Nerve tissue

 It is the master controlling and communicating system of the body.

 Nerve cells are highly specialized to react to stimuli and conduct the
excitation from one region of the body to another.
 The nervous system shows both irritability and conductivity properties
that are essential to the functions of nervous tissue to provide
communication and to coordinate body activities.
 Thus the function of the nervous system is to receive stimuli from both
the internal and external environments, which are then analyzed and
integrated to produce appropriate, coordinated responses in various
effector organs.
 Nerve tissue is distributed throughout the body as an integrated
communications network.
 Anatomically, the nervous system is divided into
 The central nervous system (CNS) consisting of the brain and the
spinal cord; and
 The peripheral nervous system (PNS) composed of nerve fibers and
ganglia.
 Clusters of cell bodies in the central nervous system are
called nuclei, while the cell bodies lining the nerves in the
peripheral nervous system are called ganglia.
 Nervous tissue specialized to perceive external stimuli are
called a receptor, from which sensory stimuli are carried
by the peripheral nervous system to the central nervous
system.
 Other neurons, the effectors, conduct nerve impulses from
the CNS and other tissues, where they elicit an effect.
 Functionally, the nervous system is divided into somatic
nervous system, which is involved in voluntary functions, and
 Autonomic nervous system, which exerts control over many
involuntary functions.
 By creating, analyzing, identifying and integrating information,
 the nervous system generates two great classes of functions,
stabilization of the intrinsic conditions (e.g. blood pressure,
02 and co2 content, PH, blood glucose levels, and hormone
levels) of the organism within normal ranges; and behavioral
patterns (e.g feeding, reproduction, defense, interaction with
other living creatures).
 Neurons
 Nerve cells or neurons are independent structural and functional
units of nervous tissue.
 They are responsible for the reception, transmission, and
processing of stimuli.
 Neurons are usually large and complex in shape, consist of three
parts;
 Cell body or perikaryon: which represents the tropic center for
the whole nerve cell and is also receptive to stimuli the
dendrites.
 Dendrites: are multiple elongated processes specialized in
receiving stimuli from the environment.
 Axon: is a single process, specialized in generating or
conducting nerve impulses to other cells (nerve, muscle and
gland cells).
 Action potentials arise in the cell body as a result of integration
of afferent (incoming) stimuli; action potentials are then
conducted along the axon to influence other neurons or effector
organs. Action potentials is mode through which a
neuron transports electrical signals
 Types: Neurons have a wide variety of shapes, which fall in to
three main patterns according to the arrangement of the axon
and dendrites with respect to the cell body.
 Multipolar neuron
 most common form neuron in which numerous dendrites
project from the cell body; the dendrites may all arise from
one pole of the cell body or may extend from all parts of the
cell body
Bipolar neurons
o Have only a single dendrite, which arises from the pole
of the cell body opposite to the origin of the axon.
Unipolar neurons

 Single dendrites and the axon arise form a common stem of the
cell body.
 In general, neuron impulses are conveyed along dendrites
towards the nerve cell body (afferent) whilst axons convey
impulses away from the nerve cell body (efferent).
Functional classification

 Sensory neurons: convey impulses from receptors to the CNS

 Motor neurons: convey impulses from the CNS to effector cells
 Interneurons : form a communicating and integrating network
between the sensory and motor neurons
Parts of neurons
1. Cell body (perikaryon) The cell body contains the nucleus
and surrounding cytoplasm, exclusive of the cell processes, the
perikaryon of most neurons receives a great number of nerve
endings that convey excitatory or inhibitory stimuli generated
in other nerve cells.
 The cell body contains a highly developed rough endoplasmic
reticulum.
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum and free ribosomes appear under
light microscope as a basophilic granular area called Nissil
bodies.
2. Nerve processes (dendrites and axons)
Nerve processes are cytoplasmic extension of the cell body and
occur as dendrites and axons.
Each neuron has several dendrites that extend from the
perikaryone and form branch like extensions,/dendrites increase
the receptive area of the cell.
 Most neurons have only one axon; a very few have no axon at all.
 All axons originate form a short pyramid- shaped region, the axon
hillock.
Synapse
 Synapses are the sites where contact occurs between neurons or
between- neurons and other effector cells (eg. Muscle and glands cells).
 The function of the synapse is to convert an electrical signal (impulse)
from the pre synaptic cell into a chemical signal that can be transferred
to the postsynaptic cell releasing chemical messengers.
 It is responsible for the unidirectional transmissions of nerve impulses.
Supportive cells of nervous system
Neuroglia
 Most of the cells are non-neuronal supporting cells called
neuroglia
 also called glial cells
 Neuroglia account for over half the weight of the brain.
 They are smaller than neurons and found scattered among
neurons and their processes.
 Neuroglia includes found in the central nervous
system are
 ependymal cells,
 astrocytes,
 oligodendrocytes, and
 microglia.
 Astrocytes and oligodendrocytes are called
macroglia.
Supportive cells of central nerve
system (CNS)
Astrocytes
o are star shaped cells with many branching cytoplasmic
processes
o They are important as supporting or structural element in the
CNS.
o After brain damage, astrocytes remove
neuronal debris and form a ‗seal‘ around damaged areas,
sometimes leading to scarring.
o Help as the form of blood-brain barrier, support the appropriate
chemical environment for neurons
Oligodendrocytes
 Are smaller than astocytes with fewer, shorter cell processes.
They occur mainly in two locations,
 In the gray matter closely associated with the cell body of
neurons and
 Among bundles of axons in white matter
 They are responsible for myelin formation, extending to wrap-
around nerve fibers in a spiral fashion
 they have several processes and forms myelin sheaths around
several adjacent nerve fibers.
Microglia
 Are small, elongated cells with short, spiny processes, they lie in
both white and gray matter, usually near blood vesicles;
 they are the main source of phagocytic cells in CNS.
 Phagocytes in the CNS that engulf microbes and cellular debris.
Ependymal cells
 Are cells lining the cavities (ventricles of brain and central canal
of the spinal cord.
 Form blood-brain barrier in the brain ventricles and central canal
of spinal cord.
 Produce cerebrospinal fluid and assist in its circulation.
 They are columnar epithelial type with few cilia.
Supportive Cells of the PNS
The two types of neuroglia found in the peripheral nervous
system are satellite cells and Schwann cells
Schwann cells
 Schwann cells have same function as oligodendrocytes but are
located around axons on the peripheral nervous system.
 A single schwann cell forms myelin around one axon, in contrast
to the ability of oligodendrocytes to branch and serve more than
one neuron and its processes.
 Schwann cells that form the myelin sheath.
 The nucleus of a Schwann cell is flattened, surrounded by
abundant cytoplasm.
 These cells form myelin sheath in the peripheral nerves, thus
protecting and insulating them.
 Due to the presence of myelin sheath the passage of impulse is faster
as the rate of conduction is directly proportional to the thickness of
the myelin.

SATELLITE CELLS or CAPSULAR CELLS

 These are flat cells with prominent nuclei.
 They surround the neurons of the spinal and autonomic ganglia, thus
forming a multinucleated capsule for these irreparable cells.
 They support and protect the neurons
 Satellite cells associated with sensory neuron cell bodies
The central nervous system
 The central nervous system consists of the cerebrum,
cerebellum, and spinal cord
White and gray matter: when sectioned, the cerebrum,
cerebellum and spinal cord show regions of white
(white matter) and gray (gray matter).
 The differential distribution of myelin in the central
nervous system is responsible for these differences.
 The main component of white matter is myelinated
axons and the myelin- production oligodendrocytes.
Gray matter
 contains neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, and the initial
unmyelinated portions of the axons and glial cells; this is
the region where synapses occur.
 The gray matter contains abundant astrocytes and large
neuronal cell bodies, especially those of motor neurons.
 The white matter surrounds the gray matter and contains
primarily oligodendrocytes and tracts of myelinated axons
running along the length of the cord.
Meninges
 Between the bone and nervous tissue are membranes of
connective tissue called the meninges.
 The innermost pia mater, the middle arachnoid, and the outer
dura mater.
Dura matter:
 Is the external layer and is composed of dense connective
tissue continuous with the perioseum of the skull.
 It is separated from the arachnoid by the thin subdural space.
 The internal and external surface of dura mater in the spinal
cord is covered by simple squamus epithelium of mesenchymal
origin.
Arachnoid
 Has two components; a layer in contact with the dura matter,
and a system of trabeculae connecting the layer with the pia
mater.
 The space under the arachnoid, the subarachnoid space, is
filled with cerebrospinal fluid and contains blood vessels
 The arachnoid is composed of connective tissue devoid of
blood vessels.
 The arachnoid and the pia mater are intimately associated and
are often considered a single membrane called the pia-
arachnoid.
Pia matter
 Is a loose connective tissue containing many blood vessels.
 Although it is located close to the nerve tissue, it is not in
contact with nerve cells or fibers.
 It forms a thin layer of neuroglia processes forming a physical
barrier at the periphery of the CNS that separates the CNS from
the cerebrospinal fluid
 Blood vessels penetrate the CNS through tunnels covered by
pia mater-the perivascular space.
Peripheral Nervous system
o The peripheral nerves are anatomical structures, which may
contain any combination of afferent or efferent nerve fibers of
either the somatic or autonomic nervous systems.
o The cell bodies of fibers arising in peripheral nerves are either
located in the CNS or in ganglia in peripheral sites.
o The main components of the peripheral nervous system are the
nerves, ganglia, and nerve endings.