R layers) can be ripped with heavy power equipment
o Bedrock may have cracks but generally too few and
too small to allow root penetration
o Cracks may be coated/filled with clay/other material

SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

COLOR
- Munsell soil color chart
o Determines soil color
o Composed of:
▪ Color swatches - different color gradation
typical for soil
-
▪ Hue - wavelength of color/chromatic - Properties of the different particles comprising the soil
gradation of light that reaches the eye // texture
found at top right corner indicated with
initial such as R (red), Y (yellow), YR
(yellow red) with values ranging from 1 to
10
▪ Value - amount of light reflected to eye //
measured on a scale of 0–10 (from no
reflection [absolute black] to complete
reflection [absolute white]) // “degree of
lightness or darkness”
▪ Chroma - amount of dilution with white
light/degree of brightness or dullness //
ranges from 0 (neutral gray) to maximum
of 20

SOIL STRUCTURE
- Manner wherein sand, silt & clay particles are arranged
together as seen in the soil profile

SOIL TEXTURE
- Proportion of particles in different size ranges (sand, silt,
clay)
- Similar to particle sizes discussed in clastic sedimentary
rocks
- Measured qualitatively (feel method)/quantitatively (we
will do this in Exercise no. 5)
 - Ruler - measure ribbon formed for soil texture by feel method
- Feel method diagram - guide to determine soil texture
- Marker –label sample
- Sample bag/plastic bag
- Sample holder/tray

DENSITY AND PORE SPACES

SOILS
- Made up of materials in three different states (solid, liquid,
gas)
- Liquid & gaseous constituents - occupy pore spaces
between solid particles of a soil mass
- Soil density - represented in two ways:
- o Particle density
o Bulk density
STONINESS - Pore space - computed from bulk density & particle density
- Presence of stones or rock fragments in different horizons of
soil PARTICLE DENSITY (PD)
- Figure shows different descriptions we can use to measure - Mass/weight of unit volume of solid particles of soils
stoniness of soil horizon (important when designating - Expressed as - ratio of total mass of solid particles to their
horizon name) total volumes (excluding pore spaces between particles)
o Example: horizon C is typically described as very o Unit = gram per cubic centimeter (g.cm-
stony to excessively stony (still contains 3)/megagram per cubic meter (Mg.m-3)(1 Mg.m-3
unweathered rock fragments). = 1 g.cm-3)
- Descriptions for stoniness - Used in most mathematical expressions where volume or
weight of a soil sample is being considered
- Interrelationships of porosity, bulk density, air space and
rates of sedimentation of particles in fluids depend on PD
- PD of soils - varies within 2.60 and 2.75 g/cm3 // used when
PD is unknown or analysis was not carried out = 2.65 g/cm3
- Same as specific gravity of a solid substance (mineral)

BULK DENSITY (BD)

- “Soil bulk density”
- Mass of a volume of dry soil
- Ratio of mass to bulk/volume of soil particles + pore spaces
BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY in a sample
- Presence of different organisms - Needed for
- Earthworm Count o Converting water percentage by weight to content
o Count and identify (if possible) the earthworms by volume
present o Calculating porosity when PD is known
o If other organisms are present, count and identify o Estimating weight of a volume of soil too large to be
them weighed conveniently
- Earthworms - Varies with structural condition of soil (those related to
o Contribute nutrients to soil → improve porosity, tilth, compaction)
& root development - Unit of expression - follows that of PD
o Contribute to building of soil structure & aggregate
stabilization PORE SPACE (PS)
- Earthworm cast - “Porosity”
o Digested material excreted back into soil - Volume percentage of total bulk of soil not occupied by solid
o Cast - enriched with nutrients (N, P, K, and Ca) & particles
microorganisms during its passage through the - Related to PD and BD by the formula:
worm's digestive system

METHODOLOGY: MATERIALS

o
- What amount of pore space influences
o Storage & movement of water & gases (percolation
and infiltration of water & water saturation in the soil
profile)
o Development of root systems by plants
o Flow & retention of heat
o Investigations of soil strength

- METHODOLOGY
- Shovel - dig the soil
- Meter tape - measure soil profile
- Munsell soil color chart - determine color of soil
- Clean piece of paper - to get a soil color swatch
 o All water or moisture from the soil sample has been
removed → only weight of soil sample is collected
- YOUTUBE VID GUIDE:
o https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2N0iE7NUOY
U

SOIL TEXTURE
- Relative proportion of sand, silt and clay
- Important soil property // determines:
- o Total amount of surface area available for
absorption of water and nutrients
o Amount of air and water movement through the soil
- (Note) total pore spaces of a soil with finer particles = greater
than soil with large particles
o Large particles in the soil (sand) = large pore
spaces
o Fine particles in the soil = small pore spaces
o Water moves rapidly & is poorly retained in coarse-
textured sandy soils // water moves slowly & is
- strongly retained in fine-textured, clayey soils
o Solid particles at the bottom = particle density
o Pore space = being computed
o Particle density is always higher than bulk density

o
- Soil particles - occupy approximately ½ of total volume of
most soils
- o Separates - classification into size groups of
o Beaker & Measurement cup - particle density particles
measurement // to place the distilled water and the
soil sample TEXTURAL CLASSIFICATION
o Pycnometer - container for obtaining density of - Based on amount of particles 2.0 mm & below in diameter
liquid (fine earth fraction)
o Core sampler - collect soil sample - Particles larger than 2.00 mm (coarse fragments) // present
▪ Core sleeve - aluminum tube placed inside in appreciable amounts → appropriate adjective is added to
core sampler // measurement will be used textural name of the soil (gravelly loam/stony loam)
to obtain volume of the soil sample - Diameter (ISSS) and characteristics of soil separates
o Spatula - to cut excess sample from the core
sleeve
- Particle Density (PD)
o Calculated from two measured quantities
▪ Mass (oven-dry) of the sample
• Determined by weighing
▪ Volume
• Determined by calculation from
mass and density of water
displaced by sample (water
displacement method) .

MECHANICAL ANALYSIS
- Determination of amounts of various separates present in
soil
- Amounts of silt and clay are usually determined indirectly by
measurement of the speed of fall of these individual particles
▪ dispersed in water
- Bulk Density (BD)
o Mass - determined after drying to constant weight
STOKES' LAW
at 105C & volume is that of samples taken in the
- shows relationship between size of particle & its rate of fall //
field
simplified form: V = Kr2
o V = limiting velocity of a particle falling in an
aqueous medium
o K = constant equal to 40,280
o r = radius of particle
▪
 o Determines time required for all particles of a given - Compute for correction factor (C), for each hydrometer
size to fall past some point in a column of reading of the soil suspension
suspension o C = OHRb if Ts = Tb
o Velocity of settling is proportional to the square of o If Ts is different from Tb → C is calculated as:
particle diameter → bigger particles settle more ▪ C = OHRb + 0.36 (Ts - Tb)
quickly o Temp of soil suspension and blank solution=
- (Application of Stokes’ Law in determination of texture) expressed in degree centigrade
assumes soil particles are perfectly spherical & have same - Compute the corrected hydrometer reading (CHR) for soil
density suspension from observed hydrometer reading (OHR) using
- (Despite limitations) methods based on principles of Stokes’ formula:
Law = best designed for soil texture determination o CHR = OHRs - C
- 2 methods of mechanical analysis based on Stokes’ Law - Calculate percentage of each soil separate & determine the
(determined indirectly by measurement of speed of fall of texture of soil sample referring to textural diagram//soil
individual particles) texture calculator (visit www.nrcs.usda.gov and search for it)
o Pipette Method - sampling of a definite volume of - (Note) hydrometer is calibrated → so that corrected
soil particles at a given depth from a soil suspension reading gives the concentration (grams per 100 mL) of soil
after a definite settling time has elapsed material in suspension
o Hydrometer Method o (Since larger soil particles fall faster than smaller
▪ Measures grain size distribution & particles) concentration of particles at top portion of
monitoring the rate at which soil particles suspension decreases with time → corrected 40
settle out of suspension second hydrometer reading = amount of silt + clay
▪ Measure the mass of solids in suspension // corrected 2-hour reading = amount of clay in the
by measuring the specific gravity soil suspension
▪ Mechanical analysis relying on principles
of dispersion and sedimentation
▪ Addition of dispersing agent to soil
suspension → increase in density of liquid
& necessitates correction to observed
hydrometer reading
• Measurement of blank sample
▪ Soil suspension - mixture of dispersed soil
particles in water

Example:

▪
• Remaining fraction in
suspension - clay particles

METHODOLOGY

MATERIALS NEEDED
- Pulverized air - dried soil with known moisture content
(%MC) which has passed through a 2 mm sieve
- Dispersing Agent - prepared by dissolving 40.9 g of sodium
hexametaphosphate & 9.1 g of sodium carbonate in distilled
AGGREGATE STABILITY AND CONSISTENCY
water and diluted to 1 liter volume // combination leads to
Calgon - Cementing/binding together of primary soil particles into a
- Motor mixer (or any electric mixer) & dispersion cup secondary unit, aggregate or granule
- Sedimentation/Graduated cylinder & wash bottle - Water-stable aggregates - does not disintegrate //
- Tap water important to soil
- Plunger
- Graduated cylinder (100 mL)
- Hydrometer FACTORS INFLUENCING AGGREGATE FORMATION
- Thermometer - Wetting & drying intervals
- Freezing & thawing (not significant in the tropics)
DATA SET AND CALCULATION/RESULTS - Activities of roots & soil animals
- Expressions - Decaying organic matter
o C = correction factor - Adsorbed cations
o OHRb = observed hydrometer reading of blank - Soil tillage
solution - (Note) organic matter - major agent in soil aggregation //
o Ts = temp of soil suspension binds soil particles together // increases soil porosity
o Tb = temp of blank solution
o CHR = corrected hyrdrometer reading DECAY-CAUSING MICROOGRANISMS
 - Slime formed from decay-causing microorganisms - o As additional water is added to the soil → water
encourages crumb development & exerts stabilizing films between soil particles increase in thickness &
properties to soils cohesion between particles is reduced to a
minimum
ADSORBED CATIONS o Soil mass - will now flow under an applied force as
- Influence of adsorbed cations on soil aggregation depends it has passed from the plastic to the liquid state
upon relative amounts of cations in soils - Albert Atterberg
- Examples: o First described the three limits
o Sodium = predominant → particles are dispersed o Swedish Chemist
& creates an undesirable structure o Developed them to measure plasticity of clays //
o Calcium = encourages granulation/flocculation used in measuring:
▪ Water holding properties
ACTIVITIES OF ROOTS & SOIL ANIMALS ▪ Shrinkage
- Activities of earthworms, termites, ants, other macrofauna ▪ Swelling
may directly affect soil structure & aggregation ▪ Compressibility
▪ Permeability
▪ Strength of soils
AGGREGATE STABILITY
- Practically important METHODOLOGY
- (Note) some granules readily succumb to beating of rain &
erosion // others may be resistant
- Differences in aggregate stability - related to presence or ACTIVITY 1 (AGGREGATE STABILITY)
absence of certain binding agents, types of clays, presence - Materials needed:
of iron oxides o Soil aggregates from grassland and forest
- Kaolinite-dominated (non-expanding) granules - more o Water & wash bottle
stable than soils where montmorillonite (expanding) pre- o Plastic/glass container
dominates - Sample procedure:
- Iron oxides - have cementing properties → more stable 1. Place aggregates from grassland soil and forest soil
granules into two separate beakers (or plastic containers)
2. Add equal amount of water into two containers //
aggregates should be fully submerged // (to avoid
SOIL CONSISTENCY
soil disaggregation due to splash action) water is
- Resistance of soil to crushing & ability to be molded/changed added along the sides of plastic container
in shape 3. Submerge aggregates for at least 10 minutes
- Dependent on the soil’s moisture content before examining the result of the aggregation test
- Soil consistency in the field - loose, friable, firm, soft,
plastic, sticky

LIMIT
- Minimum moisture content in which soil still exhibits a certain
property

Used as an index of its workability or firmness // these are as follows:

- Liquid limit - water content where soil becomes semi-fluid
o
(like softened butter)
o (In the laboratory) liquid limit is determined using ACTIVITY 2 (DETERMINATION OF THE PLASTIC AND STICKY
Casagrande’s apparatus where a trapezoidal LIMITS OF SOIL)
groove of a specified shape is cut in moist soil - Materials needed:
placed in a special cup o Pulverized air-dried soil which has passed through
o Number of taps on a hard rubber plate, to close the a 2 mm sieve
groove is counted o Spatula
o Soil in the cup = 1 cm deep o Water & wash bottle
o Grove = 2 mm wide at the bottom o Sample holder (paper boxes)
o Angle = slopes outward at a 60° angle from the o Oven
horizontal o Ruler
o (Note) not measured in this exercise - Sample procedure:
- Plastic limit - water content at which soil begins to crumble o 2.A. Plastic limit
on being rolled into a thread 3 mm in diameter 1. A scoopful of air dry, pulverized, and
o Lowest water content at which soils can be sieved (< 2 mm diameter) soil sample was
deformed readily without cracking placed prepared // thoroughly mix the
o Difference between liquid and plastic limits sample with tap water until it becomes
▪ Gives plastic index (value indicating plastic enough to be shaped into a ball
"clayeyness" or plasticity of clay) 2. Roll the ball against laboratory table using
- Sticky limit - water content where soil no longer sticks to a sufficient pressure to form a thread // when
smooth surface (like a steel spatula drawn over its surface) the thread kneaded crumbles when it is 3
o Minimum value of sticky limit - occurs in fine sand mm in diameter (about the same diameter
at about 16 with a pretzel stick) = soil has reached its
o Sticky & liquid limits - often nearly the same plastic limit
- (Note) soil exhibits plastic properties when sufficient water
has been added to orient the particles
 3. 3 sample boxes with a mass >5 g were
prepared (made to make sure change in
weight is obvious)
4. Measure mass of sample (water content of
the soil) before drying it in the oven
(gravimetric method) // measurement is
noted as = fresh weight (FW)
5. Data for oven dried weight (ODW) were o
o Compute for the moisture content using the
measured after 24 hours
formula:

▪
▪ Average of the water contents (ODW),
expressed to the nearest whole number
without the % sign as the plastic and sticky
limits

▪ SOIL WATER
o 2.B. Sticky limit (sticky limit sample = starting - Accounts for innumerable chemical, physical & biological
material for plastic limit)
processes occurring in the soil
▪ Sample used - remaining sample from
- Functions
plastic limit only this time but maintained
o Acts as a solvent
in a ball shape
o Acts as a carrier of plant nutrients
▪ Three (3) sample boxes with one (1) ball o Functions as a nutrient itself
were prepared
- Determination of capacity of soil for storage of available
▪ The samples fresh weight (FW) was
water
measured before drying it in the oven for
o Texture
24 hours (similar to plastic limit sample)
o Porosity
1. Roll the ball into the palm repeatedly // o Rooting volume of the vegetation
process transferred the moisture in a ball
- The rate of water movement into & through the soil =
to the skin
important in determining effectiveness of soil as a reservoir
2. Use a clean spatula to test the sticky limit
of water for plants
and press the ball across the surface of
- Too much water = loss of soil fertility through erosion &
the spatula, wherein a slight pressure was leaching
used to test for adherence // soil
adhered/left a stain mark to the spatula =
sticky limit has not been met
3. Roll the ball again until the adherence WATER MOVEMENT
stopped or didn’t leave a stain mark on the
spatula - Soil-water relation has some practical significance (in
conservation of soil & water resources)
- Soil erosion as a result of run off & slow rate of downward
movement of water is becoming a serious soil problem in the
country
- Desirable to have rainwater enter soil & percolate to lower
layers of soil profile rather than to have it run off the surface
o (Through percolation) nutrients are removed
o (Through run off) both soil & nutrients are carried
away
- Importance of aggregate stability in encouraging entry of
▪ water into the soil = can be over-emphasized

DATA SET AND CALCULATION/RESULTS

SOIL MOISTURE CONSTANTS
- Expressions
o FW - fresh weight
o ODW - oven dried weight MAXIMUM WATER HOLDING CAPACITY
o % MC - moisture content - Amount of soil moisture that can be held by soil when all of
- Activity 1. Aggregate stability pore spaces are filled up with water/during saturation
o From the data given above, describe the soil
aggregates just after submerging the samples in FIELD CAPACITY
water and after 10 minutes. Also describe the color - Amount of water held by soil when a previously saturated soil
of the water. is allowed to drain until that point when drainage has stopped
o All of macropores are emptied & only micropores
are filled with water
o Water molecules at surface of water film are held
by soil at a force equal to 1/3 atmosphere
o From your observation, which aggregate is more
stable? Why? PERMANENT WILTING POINT/WILTING COEFFICIENT
- Activity 2. Determination of the plastic and sticky limits - Amount of water held by soil when plants growing in it starts
of soil to wilt permanently
 o Water molecules are held more tightly by soil with a - (Due to their small size) soil colloids expose large external
force equal to 15 atmospheres surface area
- (Some of them, especially some silicate clays) have
HYGROSCOPIC COEFFICIENT extensive internal surface (occur between plates like crystal
- Moisture content of soil when water exists mostly in the vapor units)
phase intimately associated with the soil particles
o Water molecules are held very tightly by the soil SURFACE CHARGES
with a force equal to 31 atmospheres - Soil colloidal surfaces (both internal & external) carry
negative and/or positive charges
- (Most colloids especially the silicate clays) have net negative
ACTIVITY 1 WATER MOVEMENT charges

MATERIALS NEEDED ADSORPTION OF CATIONS AND WATER

- Pulverized air-dried soil which has passed through a 2 mm - (Due to the charges on the surfaces of soil colloids)
sieve oppositely-charged ions are attracted to these surfaces → an
- Sand sample ionic double layer is formed (consists of inner layer of
- Glass tubes with holes at both ends negative charges on surface of soil colloids & outer layer of
- Beakers a swarm of adsorbed cations)
- Marker - Water molecules attracted to adsorbed cations = associated
- Ruler with soil colloidal particles
o Water molecules - important determinants of soil
physical & CHEMICAL properties
- (In humid regions) cations Ca, Al, H predominate
- (In arid regions soil) cations Ca, Mg, K, Na predominate
- Order of strength of adsorption of cation by soil particles are
in the order:
o Al3+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ > K+ = 4NH+ > Na+

FLOCCULATION AND DISPERSION

- Soil colloids are dispersed → each particle is surrounded by
- water
- Dispersed clays move with percolating water & tend to clog
pore spaces → hardens eventually → adjacent cements
ACTIVITY 2 SOIL MOISTURE CONSTANTS
aggregates together → reduces infiltration, drainage &
aeration in soil
MATERIALS NEEDED
- Pulverized air-dried soil which has passed through a 2 mm SHRINKING AND SWELLING
sieve - Soil colloids predominated by 2:1 expanding type silicate
- Filter paper clays = exhibit swelling (when wetted) & shrinking (when
- Perforated can dried)
- Weighing scale - Brought by admission of water molecules between clay units

CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY (CEC)

SOIL COLLOIDS - Cation exchange - process where cations are exchanged
- Very minute soil particles between surfaces of soil colloids & soil solution or the surface
- Most chemically active fraction of the soil of plant roots
- (On the surfaces of these colloidal particles) occur ion - Cation exchange capacity - sum total of exchangeable
exchange reactions between soil solution & plant roots cations a unit weight of soil can adsorb
- Sites within soil where most of essential mineral elements - Property is dependent on amount & type of clay in soil
are held & protected from excessive loss by percolating - An increasing amount of organic materials (humus) → higher
rain/drainage water CEC

TYPES OF SOIL COLLOIDS

- Inorganic
o Silicate clays
o Iron & aluminum oxide clays
o Allophanes & associated amorphous clays
- Organic
o Humus

-
INORGANIC SOIL COLLOIDS

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL COLLOIDS

SILICATE CLAY
- Structure
SIZE o Crystalline, layer-like structures made up basically
- Colloidal particles are minute (<1 μm) of alumina and silica sheets
- Only seen under a powerful microscope o Silica tetrahedron - basic building block for the silica
sheet // 4-sided figure composed of a silicon (Si)
SURFACE AREA atom surrounded by 4 oxygen (O) atoms
 o Aluminum (Al) or magnesium (Mg) octahedron - 8- together → prevents expansion when
sided structure made up of Al or Mg ion surrounded wetted)
by 6 Oh or O atom • Examples: vermiculite, illite (with
o Tetrahedral and octahedral sheets - bound together high K-fixing capacity)
within crystal by shared oxygen atoms into different o 2:1:1 type minerals
layers ▪ Made up 2 Si tetrahedral sheets, 1 Al
- Charges octahedral sheet & 1 Mg dominated
o Two kinds of net charges octahedral sheet
▪ Permanent charge ▪ No expansion occurs when clay is wetted
▪ pH dependent charge as extra octahedral sheet lightly binds 2:1
o Permanent charges layers together
▪ Produced through isomorphous ▪ Example: chlorite
substitution (process where a centrally
placed cation is replaced by another HYDROUS OXIDES OF FE AND AL
cation of different valency without - Dominant in highly weathered red & yellow soils of humid
changing structure of mineral → results to tropics
a positive/negative net charge) - May be: crystalline or amorphous
▪ Can happen in both tetrahedral/octahedral - Not as sticky & plastic as silicate clays at high pH values
sheets - Micelles - carry a net negative charge at low pH
▪ Example: when Al3+ substitute for Si4+ in - Fe & Al oxides - positively charged & attract anions instead
tetrahedral sheet → excess negative of cations
charge results // when Al3+ substitute for
Mg2+ → excess positive charge result ALLOPHANES AND OTHER AMORPHOUS MATERIALS
▪ Net charge associated with clays = - May be: amorphous or crystalline
balance between positive and negative - Lacks ordered crystalline structure to be detected by X-rays
charges - Allophane
▪ (In most silicate clays) net negative o Most important member of the group
charges predominate o Prevalent in soils developed from volcanic ash
o pH dependent charge
▪ Results from dissociation of H from
hydroxyl (OH) groups at the broken edges ORGANIC SOIL COLLOIDS
of minerals during rise in soil Ph
- Types HUMUS
o (On the basis of the number and arrangement of - Colloidal organization of humus is similar to clay = highly
tetrahedral and octahedral sheets in their crystal charged micelle surrounded by cations
units or layer) silicate clays are classified into 3 - Composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
groups: - Negative charges - due to partially dissociated hydroxyl (-
▪ 1:1 OH), carboxyl (- COOH) & phenolic groups
▪ 2:1 - (Rise in pH) hydrogen ions dissociate from these groups to
▪ 2:1:1 produce excess negative charges
o 1:1 type minerals
▪ Made up of 1 Si sheet (1 Al sheet held
together tightly by mutually shared O ACTIVITY
atoms // these layers are held together by
strong H bonding → fixes distance MATERIALS NEEDED
between clay units → no expansion - Pulverized air - dried soil which has passed through a 2 mm
occurs when clay is wetted & cations and sieve from Makiling soil, Caliraya soil & sand
water do not enter between clay units → - Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
has only external surface & low capacity - Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)
for adsorption of cations - Test tubes
▪ Examples: kaolinite, halloysite, nacrite - Distilled water
dickite - Gentian violet
o 2:1 type minerals - Graduated cylinder
▪ Made up of an Al sheet sandwiched
between 2 Si sheets
▪ May be expanding or non-expanding clays ACIDITY AND LIME REUIREMENT OF SOILS
▪ Expanding - weak oxygen to oxygen
bonds allow attraction of water & cations
SOIL REACTION
into interlayer spaces →
- Acidity/alkalinity of the soil that is the H+ concentration of its
swelling/expansion (when clays are
solution
wetted) → has internal surface aside from
- Acidity = commonly expressed in terms of soil Ph
external surfaces & capacity to adsorb
- pH = conventionally defined by equation
more nutrients
• Examples: smectites (composed
of montmorillonite), beidellite,
nontronite saponite
▪ Non-expanding - isomorphous
substitution of Si4+ by Al3+ produces net o :
negative charges that attract K ions into
interlayer units of the clay (these K ions
act as binding agent → hold clay units DETERMINATION OF SOIL pH
 1. Potentiometric method (pH meter) - involves use of an
electrode that measures H+ concentration in soil solution //
commonly used in laboratory (although portable meters are
also available) // most accurate method of determining soil
pH // soil solution = usually prepared by mixing pulverized &
sieved air-dry soil with distilled water at a ratio of 1:1
2. Colorimetric/Dye method - (when dyes come in contact ▪
with the soil) former (unbuffered) tends to assume pH of soil o (Before sampling) area where the auger will be
under test // (as soon as the equilibrium has been attained) placed was cleaned, removing the grass & leaves
some of dye may be pulled → color is compared with a on the surface // auger blade is directed in
standard color chart from which soil pH is estimated clockwise position = rotation of auger should also
- Ideal soil pH is pegged at 6.5 be in a clockwise orientation
o (If soil is found to be too acidic) liming is commonly
practiced → lime = defined as any calcium or
magnesium compound (i.e., capable of neutralizing
soil acidity)
o Common limes: calcium oxide or burned lime
(CaO), hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2, limestone [calcic
(CaCO3), dolomitic (CaCO3.MgCO3)], marl, and
shells

PRINCIPLES OF SOIL TESTING

o
- (In silviculture) fertilization = a must especially in nurseries - Soil samples = collected into a clean pail & mixed // large
when nutrient depletion is relatively fast due to high planting clods were broken into smaller pieces (i.e., 1 kilogram of soil
densities is taken) → “representative soil sample”, which
- Kind & amount of fertilizer to use requires a previous approximates an average of soil properties of sampling lot
knowledge of nutrient status of soil // nutrient supplying
capacity of the soil = can be assessed through the following
ways
o Pot test
o Field test
o Diagnosis of plant nutrient deficiency and toxicity
symptoms
o Soil and plant analysis
- Use of soil chemical test = has an advantage over other
methods because nutritional problem in soil is detected even
before plant is established unlike other methods which can o
- Sample is placed into a plastic bag & properly labeled with
be used only when plants are already actively growing
following information
- (In terms of probability of obtaining plant response to added
o Name & address of person submitting sample
fertilizers) use of soil test becomes more meaningful than
o Location of sampling
analysis // (however) it should be emphasized soil testing per
o Kind of species grown & to be grown
se does not completely provide thorough evaluation of
o Kind & amount of fertilizer used in the past
fertility status of soils
o Slope & amount of erosion
o Drainage conditions
Two general methods of soil chemical test
- Total chemical analysis - considers reserve & available
PREPARATION OF SOIL SAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS
forms of nutrients
- Usually done in soil testing laboratories similar to step done
- Rapid soil test - accounts only for available forms at the time
after Exercise 3 soil collection
the soil is being analyzed
a) Sample was spread on a piece of paper & air-dried for about
1-2 weeks
STEPS IN SOIL TESTING b) It was pulverized & allowed to pass through a 2 mm sieve &
stored in an air-tight container properly labeled
COLLECTION OF SOIL SAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS ACTUAL SOIL TESTING
- Area was divided into sampling lots // each lot should be - Routine soil resting includes
uniform in terms of topography & degree of erosion, o Determination of soil pH
drainage, soil color, past lime, fertilizer treatments & types of o Organic matter
species grown o Available phosphorus
- Soil samples were collected at random from different spots o Exchangeable potassium of soils
in sampling lot // surface soil samples = collected from small - General procedure for soil testing involves
pits dug 0-8 inches deep (0-20 cm, the typical rooting depth o Shaking in a flask a small amount of sample
of agronomic crops) & taking a small slice of soil from side of together with a measured amount of extracting
the pit // sampling may be done with use of a shovel, a bolo solution
or a soil auger // (note) avoid sampling from abnormal spots - Extract = filtered off // chemical determinations for the
(e.g., manure piles, low piles, low spots, gullies, old fertilizer nutrients of interest = done on filtrate → chemist attempts to
hand) // (if of interest) do their sampling separately // total of extract in a few minutes amount of nutrients which is
about 15-20 samples may be collected in same manner comparable or proportionate to that absorbed by plants
o Materials - (For the test to be of value) should be calibrated with plant
response to application of plant nutrients on a large number
 of samples in both field and greenhouse studies = to cover a
range from low to high content of nutrient in question
- (For this exercise) samples were analyzed using soil test kit
of College of Agriculture and Food Science (UPLB) //
procedure in test kit were followed // sample used for this
activity is from representative sample taken in Arbor Square

FERTILIZERS
- Materials applied to soil/directly on plant to provide essential
- elements for plant utilization
- Nitrogen test result: medium - (In the broad sense of the term) it includes chemical
fertilizers, manures, compost, etc.
- Most common connotation of the term = commercial
fertilizers or those fertilizers available in the market
- Improvement of site condition by application of fertilizers =
logical silvicultural practice following demonstration of
nutritional response in various tree species
- Recent trend in silvicultural practice requires understanding
o
- Phosphorus test result: low of fertilizer characteristics & their effects on soil & how they
are affected by soil properties

BASIC FERTILIZER COMPUTATIONS

𝑤𝑡. 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑟 =
% 𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
= 𝑤𝑡. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑟 × % 𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
o
- Potassium test result: sufficient (-) sign = percentage of fertilizer grade
(+) sign = kg recommended wt.

𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 (𝑘𝑔)

𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝑘𝑔 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (ℎ𝑎)
= ℎ𝑎 )
% 𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙

1. To calculate for the amount of fertilizer materials needed to

supply the corresponding amount of nutrients, use:
𝑤𝑡.𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
a. 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑟 = % 𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
o

INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

- Most critical part in any soil testing program // (once results
of the chemical test are obtained) fertilizer recommendations b.
2. To compute for weight of nutrient contained in a given
must be made // must be emphasized that at present, there
amount of fertilizer material, use:
is a dearth of information on nutrition & fertilizer responses
a. 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑤𝑡. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑟 ×
of forest species grown in various Philippines soils //
recommendations could only be based on general % 𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
agricultural crop responses // considerations should be given b.
to possible differences in rooting habits & life span of species
in question
- Shall be emphasized that an ideal soil testing program
whether in agriculture/forestry // should go hand in hand with 3. When more than one nutrient/element are needed to be
field experiments & soil test should be correlated with plant applied and the availability of ready mixed fertilizer is scarce,
response // no perfect interpretation & exact mixing of several fertilizer materials is resorted to. In the
recommendation // (remember) soil test = just a tool to help formulation of mixed fertilizers, several problems must be
one approach answer as to what plant needs considered. Among them are the following:
- (For the soil test kit of CAFS-UPLB) fertilizer a. Mixing two or more fertilizers should not result to
recommendation = included in the booklet caking or hardening
b. Addition of one component should not reduce the
availability of any of the others
 c. In order to be sure that the percentage composition
of fertilizers is correct, use small quantities of filler.

PREPARATION OF HOME-MIXED FERTILIZER

- Example: A tree farmer wishes to make 1000 kg/1 ton of 8-
12-12 mixed fertilizer. He has Ammonium sulfate (20-0-0);
Triple superphosphate (0-45-0) and Muriate of potash (0-0-
60). How would he prepare the desired mixture?

STEP 1

STEP 2

STEP 3

The resulting mixing table based on the given example

See additional discussion on fertilizer calculation in the presentation:

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1VFqRUVFMZAS3A7lYeBxYOS0GK6
fVpwAX/view