IBADAN DISTANCE LEARNING SERIES

CSC 476

(Research Methods in Computer Science)

Edited By

Solomon Olalekan AKINOLA (PhD)

Department of Computer Science

University of Ibadan

Ibadan, Nigeria.

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 GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND COURSE OBJECTIVES

CSC 476 (Research Methods in Computer Science) is a three [3] credit unit course dealing
with the fundamentals concepts of Research Methods as applied to Computer Science.
Different types of research and their applications in Computer Science are explored.

The study material provides adequate background information that is relevant for students to
understand the concept of Research in Computing.

Learning Objectives:
1. Have an understanding of how established techniques of research and enquiry are used to
extend, create and interpret knowledge in Computer Science
2. Have a conceptual understanding sufficient to:
(i) evaluate critically current research and advanced scholarship in Computer
Science, and
(ii) propose possible alternative directions for further work
3. Be able to deal with complex issues at the forefront of the academic discipline of Computer
Science in a manner, based on sound judgements that is both systematic and creative; and
be able to communicate conclusions clearly to both specialists and non-specialists

In short, you should learn

1. to understand research and research methods in Computer Science;
2. to be able to plan, and conduct your own research, taking into account ethical, legal,
and professional limitations; and
3. to be able to communicate your research results

The Course Contents

RESEARCH METHODS IN COMPUTER SCIENCE
The objectives and dimensions of research. Why Research, What is research, How is research done; Tools of
research: Library, The internet, Measurements for Computer Science research, Statistics, Data analysis tools. The
research problems: Finding a problem, stating the problem, identifying sub-problems Review of related literature:
Why review the literature, Including literature in research proposal. Critique, Survey & Peer review process.
Planning the research project: The scientific method, Research planning, Data analysis. Conducting research in
computer science. Software and hardware implementation, debugging, and evaluation. Proposal writing /
presentation workshop. Research methodology: Quantitative and qualitative approach. Writing the research
papers: Characteristics of a paper, Weaknesses of proposals. The Quantitative study. Seminar presentation
Semester 1, LH 30; PH 45; 3U; Status R

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Unit 1: Meaning and Importance of Research

1.1 Meaning of Research
1.2 Knowledge Hierarchy
1.3 Knowledge and Theories
1.4 Areas of originality (Cryer 1996)
1.5 Research Gain
1.6 Why do research?
1.6.1 Why Do Research in Computer Science?
1.7 What Makes a Good Research?
1.8 Characteristics of research
1.9 The Dialectic of Research

Unit 2: Types and Classifications of Research

2.1 Types of research
2.1.1 Basic and Applied Research
2.1.2 Quantitative and Qualitative researches
2.2 Classifications of Computer Science Research
2.2.1. Pure theory
2.2.2. Descriptive studies
2.2.3. Exploratory studies
2.2.4. Explanatory studies
2.2.5. Causal studies
2.2.6. Normative studies
2.2.7. Problem-solving studies
2.2.8. Development and Application studies
2.2.9. Action research
2.2.10. Case study
2.2.11. Survey
2.2.11.1 Key issues for questionnaires
2.2.11.2 Questionnaire design
2.2.12. Experimental / Empirical Research
2.2.12.1 Key elements of an experiment
2.2.12.2 Stages of Empirical Research
2.2.13. Hypothesis based Study
2.2.14. Computer Simulation

Unit 3: Research Project’s Ideation

3.1 How to plan a research project
3.2 The Research Process
3.2.1 Previous Research Activities
3.2.2 Article Readings
3.2.3 Observations
3.2.4 Experience
3.2.4.1 How to use experience in research?
3.2.5 Discussions/Colloquium
3.3 The Research Process

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Unit 4: The Research Problem
4.1 The Meaning of Research Problems
4.2 Why Research Problem is Important
4.3 Characteristics of Research Problem
4.4 Identification of a Research Problem
4.5 Elements of a Research Problem
4.6 Sources of Research Problem
4.7 Formulation of a Research Problem
4.8 Common Mistakes in Formulation
4.9 Statement of Problem

Unit 5: Research Tools

5.1 Quantitative research tools
5.2 Qualitative research techniques and tools
5.3 Pre-testing
5.4 Electronic / Online Research Tools

Unit 6: The Research Methodology

6.1 Difference between Research Method and Methodology
6.2 Research Instruments in Computer Science (CS)
6.3 Difference between Framework and model
6.4 Areas of Research Focus
6.5 Guidelines on Research Methodology
6.6 Measurements’ Justification

Unit 7: Writing a General Research Report

7.1 Research Report
7.2 Features of Research Reports
7.3 Reasons for Writing
7.4 Mode of Communications
7.5 Research Report Format

Unit 8: Data Analysis

8.1 Data Analysis Plan
8.2 Quantitative Data Analysis
8.2.1 Measurement Scale and Different Statistical Techniques
8.3 Descriptive Statistics
8.4 Defining Intervals for Frequency Distributions
8.5 Summary Statistics and Frequency Distribution
8.6 Measure of Central Tendency
8.7 Measure of Dispersion
8.8 Choice of Measures
8.6.1 Alternative Measures
8.7 Other Descriptive Statistics
8.7.1 Sub-group Analysis
8.8 Statistical Tests
8.8.1 Finding Association/Correlation
8.8.2 Finding Causality: Group Comparison
8.8.3 Finding Causality: Prediction
8.9 Qualitative Data Analysis

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8.10 Rigour in Qualitative Research
8.11 Validity and Reliability in Analysing Qualitative Research

Unit 9: Computer Science Research Project Writing

9.1 Nature of Computer Science Projects
9.2 Project Deliverables
9.3 Choosing a Project
9.3.1 Notes on Project Choice
9.4 Re-Use of Projects That Have Been Attempted In The Past
9.5 Project Supervision
9.6 Planning the project
9.7 Timings
9.8 Languages and Tools
9.9 Project Proposals
9.10 Research Project Format
9.10.1 Title page
9.10.2 Certification or Approval Page
9.10.3 Dedication Page
9.10.4 Acknowledgement
9.10.5 Table of Content
9.10.6 List of Tables/Figures/Symbols
9.10.7 Abstract
9.10.8 Chapter One (Introduction)
9.10.9 Chapter Two (Literature Review)
9.10.10 Chapter Three (Methodology)
9.10.11 Chapter Four (Results Presentation and Discussion)
9.10.12 Chapter Five (Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations)
9.10.13 References
9.10.14 Appendices

Unit 10: Suggested Computer Science Project Ideas

Unit 11: Reference Citations and Listings

11.1 Citation and Citation Style
11.2 How to Choose a Citation Style
11.3 APA Format Citation Guide
11.3.1 Core Components of an APA Reference:
11.3.2 APA Referencing Basics: Reference List
11.3.3 APA Referencing Basics: In-Text Citation
11.3.4 How to Cite Different Source Types
11.4 IEEE Style
11.4.1 In-text Citing
11.4.2 Creating a Reference List
11.4.3 Examples of IEEE citations for different materials:

Unit 12: Journal or Conference Article writing

12.1 How to Write a Scopus Indexed Journal Article
12.2 Key Things to Note While Writing a Quality Article in a Standard Way
12.3 Precautions Needed To Be Taken Care of Before Writing a Paper
12.4 How to Identify a Potential Journal?

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 12.4.1 Methods for Identifying Potential Journal
12.5 Journal Citations, Indexing
12.5.1 The H-index
12.5.2 The i10-index
12.5.3 How to improve One’s Citation
12.5.3.1 When do I need to cite?
12.5.3.2 Improving Citation

Unit 13: Plagiarism in Research Papers

13.1 Meaning of Plagiarism in Research Papers
13.2 Types of Plagiarism
13.3 Steps to Ensure Plagiarism-Free Articles
13.4 Tips for Avoiding Plagiarism
13.5 Self-Plagiarism
13.5.1 Why is self-plagiarism wrong?
13.6 Paraphrasing and Quoting
13.7 Some Principles to Follow When Paraphrasing in Order to Avoid Avoid Plagiarism in
Academic Writing
13.7.1 Strategies for paraphrasing
13.7.2 Tips on how to paraphrase a text without plagiarizing
13.8 Best Tools to Check Texts for Plagiarism

Unit 14: Patents

14.1 Meaning of a Patent?
14.2 How to file a Patent?
14.3 Patent Forms
14.3.1 Provisional filing
14.3.2 Complete filing
14.4 Why does One has to File Request for Examination?
14.5 Important two categories

References for Further Readings

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Unit 1: Meaning and Importance of Research
Expected Duration: 1 week or 2 contact hours

Introduction
Research means close or careful study of a phenomenon, objects or behaviour of people
including animals. It is applying a scientific approach to the studying of a phenomenon, be it
abstract or concrete. In this Unit, we shall critically examine the meaning and importance of
research.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this Unit, you should be able to explain:

1.1 Meaning of Research

1.2 Knowledge Hierarchy
1.3 Knowledge and Theories
1.4 Areas of originality (Cryer 1996)
1.5 Research Gain
1.6 Why do research?
1.6.1 Why Do Research in Computer Science?
1.7 What Makes a Good Research?
1.8 Characteristics of research
1.9 The Dialectic of Research

1.1 Meaning of Research

The word ‘Research’ is composed of two words: Re + Search. It means to search again. So
research means a systematic investigation or activity to gain new knowledge of the already
existing facts. Research is an intellectual activity. It is responsible for bringing to light new
knowledge. It is also responsible for correcting the present mistakes, removing existing
misconceptions and adding new learning to the existing fund of knowledge.

In essence, research is a scientific inquiry aimed at learning new facts, testing ideas, etc. It is
the systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data to generate new knowledge and
answer a certain question or solve a problem.

According to Wikipedia, (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research) Research is an active,

diligent, and systematic process of inquiry in order to discover, interpret or revise facts, events,
behaviours, or theories, or to make practical applications with the help of such facts, laws, or
theories. It is a collection of information about a particular subject. The definition derives from
the Middle French and the literal meaning is “to investigate thoroughly”.

From Dictionary definitions:

Research used as a Noun is defined as:
1. Scholarly or scientific investigation or inquiry.
2. Close, careful study.
3. The pursuit of knowledge, as by reading, observation, or research.
4. The systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order to establish
facts and reach new conclusions (Fowler et al., 2011).

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Research used as a Verb is defined as:
1. To study (something) thoroughly so as to present in a detailed, accurate manner.
(Example: researching the effects of acid rain.)
2. To apply one’s mind purposefully to the acquisition of knowledge or understanding of
(a subject).
3. To inquire into; investigate.

According to Higher Education Funding Council for England, Research is defined as

Original investigation undertaken in order to gain knowledge and understanding, including
(i) work of direct relevance to the needs of commerce and industry and to the public
and voluntary sectors
(ii) scholarship (research infrastructure)
(iii) the invention and generation of ideas, images, performances and artifacts including
design, where these lead to new or substantially improved insights;
(iv) the use of existing knowledge in experimental development to produce new or
substantially improved materials, devices, products and processes, including design
and construction.

1.2 Knowledge Hierarchy

Knowledge is a particular level in a hierarchy of data transformations:

1. Data
2. Information
3. Knowledge
4. Wisdom

Data are statements accepted at face value (a ‘given’) and presented as numbers, characters,
images, or sounds. A large class of practically important statements are measurements or
observations of variables, objects, or events. Data in a computing context are in a form which
can be assessed, stored, processed, and transmitted by a computer

Data on its own has no meaning, only when interpreted by some kind of data processing system
does it take on meaning and becomes information. For example: The human genome project
has determined the sequence of the 3 billion chemical base pairs that make up human DNA.
Identifying base pairs produces data; while information would tell us what they do!

Knowledge, according to Dawson (2005), is a higher level understanding of things. The

knowledge represents our understanding of the ‘why’ instead of the mere ‘what’. Knowledge
deals with interpretation of information in the form of rules, patterns, decisions, models, ideas,
etc.

In natural sciences, understanding ‘why’ is too ambitious most of time; understanding ‘how’
is usually what we aim for. In other areas, understanding ‘how’ is trivial, understanding ‘why’
is challenging.

And according to Davenport et al. (1998), Knowledge is information combined with

experience, context, interpretation and reflection. It is a high-value form of information that is
ready to apply to decisions and actions. This means knowledge must be useful!

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Both knowledge and information consist of true statements, but knowledge is information that
has a purpose or use (information plus intentionality)

1.3 Knowledge and Theories

Scientific knowledge is often organized into theories. A theory is formulated, developed, and
evaluated according to the scientific method. Given enough experimental support a theory can
be (a scientific) fact.

Wikipedia asserts that a theory is a logically self-consistent model or framework describing the
behaviour of a certain natural or social phenomenon, thus either originating from observable
facts or supported by them. Knowledge are formulated, developed, and evaluated according to
the scientific method.

A body of (descriptions of) knowledge is usually only called a theory once it has a firm
empirical basis, that is, it
1. is consistent with pre-existing theory to the extent that the pre-existing theory was
experimentally verified, though it will often show pre-existing theory to be wrong in an
exact sense,
2. is supported by many strands of evidence rather than a single foundation, ensuring that
it probably is a good approximation if not totally correct.
3. makes (testable) predictions that might someday be used to disprove the theory, and
4. has survived many critical real world tests that could have proven it false,
5. is a/the best known explanation, in the sense of Occam’s Razor, of the infinite variety
of alternative explanations for the same data.

When we say Research is an original investigation undertaken in order to gain knowledge and
understanding, by originality we mean, “Doing something that has not been done before”.
Dawson (2005) states that there is no point in repeating the work of others and discovering or
producing what is already known. Theories make predictions, which need to be tested. The
people performing those tests are neither infallible nor trustworthy. Tests need to be repeated
and results replicated.

1.4 Areas of Originality (Cryer, 1996)

Originality in research covers the following aspects:

1. Exploring the unknown: Investigate a field that no one has investigated before
2. Exploring the unanticipated: Obtaining unexpected results and investigating new
directions in an already existing field
3. The use of data: Interpret data in new ways
4. Tools, techniques, procedures, and methods: Apply new tools/techniques to alternative
problems. Try procedures/methods in new contexts.

1.5 Research Gain

By our definition, research is an original investigation undertaken in order to gain knowledge

and understanding. This means research must contribute to the world’s body of knowledge and
understanding (in contrast to adding to the researcher’s knowledge and understanding).

The most important element of research is to find something new. It could be new theory, new
solution, new application, new dimension or new description that has been produced at the end

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of the research period. There are all sorts of explanation and conceptual views that emphasize
the significance of "new thing" in research. On the other hand, if we develop a system, what
would be the most important factor to consider? The answer would probably be" a good
system". A good system is defined as a system that meets the user's requirement. It does not
necessarily use the most advanced theoretical framework but as long as it works and the clients
are happy then we have a good system.

1.6 Why do research?

Getting into research for the wrong reason is the most common mistake that someone can do.
Even if you have registered as a research student, you need to refine the real intention of doing
research. The goals need to be well understood and revise from time to time so that it will be
relevant to you and the people around you. So, what are the reasons to get into research?
Consider the following perspectives of a “Researcher”:

1) So that I will have time to do some other things. This is definitely very wrong. If one
intends to do research "part-time" or "whenever I have a free time", then you are
planning for trouble. Your commitment to pursue research activities has to be a full-
time effort. Although a researcher is free from rigid schedule; it does not mean that
nothing is expected out of him. The freedom to set own timetable is to allow a
researcher to "grow" on his own and produce a good, unbiased and undisputable results.
2) Because I have to, this is part of the course. The idea of having to conform with
somebody else's needs and expectations without your own interest is the first thing to
avoid. A long and hard demand from research environment will not last if you have no
personal determination. There might be a promotion involved or a new career move;
whatever it is, set your goal and go for it.
3) Looks good in my CV. It really prevails because research achievements represent a high
degree of excellence. The ability to find new things or explain new dimensions would
be attractive for any field of work; from academic to corporate management.
4) I can keep my present job. The fact that you keen to keep your job gives an indication
that doing research or going for a research degree is not your priority. It is a mistake to
pursue with this on your mind. A choice has to be made and at the end you might
compromise between your job and your intention to do research. Things can be worked
out but you have to open the options for any circumstances.
5) I have all the data ready. This statement sounds right because there is a word "data" in
it, which is directly connected to research. However, having data without specific
research objectives would be meaningless. The data has to be collected according to
what we want to do in the research (research objectives) and the answer that we are
seeking (research questions). The data might be from your previous research of similar
theme or from a database related to your topic. These are considered secondary data for
reviews and cannot be used for analysis.

The other reasons are:

1) I am interested in the area.

2) I have done this before and now I would like to explore more.
3) I have come to know that the subject is so challenging
4) My job is related to this area of research.
5) My supervisor is an expert in this.

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All of these reasons reflect the intentions and the amount of effort that one will be willing to
put forward to pursue research activities. The intention or aim for doing research has to be
reviewed from time to time to avoid it from dying out.

1.6.1 Why Do Research in Computer Science?

Research in any discipline is a hard task but when it comes to Computers and IT, it becomes
even more daunting task. Still there are very few researchers in computer science and this is
the reason why PhD in computer science is so important and crucial for a successful career.
Research lets us learn a set of work skill that we can’t get from classes. It includes
 Significant writing task
 Independent/unstructured work task
 Doing something real (Experimental support to prove the concept)

Research helps us to become a true expert in respective computer field. Research in computer
science is not only helping the academia but is helping industries also.

Summarily we undertake research:

• To investigate some existing situation or problem.
• To provide solutions to a problem.
• To explore and analyse more general issues.
• To construct or create a new procedure or system.
•To explain a new phenomenon.
• To explain a new phenomenon.
• To generate new knowledge.
• A combination of two or more of any of the above. (Hussey and Hussey 1997)

1.7 What Makes a Good Research?

The main goal of any research is "to contribute something new to the current body of
knowledge". Selecting a “right” research problem is the key to a good research project. With
collaborative efforts from your supervisor and support from the faculty, the research will be
equipped with momentum and take you to the right direction. It is difficult to pin point the
criteria for good research because it depends on the type and objective of the research. One
research may be good for one group of people but useless for the other.

But to make things a lot easier, there is a list of criteria below that can be used to reflect a good
research.

1) Relevant to community at large. The problem that you choose to explore must be important
and relevant to a larger community.
2) Inspires You. It is important for the topic to the one that motivates you to address it with
intense passion to authentically engage in the goal of reasoned decision making.
3) Challenging. It challenges you to question your own assumptions about teaching, learning,
literacy, and change; i.e., it challenges you to learn.
4) Support multiple perspectives. The problem most be phrased in a way that avoids
dichotomies and instead supports the generation and exploration of multiple perspectives.
A general rule of thumb is that a good problem is one that would generate a variety of

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 viewpoints from a wide range of audience. Everyone can relate to your topic and contribute
their ideas that might shape the analysis and findings of your research.
5) Researchable. Topics that fall into this criteria are the ones that you can deal with one way
or another. The data can be collected as scheduled, the equipment are available to you either
within the department or somewhere that you can easily go whenever you need them and
the topic is proved by previous researchers to be researchable.
6) Doable. It can be completed within your time and material constraints.
7) Not Too General, Yet Not Too Narrow. It is not too general; that would result in a
multitude of sub-questions; yet, not too narrow; that would rule out the emergence of other
possibilities.

1.8 Characteristics of research:

(i) It demands a clear statement of the problem

(ii) It requires a plan (it is not aimlessly “ looking” for something in the hope that you
will come across a solution)
(iii)It builds on existing data, using both positive and negative findings
(iv) New data should be collected as required and be organized in such a way that they
answer the research question(s)

1.9 The Dialectic of Research

The highest level of logical argument can be seen in the structure of debate within a particular
field. Each contribution to that debate falls into one of three categories:

1. Thesis
This presents the original statement of an idea. However, very few research contributions
can claim total originality. Most borrow ideas from previous work, even if that research has
been conducted in another discipline.

2. Antithesis
This presents an argument to challenge a previous thesis. Typically, this argument may draw
upon new sources of evidence and is typically of progress within a field.

3. Synthesis
This seeks to form a new argument from existing sources. Typically, a synthesis might
resolve the apparent contradiction between a thesis and an antithesis.

A good example of this form of dialectic is provided by the debate over prototyping. For
example, some authors have argued that prototypes provide a useful means of generating and
evaluating new designs early in the development process (thesis), (Fuchs, 1992). Others have
presented evidence against this hypothesis by suggesting that clients often choose features of
the prototyping environment without considering possible alternatives (antithesis) (Hayes and
Jones, 1989). A third group of researchers have, therefore, developed techniques that are
intended to reduce bias towards features of prototyping environments (synthesis) (Gravell and

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Henderson, 1996). Research in a field progresses through the application of methods to prove,
refute and reassess arguments in this manner.

Summary

In this Unit, you have been introduced to the concept of research, the meaning and importance.
Reasons for conducting researches were also explored in the Unit. Now answer the following
questions.

Self-Assessment Question (SAQ)

1. What is research? Attempt to explain your answer in different contexts.

2. What are the main reasons for conducting a research?
3. What are the characteristics of research?

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Unit 2: Types and Classifications of Research
Expected Duration: 1 week or 2 contact hours

Introduction
Research is a systematic search for information and new knowledge. It covers topics in every
field of science and perceptions of its scope and activities are unlimited. In this Unit, the various
types and classifications of research are discussed.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this Unit, you should be able to explain:
2.1 Types of research
2.1.1 Basic and Applied Research
2.1.2 Quantitative and Qualitative researches
2.2 Classifications of Computer Science Research
2.2.1. Pure theory
2.2.2. Descriptive studies
2.2.3. Exploratory studies
2.2.4. Explanatory studies
2.2.5. Causal studies
2.2.6. Normative studies
2.2.7. Problem-solving studies
2.2.8. Development and Application studies
2.2.9. Action research
2.2.10. Case study
2.2.11. Survey
2.2.11.1 Key issues for questionnaires
2.2.11.2 Questionnaire design
2.2.12. Experimental / Empirical Research
2.2.12.1 Key elements of an experiment
2.2.12.2 Stages of Empirical Research
2.2.13. Hypothesis based Study
2.2.14. Computer Simulation

2.1 Types of research

The classical broad divisions of research are:

2.1.1 Basic and Applied Research

The basic or pure research is necessary to generate new knowledge and technologies to deal
with major problems.

A pure research takes place to explore a particular concept, or issue, without regard for a
specific problem, and may be carried out to simply gain a better understanding of the overall
concepts.

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On the other hand, applied research is necessary to identify priority problems and to design
and evaluate policies and programmes that will deliver the greatest benefit, making optimal
use of available resources.

An applied research is undertaken to solve a specific problem or provide a solution to a

practical question.

2.1.2 Quantitative and Qualitative researches

Early forms of research originated in the natural sciences such as Biology, Chemistry, Physics,
Geology etc. and was concerned with investigating things which we could observe and measure
in some way. Such observations and measurements can be made objectively and repeated by
other researchers. This process is referred to as “quantitative” research.

Much later, along came researchers working in the social sciences: psychology, sociology,
anthropology etc. They were interested in studying human behaviour and the social world
inhabited by human beings. They found increasing difficulty in trying to explain human
behaviour in simply measurable terms. Measurements tell us how often or how many people
behave in a certain way but they do not adequately answer the “why” and “how” questions.

Research which attempts to increase our understanding of why things are the way they are in
our social world and why people act the ways they do is “qualitative” research. Qualitative
research is concerned with developing explanations of social, and in our case, computing
phenomena. That is to say, it aims to help us to understand the world in which we live and why
things are the way they are. It is concerned with the social aspects of our world and seeks to
answer questions about:

• Why people behave the way they do

• How opinions and attitudes are formed
• How people are affected by the events that go on around them
• How and why cultures have developed in the way they have

Summarily, Qualitative research is concerned with finding the answers to questions which
begin with: why? How? In what way?

while

Quantitative research, on the other hand, is more concerned with questions about: how much?
How many? How often? To what extent? etc.

Summarily, quantitative research methods:

 Are associated with measurements (on numeric scales)
 Do Stem from natural sciences
 Are used to test hypotheses or create a set of observations for inductive reasoning
 Accuracy and repeatability are of vital importance

Qualitative research methods:

 Involve case studies and surveys
 Do stem from social sciences
 Are concerned with increasing understanding of an area, rather than an explanation

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  Repeatability is usually a problem

2.1.3 Primary and Secondary Research

Primary research refers to research that has involved the collection of original data specific
to that particular research project, for example through using research methods such as
questionnaires or interviews.
Secondary research refers to research where no such original data is collected, but the research
project uses existing (or secondary) sources of data, for example census or archive data.

2.2 Classifications of Computer Science Research

2.2.1. Pure theory: Pure theoretical research involves developing theories and working on
their consequences, with regard to experimentation or application. Theoretical research
generally uses the findings from existing works to develop new ideas through analysing
existing theory and explanations. These new ideas are not tested through collecting
evidence in the form of primary data.

2.2.2. Descriptive studies: This involves reviewing and evaluating existing theories, including
describing the state of the art, comparing predictions with experimental data. Descriptive
research describes a particular phenomenon, focusing upon the issue of what is happening,
or how much of it has happened, rather than why it is happening

There is also Predictive Research which forecasts future phenomena, based on the
interpretations suggested by explanatory research.

2.2.3. Exploratory studies: This involves investigating an ‘entirely’ new area of research,
exploring a situation or a problem. Exploratory research takes place where there is little or
no prior knowledge of a phenomenon. This type of research attempts to gain some
familiarity with the appropriate concepts and looks for patterns or ideas without any
preconceived ideas or explanation.

Research is exploratory when we use no earlier model as a basis of our study. The most
usual reason for using this approach is that we have no other choice. Normally we would
like to take an earlier theory as a support, but there perhaps is none, or all available models
come from wrong contexts. (http://www2.uiah.fi/projects/metodi/177.htm).

2.2.4. Explanatory studies: This involves explaining or clarifying some phenomena or

identifying the relationship between things. This type of research is involved in explaining
why something happens, and assessing causal relationships between variables.

2.2.5. Causal studies: This involves assessing the causal relationship between things.

2.2.6. Normative studies: This involves producing a theory of design (or of other
development) like recommendations, rules, standards, algorithms, advices or other tools for
improving the object of study.

2.2.7. Problem-solving studies: This involves resolving a problem with a novel solution and/or
improving something in one way or another.

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2.2.8. Development and Application studies: This involves developing or constructing
something novel.

2.2.9. Action research: This type of research pursues action (or change) and understanding at
the same time. It continuously alternates between action and critical reflection, while
refining methods, data and interpretation in the light of the understanding developed in the
earlier cycles. Example: Reflective teaching.

2.2.10. Case study: This research involves an in-depth exploration of a single situation. It
usually generates a large amount of (subjective) data. It should not merely report the data
obtained or behaviour observed but it attempts to generalise from the specific details of the
situation observed. Example: Case study of open source software development.

2.2.11. Survey: Survey research is usually undertaken using questionnaire or interview

technique. The design of the questionnaire and interview is very important! Determination
of sample size and sample elements is also important. Example: Survey on the popularity or
use of programming languages.

2.2.11.1 Key issues for questionnaires

(i) Determining the target audience
(ii) Determining the most appropriate medium, paper or electronic via Google Form
(iii)Achieving an acceptable response rate
(iv) Ensuring anonymity if necessary
(v) Obtaining additional information about the respondents

2.2.11.2 Questionnaire design

 Layout and size (not too long and must be uncluttered)
 Types of question
(1) Quantity or information. Example: How many hours . . .
(2) Classification; example: Gender
(3) List or multiple choice; example: How do you keep informed?
(4) Scale; example: How easy is . . .
(5) Ranking; example: Rank in order of importance
(6) Complex grid or table; example: Multiple classifications
(7) Open-ended; example: What do you think about . . .
(8) Close-ended: example: from the following, choose one option that speaks of your
behaviour

2.2.12. Experimental / Empirical Research: This type of research involves investigation

of causal relationships using test controlled by the researcher. It is usually performed in
development, evaluation and problem solving projects. An example is evaluation of processor
performance. To understand the nature of information processes, computer scientists must
observe phenomena, formulate explanations and theories, and test them. Experiments are used
both for theory testing and for exploration. Experiments test theoretical predictions against
reality.

Empirical research supports the development of new ideas through the collection of data
(empirical = observation or measurement rather than theoretical reasoning).

17
Nevertheless, there is always an element of uncertainty in experiments and tests as well: To
paraphrase Edsger Dijkstra, an experiment can only show the presence of bugs (flaws) in a
theory, not their absence. Scientists are keenly aware of this uncertainty and are therefore ready
to disqualify a theory if contradicting evidence shows up.

A good example of theory falsification in Computer Science (CS) is the famous Knight and
Leveson experiment, which analyzed the failure probabilities of multiversion programs.
Conventional theory predicted that the failure probability of a multiversion program was the
product of the failure probabilities of the individual versions. However, John Knight and Nancy
Leveson observed that real multiversion programs had significantly higher failure probabilities.
In fact, the experiment falsified the basic assumption of the conventional theory, namely that
faults in different program versions are statistically independent.

Experiments are also used in areas to which theory and deductive analysis do not reach.
Experiments probe the influence of assumptions, eliminate alternative explanations of
phenomena, and unearth new phenomena in need of explanation. In this mode, experiments
help with induction: deriving theories from observation.

Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) are a good example of the explorative mode of
experimentation. After ANN having been discarded on theoretical grounds, experiments have
demonstrated properties better than those theoretically predicted. Researchers are now
developing better theories of ANN in order to account for these observed properties.

Experiments are made in many different fields of CS such as search, automatic theorem
proving, planning, NP-complete problems, natural language, vision, games, neural nets/
connectionism, and machine learning. Furthermore, analyzing performance behavior on
networked environments in the presence of resource contention from many users is a new and
complex field of experimental CS. In this context it is important to mention Internet. Yet, there
are plenty of computer science theories that haven’t been tested. For instance, functional
programming, object-oriented programming, and formal methods are all thought to improve
programmer productivity, program quality, or both. Yet, none of these obviously important
claims have ever been tested systematically, even though they are all many years old and a lot
of effort has gone into developing programming languages and formal techniques.

Some fields of Computing such as Human Computer Interaction and parts of Software
Engineering have to take into consideration even humans (users, programmers) in their models
of the investigated phenomena. It is therefore resulting in a “soft” empirical approach more
characteristic for Humanities and Social Sciences, with methodological tools such as
interviews and case studies.

2.2.12.1 Key elements of an experiment

(i) A precise hypothesis that the experiment will confirm or refute

(ii) A completely specified experimental system, which will be modified in some
systematic way to elicit the effects predicted by the hypothesis
(iii)Quantitative measurement of the results of modifying the experimental system
(iv) Use of controls to ensure that the experiment really tests the hypothesis
(v) Analysis of the measured data to determine whether they are consistent with the
hypothesis

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 (vi) Report of procedures and results so that others can replicate the experiment.
Repeatability ensures that results can be checked independently and thus raises
confidence in the results.

2.2.12.2 Stages of Empirical Research

This involves:

(1) Hypothesis Generation. This explicitly identifies the ideas that are to be tested by the
research.

(2) Method Identification. This explicitly identifies the techniques that will be used in order
to establish the hypothesis. This is critical because it must be possible for one’s peers to review
and criticize the appropriateness of the methods that you have chosen. The ability to repeat an
experiment is a key feature of strong empirical research.

(3) Result Compilation. This presents and compiles the results that have been gathered from
following the method. An important concept here is that of statistical significance; whether or
not the observed results could be due to chance rather than an observable effect.

(4) Conclusion. Finally, the conclusions are stated either as supporting the hypothesis or
rejecting it. In the case that results do not support a hypothesis, it is important always to
remember that this may be due to a weakness in the method. Conversely, successful results
might be based upon incorrect assumptions. Hence, it is vital that all details of a method are
made available to peer review.

2.2.13. Hypothesis based Study

Sometimes the object of study is already well known and we just want to investigate
its behaviour in a specific situation. In such a situation we can choose to construct a
hypothesis, i.e. an expectation of the behaviour of the object, or a preliminary answer
to the question that we are studying. We are usually free to decide if we want to use
one or not. E.g., if we want to learn if x really equals two times y, we can set as your
hypothesis

x = 2y

During the project we then collect empirical data which allows us to test the
hypothesis and see if it is true or not.

Hypotheses are always based on analytic models, and they are often causal. They
are always accurately stated and quite often stated as an arithmetic model, like for
example

y = f(x)

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where
x = the independent variable,
y = the dependent variable.

The above hypothesis includes only one variable of each type; there are, however,
usually more of them in real research projects.

(Source: Pentti Routio, 2007)

If we choose to use a hypothesis, we should plan the logic around it in the way
that Bunge (1967, 9) explains:

1. Ask well formulated and fruitful questions.

2. Devise both grounded and testable hypotheses to answer the questions.
3. Derive logical consequences of the assumptions.
4. Design techniques to test the assumptions; test the techniques for relevance and
reliability.
5. Execute the tests.
6. Interpret the results.
7. Evaluate the truth claims of the assumptions and the fidelity of the techniques;
determine the domains in which the assumptions and the techniques hold.

It is seldom - perhaps never - possible to reach an absolute certitude when verifying a

hypothesis. This is the case especially when the hypothesis is intended to hold true anywhere,
i.e. also for the cases that are similar to those that have been examined. Therefore most modern
researchers accept in practice the idea that when speaking of 'truth' of a hypothesis, they
actually mean verisimilitude or credibility. This distinction, nevertheless, has no decisive
consequences in practice: we can use 'credible' findings exactly in the same way as 'true'
findings.

2.2.14. Computer Simulation

In recent years, computation, which comprises computer-based modeling and simulation, has
become the third research methodology within CS, complementing theory and experiment.
Computational Science has emerged, at the intersection of Computer Science, applied
mathematics, and science disciplines in both theoretical investigation and experimentation.

20
Computer simulation makes it possible to investigate regimes that are beyond current
experimental capabilities and to study phenomena that cannot be replicated in laboratories,
such as the evolution of the universe. In the realm of science, computer simulations are guided
by theory as well as experimental results, while the computational results often suggest new
experiments and theoretical models. In engineering, many more design options can be explored
through computer models than by building physical ones, usually at a small fraction of the cost
and elapsed time.

Summary

In this Unit, you have been introduced to the different classifications and types of research.
Theoretical as well as empirical researches were explained. Now answer the following
questions.

Self-Assessment Question (SAQ)

1. Differentiate between quantitative and qualitative forms of research.

2. When do we apply experimental / empirical research? What are the key elements and
stages involved in experimental researches?

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Unit 3: Research Project’s Ideation
Expected Duration: 1 week or 2 contact hours

Introduction
Research by definition is a process. It is the systematic inquiry that involves:
 the collection of data;
 documentation of vital information, and
 analysis and interpretation of that said data and/or information
 following given guidelines and suitable methodologies specified by a professional
body or academic discipline.

In this Unit, the various methods for conceiving ideas for research projects are explored.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this Unit, you should be able to explain:
3.1 How to plan a research project
3.2 The Research Process
3.2.1 Previous Research Activities
3.2.2 Article Readings
3.2.3 Observations
3.2.4 Experience
3.2.4.1 How to use experience in research?
3.2.5 Discussions/Colloquium
3.3 The Research Process

3.1 How to plan a research project

While there is no one ‘best’ way to design research, planning a research involves four general
steps:

1. Orienting oneself to knowledge-creation;

2. Defining the research question;
3. Reviewing previous research on this question and then
4. Selecting and analysing relevant data to formulate answers

Research planning is always an iterative process: as one moves through the four steps, it is
normal to circle back to earlier points and revise. Expect the research question in particular to
undergo multiple rounds of refinement as we learn more about our topic, the previous research
done on that topic, and the possibilities for us to carry out an analysis of our own.

Good research questions tend to beget more questions. This can be frustrating for those who
want to get down to business right away. We should try to make room for the unexpected: this
is usually how knowledge advances. Many of the most significant discoveries in human history
have been made by people who were looking for something else entirely.

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3.2 Sources of Research Ideas

Ideas come and go. In a minute, one might have the whole picture in his mind and the next
minute it's gone. That's why it is important to keep a small notepad with you all the time to
scribble anything that might come to mind. Ideas could come from various sources, such as
 Previous research activities
 Readings
 Observations
 Experience
 Discussions/Colloquium

3.2.1 Previous Research Activities

Previous research activities can trigger an idea. This may particularly happen in one’s second
research project. It could be a continuation from the first one just completed. Usually a
completion of one research will open up several ideas for future research. A young researcher
may look at the section on past research papers on “Recommendations for Future Works”, at
the end of the paper. The contents may trigger the researcher to explore the previous research
recommendations.

3.2.2 Article Readings

Doing a lot of reading of research articles can also help one to come up with a few questions
that will lead to a research topic. Things to read include report or articles related to one’s
interests. Reading an article can sometime be so difficult to understand. It is normal to feel that
way because the content of the article could be full with technical jargons and mathematical
formula. One will be easily put off after a few paragraphs. In understanding an article or more
appropriately called technical paper, one has to go through several phases of reading:

(1) Surface reading. We read through the article but leave the terms or parts that we don't
understand. Go through it several times and see whether what the article is trying to tell
the reader can be figured out. If at this phase one has understood the article, then it is
great; it could be that he/she is the one who have the knowledge or the article is well-
written. Either way, one is off to a good start because usually that is not the case.

(2) Technical reading. In this type of reading, we read through the article and stop at the
point where we have started losing the picture. Then we try to go back a few lines and
pin-point the words, phrases or theories that were not understood. Dictionary can be
flipped through if we are not sure the meaning of a certain word or phrases. Refer to a
book to get further explanation of the theory stated in that article. Get onto the internet
for some other explanation or description of similar ideas. Somehow we have to get the
thing cleared out before proceeding further into the article. This process could last an
hour, a day or even a week; but at the end of it we will be satisfied and amazed of the
new knowledge that we have just discovered.

(3) Guided reading. This is like a bed-time story reading where one sits with his/her
supervisor/lecturer and go through the article paragraph by paragraph. The supervisor
will stop and explain at places where the narration is too simplistic. Sometime we lack
the background to fully understand one specific paragraph and a little help from
someone knowledgeable is required.

23
The phases described above do not have to be followed step by step; but a guideline to follow
if one way of reading does not help much. Reading is very important in doing research. The
habit to read whatever comes handy is essential as ideas for the next move in research might
be available. Lack of reading will result in poor understanding of the current needs and trends
in our area of research and minimize our ability to argue and defend our ideas. A problem may
arise, when we have read a lot of books, articles and journals, that we might lose track of our
readings. A few tips to manage our readings are as follows:

(1) We must try to keep a copy of the article read or planning to read. We should organize
them properly so that we can get them again later in a folder.
(2) If part of a book looks very important to us, we get a copy of this part only and write
down the identification of the book somewhere at the back for future reference.
(3) Write a summary of the important aspect of the paper read: the title, authors, publisher,
date, aim, methodology adopted, main results, strengths and weakness of the paper. As
you are doing this, you are building up your Chapter Two on Literature Review. In
writing the summaries of each of the publications try to avoid unnecessary plagiarism.

3.2.3 Observations

A good idea may pop up from our own observations of a situation. This could happen at a local
fair or workshops. A good documentary program on TV could also give us some ideas on what
people have done on the subject. For instance, a parking problem at our faculty could open a
whole series of research for someone that might be interested to solve it according to his area
of expertise. Our eyes should be kept opened as the ideas could be everywhere. Those are
informal observations that could lead to a research question that may start up a full blown
research project.

If one determined that there is an issue in an organisation that could be used to start a research,
a formal observation can be arranged to get the whole picture. This formal observation will be
later on known as "qualitative research" is one type of research that observation is the only way
to go crack a tough research question. However, one can also use this as a preliminary step to
establish a need for a subsequent research (or a quantitative research). When we observe a
situation, what we actually do is looking at the other end of the spectrum; such as a faulty
system, etc. What we can observe is usually the product of bad design or poor foundation and
those are the most difficult aspect to be analysed. Since this is the other end, we have to trace
backward until we find the root of the problem. This then will be our motive for a research.

3.2.4 Experience

Experience refers to the knowledge that one might have to be used as a research project. This
could be related to one’s line of work where the problems could occur over and over again.
The area of management, for example, could use some new techniques all the time as people
and the surroundings are rapidly changing. Being a manager or at senior managerial position
would trigger some ideas on how to improve the efficiency of the management. There are tools
and methods that could be tested that might produce tremendous insight into the new
possibilities. It will need a good research project to materialize the concept.

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3.2.4.1 How to use experience in research?

The experience can be used to determine the direction of a research. The many years on
someone’s job gives an insight of the operational aspect of his/her line of work. We pick a
research project that is in-line with our work and we have unlimited source of information that
can be used in the research. The experience will enable us to state the process of our work from
the beginning to end and this could be the practical side of our research. If one is a bank
manager, then anything related to banking could be the area of research. On refining this
perspective, the scope of the research is narrowed down.

The experience also comes with a network within the banking sector and this will give an
advantage during the other phases of research such as data collection, analysis, and professional
opinion on the findings. Nonetheless, people with working experience are lack of academic
skills such as writing, facilitating argument, critical analysis, etc. These and many more other
skills are essential to bring the research forward to a meaning conclusion. However, these skills
can be learned and acquired throughout the research period.

3.2.5 Discussions/Colloquium

Attending discussions/colloquium could always bring some good ideas. Basically one has to
participate in the process; either being a presenter or active participants. This kind of activity
is held in the faculty and open for all to attend.

3.3 The Research Process

The following steps outline a simple and effective strategy for writing a research paper.
Depending on your familiarity with the topic and the challenges you encounter along the way,
you may need to rearrange these steps.

Step 1: Identify and develop a topic

Selecting a topic can be the most challenging part of a research assignment. Since this is the
very first step in writing a paper, it is vital that it be done correctly. Here are some tips for
selecting a topic:

1. Select a topic within the parameters set by the assignment. Many times the
instructor will give clear guidelines as to what we can and cannot write about. Failure
to work within these guidelines may result in the proposed paper being deemed
unacceptable by the instructor.
2. Select a topic of personal interest and learn more about it. The research for and
writing of a paper will be more enjoyable if we are writing about something that we
find interesting.
3. Select a topic that we can find a manageable amount of information. We do a
preliminary search of information sources to determine whether existing sources will
meet our needs. If we find too much information, we may need to narrow the topic; if
we find too little, we may need to broaden the topic.
4. Be original. Select an interesting and off-the-beaten-path topic.
5. Still can't come up with a topic to write about? See your instructor or supervisor for
advice.

25
Once you have identified a topic, it may help to state it as a question. For example, if interested
in finding out about the epidemic of obesity in the Nigeria population, one might pose the
question "What are the causes of obesity in Nigeria?" By posing the subject as a question, one
can more easily identify the main concepts or keywords to be used in the research.

Step 2: Do a preliminary search for information

Before beginning the research in earnest, we do a preliminary search to determine whether

there is enough information out there for our needs and to set the context of our research. We
look up our keywords in the appropriate titles in the library's Reference collection (such as
encyclopedias and dictionaries) and in other sources such as our catalog of books, periodical
databases, and Internet search engines. Additional background information may be found in
our lecture notes, textbooks, and reserve readings. We may find it necessary to adjust the focus
of our topic in light of the resources available to us.

Step 3: Locate materials

With the direction of the research now clear to us, we can begin locating material on our topic.
There are a number of places we can look for information: Books, Journals and other
periodicals from library. Use search engines (Google, Yahoo, etc.) and subject directories to
locate materials on the Internet.

Step 4: Evaluate your sources

We must provide credible, truthful, and reliable information obtained on the research topic.
This step is especially important when using Internet resources, many of which are regarded as
less than reliable.

Step 5: Make notes

We must consult the resources we have chosen and note the information that will be useful in
our research. We must be sure to document all the sources we consult, even if by chance we
may not use that particular source. The author, title, publisher, URL, and other information will
be needed later when creating a bibliography.

Step 6: Write your paper

We begin by organizing the information we have collected. The next step is the rough draft,
wherein we get our ideas on paper in an unfinished fashion. This step will help us organize our
ideas and determine the form the final paper will take. After this, we will revise the draft as
many times as you think necessary to create a final product to turn in to our instructor.

Step 7: Cite your sources properly

“Give credit where credit is due”; we must cite our sources. Citing or documenting the sources
used in our research serves two purposes: it gives proper credit to the authors of the materials
used, and it allows those who are reading our work to duplicate our research and locate the
sources that we have listed as references. The MLA and the APA Styles are two popular citation
formats. Failure to cite our sources properly is plagiarism. Plagiarism is avoidable!

26
Step 8: Proofread

The final step in the process is to proofread the paper we have created. Read through the text
and check for any errors in spelling, grammar, and punctuation. We make sure the sources used
are cited properly. Make sure the message that we want to get across to the reader has been
thoroughly stated.

Additional research tips:

• Work from the general to the specific - find background information first, then use more
specific sources.
• Don't forget print sources - many times print materials are more easily accessed and every
bit as helpful as online resources.
• The library has books on the topic of writing research papers.

Summary

In this Unit, you have been introduced to the way of planning a research project as well as the
processes involved in planning a research.

Self-Assessment Question (SAQ)

Discuss the different ways in which a research project could be conceived.

27
Unit 4: The Research Problem
Expected Duration: 1 week or 2 contact hours

Introduction
We become habitual of living in the age of problems i.e. we are so much surrounded by the
problem that we suffers from ,”problem blindness”. But in order to solve the problem or making
research we need to delimit the problem. In this Unit, the issue of identifying and stating a
viable research problem is discussed.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this Unit, you should be able to explain:
4.1 The Meaning of Research Problems
4.2 Why Research Problem is Important
4.3 Characteristics of Research Problem
4.4 Identification of a Research Problem
4.5 Elements of a Research Problem
4.6 Sources of Research Problem
4.7 Formulation of a Research Problem
4.8 Common Mistakes in Formulation
4.9 Statement of Problem

4.1 What is Research Problem?

Problems lie everywhere around us. Human nature is so complicated, that a problem solved for
one individual may still exist for another individual, a problem solved for one class/
school/teacher/ situation/ system/time etc., still remains a problem for another class/ school/
teacher/ situation/system/time or a problem solved for the time being may reappear with a lapse
of time.

Selection of problem is not the first step in research but identification of the problem is
the first step in research. Selection of problem is governed by reflective thinking. It is wrong
to think that identification of a problem means to select a topic of a research or statement of
the problem. A topic or statement of the problem and research problem are not the synonyms
but they are inclusive. The problem concerns with the functioning of the broader area of field
studied, whereas a topic or title or statement of the problem is the verbal statement of the
problem. The topic is the definition of the problem which delimits or pin points the task of a
researcher

A research problem is a clear and definite statement or expression about a chosen area of
concern, a difficulty to eliminate, a condition to improve, or a troubling problem that exists in
theory, literature and practice. A research problem indicates a need for its meaningful
investigation.

4.2 Why is Research Problem Important?

 It sets the scope.
 It ties your work to reach goals and actions.

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4.3 Characteristics of Research Problem

1. Specific – Problem should be stated specifically. A clear statement that describes the
objectives will help us carry out successful and concrete research.
2. Measurable – Data collection and other simulation/ real-time methods (current trend).
The researcher should try to fix the expected output type which will be produced in
future.
3. Achievable – Data should be realistic and use correct statistical method to get precise
results. It should be easily achieved, solved, and answered by Researcher.
4. Realistic – Results should be real, not manipulated. It should be possible for researchers
to perform experiments to solve the problem.
5. Time bound – the shorter the completion time, the better with minimum cost.

4.4 Identification of a Research Problem

The following steps are to be followed in identifying a research problem;

Step 1: Determining the field of research in which the researcher is keen to do the research
work.
Step 2: The researcher should develop the mastery on the area or it should be the field of his
specialization.
Step 3: He should review the previous researches conducted in the area to know the recent
trends and studies in the research domain.
Step 4: On the basis of review, he should consider the priority field of the study.
Step 5: He should draw an analogy and insight in identifying a problem or employ his personal
experience of the field in locating the problem. He may take help of supervisor or expert
of the field.
Step 6: He should pin point specific aspect of the problem which is to be investigated.

4.5 Elements of a Research Problem

1. Why ? – Why is there an investigation, inquiry or study?

2. What? – What is to be investigated or studies.
3. Where? – Where the research is to be conducted.
4. When? – Period of study or a data to be gathered.
5. Who? – From whom the data can be collected.

4.6 Sources of Research Problem

1. Personal Experience – Day to day experience of the researcher.

2. Practical Experience – worked under a project.
3. From literature – Book materials/article/publication/patent. Such specialized sources
such as the encyclopedias of educational, research abstracts, research bulletins, research
reports, journals of researches, dissertations and many similar publications are rich
sources of research problems.
4. Previous Research – knowledge gathered from previous research.
5. Existing theories – moving practical solution for proved theory.

29
 6. Social issues – familiarity with social concerns. Social developments and technological
changes are constantly bringing forth new problems and opportunities for research.
7. Brainstorming – Discussions from Classroom discussions, seminars and exchange of
ideas with faculty members and fellow scholars and students will suggest many
stimulating problems to be solved.
8. Consultation with experts – experts have significant problem with them. Close
professional relationships, academic discussions and constructive academic climate are
especially advantageous opportunities.
9. The classroom, school, home, community and other agencies of education are obvious
sources.
10. Questioning attitude: A questioning attitude towards prevailing practices and research
oriented academic experience will effectively promote problem awareness.
11. The most practical source of problem is to consult supervisor, experts of the field and
most experienced persons of the field. They may suggest most significant problems of
the area. He can discuss certain issues of the area to emerge a problem.

4.7 Formulation of a Research Problem

1. Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you

2. Dissect the broad area into sub-areas
3. Select what is the most interest to you
4. Raise research question
5. Formulate objectives
6. Assess your objective
7. Double check

4.8 Common Mistakes in Formulation

1. Not emphasizing on “why” the problem you are trying to solve is important
2. Weak structuring of problem
3. Insufficiently motivated research questions.
4. Un-researchable problems.
5. Favored research methods – tendency to recast a research
6. Blind data mining

4.9 Statement of Problem

Kerlinger (1973) identified the following three criteria of good problem statements;
1. A problem should be concerned with relation between two or more variables.
2. It should be stated ‘clearly and unambiguously in question form’.
3. It should be amenable to empirical testing.

Meeting these criteria in a problem statement will result in a clear and concise idea of what
the researcher wants to do. This sets the state for further planning.

30
Summary

In this Unit, you have been introduced to the concept of research problem, the meaning and
importance.

Self-Assessment Question (SAQ)

1. What is research problem? Why is research problem so important in research?

2. Identify and discuss the sources of research problems.

31
Unit 5: Research Tools
Expected Duration: 1 week or 2 contact hours

Introduction
No matter the field of research, whether it’s science, social science or computer science
precisely, there are tools out there to help the researcher organize his notes, cite sources, find
important articles, connect with colleagues, and more. This section describes the tools and
techniques that are used in quantitative and qualitative methods as well as other electronic
resources available for organizing our research project.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this Unit, you should be able to explain:
5.1 Quantitative research tools
5.2 Qualitative research techniques and tools
5.3 Pre-testing
5.4 Electronic / Online Research Tools

5.1 Quantitative research tools

Quantitative methods involve the collection and analysis of objective data, often in numerical
form. The research design is determined prior to the start of data collection and is not flexible.
The research process, interventions and data collection tools (e.g. questionnaires) are
standardized to minimize or control possible bias. Table 5.1 provides an overview of
quantitative data collection strategies.

Table 5.1: Quantitative data collection tools

Tool Process involved

The researcher directly observes (watches and listens to) some
Observation
phenomenon and then systematically records the resulting
checklist
observations.
Tool: Observation checklist is the instrument used for structured
observation. The checklist consists of pre-determined specific
categories of behaviours/arrangement/processes/procedures that will
be observed.
Questionnaires Survey instruments comprising a series of questions, designed to
measure a given item or set of items.
Tool: Questionnaires can be used for structured interviews, offline or
online self-administered data collection, and telephone interviews. In
a questionnaire, the subjects are required to respond to questions in
writing or, more commonly, by marking an answer sheet. In the latter
type of questionnaire, response options are often closed lists of
responses.
Performance based Performance-based instruments are alternative forms of assessment
instruments used to demonstrate a skill or proficiency by having the participant
create, produce or do something (e.g. write a paper, create a portfolio,
do an athletic performance). Although popular in recent years, the use

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 of these approaches is fraught with technical difficulties. They are
often time-consuming and may require equipment or other resources
that are not readily available.
Diary A diary is a self-completed record of experiences during the study
period (e.g. alcohol consumption, episode of sickness, or travel).
Electronic data Electronic data capture is a method for collecting data entered directly
capture into a computer or other electronic device (i.e. rather than paper forms).
The instrument can be in web based, handheld/smartphone or computer
format. For example, Google Forms can be designed to capture data
from respondents online.

5.2 Qualitative research techniques and tools

Qualitative research is generally used to explore values, attitudes, opinions, feelings and
behaviours of individuals and understand how these affect the individuals in question.
Researchers using qualitative methods are concerned with individuals’ perceptions of specific
topics, issues or situations and the meanings they assign to their lives. This kind of research is
important for generating theory, developing policy, improving educational practice, justifying
change for a particular practice, and illuminating social issues. It may also be used to explain
the results of a previous quantitative study or to prepare for the development of a quantitative
study.
If a research team decides to use qualitative methods in a study, the team will need to describe
how qualitative methods will provide the information to help them address their research
objectives and research question(s). For example, qualitative research may be appropriate
because we intend to explore the values and behaviours of individuals in a study area in relation
to a public health intervention, and to understand how these affect the phenomena in question.
For example, why do some households have bed nets but do not use them? Or, why do
individuals in a study area decline services from a specialized antenatal clinic? Qualitative
methods can provide context, a deeper understanding of stakeholders’ needs and participants’
perspectives.
When collecting qualitative data, it is preferable to use more than one data collection method.
Obtaining information on the same phenomena in a variety of ways allows the researcher to
triangulate the data, adding rigour to the research. By nature, qualitative data collection is
emergent and the design is intentionally flexible to enable the researcher investigate themes
(findings) in more detail as they emerge.
Qualitative methods use data collection methodologies such as interviewing, observation,
discussions and review of documents (e.g. diaries, historical documents). The results of
qualitative research are descriptive or explanatory rather than predictive, and are typically time-
consuming to collect and analyse. Table 5.2 may be helpful to decide which qualitative tools
and techniques are most appropriate for a research project.
Table 5.2: Qualitative data collection tools

Tool Process involved

The researcher participates in/observes the natural setting over an
Participant observation
extended period of time: Systematic observation of verbal and
non-verbal actual behaviour in which trained observers use a
structured recording form. Data is collected by observing,
interviewing, note taking and/or journaling. The researcher

33
 develops a relationship with the participants, which may affect the
data collected.
Tool: Participant observation checklist
Example: Semi-structured direct observation will be carried out in
selected facilities to assess and compare the behaviour of health
staff towards patients who are not members of the revised schemes
in at least two facilities in each study county, such as one township
or commune health centre and one county or district general
hospital. In this setting the observer can participate in the
interaction between the health staff and the patients and can act as
part of the health providers’ team or as a client to the health
providers.
Non-participant The researcher does not participate in any activity in the natural
observation setting. Data is collected by observing, note-taking and/or
journaling. The researcher does not develop a relationship with
the participants and therefore cannot explore further issues in
relation to observations made unless this approach is
complemented with a follow up.
Tool: Participant observation checklist
Example: The same study setting as the example above, but this
time the observer does not participate in the interaction between
health staff and the patients. He or she will independently observe
the encounters.
Field observation Detailed descriptions of events, actions, behaviours, people and
during a ‘transect walk’ objects in a natural setting. Field observations are written in the
form of field notes.
Tool: Transect walk checklist
Example: To understand the day-to-day activities, practices, and
interactions in a village, a researcher walks through the village
cross-sectionally and observes villagers activities, structures of
houses, buildings, and interactions among villagers.
In-depth interviews A purposeful conversation directed to the participant by the
researcher. The researcher will typically develop an interview
guide beforehand. The researcher encourages the participant to
talk in-depth, prompting more detail whenever possible without
leading the participant to specific answers. Interviews are often
recorded and transcribed. The average length of an interview is
one hour (or less).
Tool: In-depth interview guide
Example: In-depth individual interviews with: People suffering
from ‘catastrophic illnesses’, including both members and non-
members of revised schemes and those who have used and not
used the services; health policy-makers at national and local
levels; and rural health insurance scheme managers.

34
 Review of documents Written or printed records of past events (e.g. letters, anecdotal
and artefacts notes, diaries). Material objects and symbols of a current or past
event, groups, organizations, or a person that can reveal social
processes, meaning, and value (e.g. diplomas, awards, papers,
logos etc.).
Tool: Checklist or other criteria to review documents
Example: Analysis of printed posters, commercials etc. to
understand values, messages and meanings for targeted audiences.
Video/film/photographs Media that captures the daily life of an individual, group or event
under study. Can be captured and viewed repeatedly to record
behaviours.
Tool: Checklist and/or criteria to review that media
Example: Review photographs taken by community members
showing the areas of public health need in their community.
Focus group discussion A 1–2 hour discussion, guided by a trained moderator, in which 6
(FGD) to 10 similar respondents (e.g. by age, gender, social status) focus
on a list of defined topics. The discussion, designed to reveal
beliefs, opinions and motives, should take place in an informal
setting. Data collection may be enhanced by the interaction among
participants.
Tool: FGD topic guide
Example: Focus group discussions using participatory techniques
with: members and non-members of the revised schemes
(including different age, gender and socioeconomic groups); and
health service providers at county/district levels and below,
including general practitioners/primary care providers, preventive
service providers, and out-patient and in-patient providers.

Unlike quantitative data collection, qualitative data collection can be more flexible allowing
the research to incorporate emerging themes in the ongoing data collection. This allows the
researcher to test and validate findings as they collect the data. For example, perhaps in one in-
depth interview, the researcher learns that people do not attend the lymphatic filariasis mass
drug administration because they use traditional medicines and therefore feel that they are
already under treatment. The researcher may then add a related question to subsequent in-depth
interviews to see how prevalent this phenomenon is in the study population. Table 5.3 describes
situations when various qualitative data collection techniques can be used.

Table 5.3: When to use various qualitative data collection techniques

Data collection technique Situation

Observation  When the unit of analysis is individual or a group.
 When verification is needed.
 Anytime and in any situation where researchers want to
understand first-hand phenomena under study.

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 In depth Interviews/ Key  At the beginning of the research as a stepping stone to
informant interviews FGDs.
 When preliminary knowledge on a particular issue is
needed.
 When research interests are being defined.
 When individuals or social settings are difficult to access.
 To understand subjective experiences.
 Where subject matter may be sensitive and people will not
speak in FGD settings.
Focus Group Discussions
 When a single subject is being explored in depth.
 When enough is known about the subject to develop a topic
guide for discussion.
 When the subject matter is not sensitive so that people will
not mind talking in a group.
 Quick results are needed but the research project has
limited funding.
 Acceptable number of people can be assembled to
participate in a discussion group.

5.3 Pre-testing
All study instruments (quantitative and qualitative) should be pre-tested to check the validity
and reliability of data collection tools. Pre-testing allows the research team to check whether
the research instructions and questions are clear, context specific, and that adequate time has
been allowed to administer the questionnaire, etc. Pre-testing should be conducted from a
comparable study population and environment. Since data management is critical to the success
of the research, the data management team should be available during the discussion that
follows the pre-test, in order to incorporate changes into the final design of the tool and
facilitate the incorporation of appropriate checks into the data entry system. This stage includes
designing the forms for recording measurements, developing programmes for data entry,
management and analysis; and planning dummy tabulations to ensure the appropriate variables
are collected.

5.4 Electronic / Online Research Tools

While the internet has made information more accessible than ever before, it has created its
own problems. The sheer amount of information available online can be intimidating. Indeed,
clawing through the pages and pages of data is a chore in itself, and that’s before one takes in
the quality of the information found.
1. Google Scholar (scholar.google.com)
This online research tool is offered for free by Google and is indispensable for any serious
researcher. Armed with nothing more than a computer, an internet connection, and a subject
for research, Google Scholar will give a head start on any project.

36
At its core, Google Scholar is an academic search engine. It allows its users to search all manner
of academic literature from journals and white papers to scientific articles and patents. Granted,
there are other sites that offer a similar facility, but it’s the scope of Google Scholar’s service
that makes it stand out. Not only does it search the best-known databases for academic papers,
but it also has access to a slew of university repositories. This increases the chance of finding
something relevant to a research.
Furthermore, the Google Scholar search facility allows to set up an alert. This will notify the
researcher should a new article or paper be released in his/her particular field, or from a
particular person or institution. This ensures that the research remains on the cutting edge of
the field.
Google Scholar lets researchers manage their papers, even in multiple libraries. Simply label
each piece of research and let Google Scholar do the rest. It automatically displays citation
numbers and the version of the paper being read. Even more important, it tells us what other
papers have already cited the work in question. This lets us know if we are bringing up a new
twist on the subject, or treading an already well-worn path. Likewise, Google Scholar will also
alert us when anybody cites our own paper(s).
2. Mendeley (www.mendeley.com)
In the field of scientific research, Mendeley is a must-have. For starters, it is an academic social
network, allowing researchers to chat and collaborate with its six million users worldwide.
Mendeley is a reference management software that allows researchers to create references,
citations, and bibliographies in multiple journal styles with just a few clicks. It is also a
powerful research tool in its own right. It helps to manage references and allows to import
papers from other research tools such as Google Scholar. Of course, its own online database of
academic papers is available to its users, who can add to it with their own completed work.
Mendeley will automatically create a bibliography for us as we create our own papers. It will
also generate detailed and accurate citations when we incorporate other papers into our
research.
With its research network, researchers and connect and network with over 6 million users.
Users can create groups to carry out discussions, discover research, and follow curated
bibliographies. There are also over 250,000 + science, technology, and health jobs to advance
a career and grant info from over 5000 organizations to fund the next research!

Key Features of Mendeley:

 Annotate and organize documents
 Find and create groups with fellow researchers
 Grant information from over 5000 organizations

Pricing:
 Free with limited functionality
 Paid plans start from $55/year for 5 GB to $165/year to unlimited storage as at early
2022

3. Grammarly (www.grammarly.com)
Research work often involves hours of proofreading and spellchecking to make a research
professional. Grammarly, a writing enhancement tool will save researchers and writers a ton
of time and effort doing this dreaded task! Apart from basic spellchecking and corrections,

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Grammarly includes a grammar checker, a punctuation checker, a vocabulary enhancer, and
even a plagiarism checker tool!
This awesome tool scans research paper for more than 250 types of grammar mistakes in six
distinct writing genres and leaves us with error-free writing. With thorough explanations for
all our errors and weekly progress reports, Grammarly is a must-have tool for researchers. It’s
available as a browser extension, a desktop app, a web-based app, and a Microsoft add-in.
Many of the Grammarly alternatives are also available in the market that are equally good.

Key Features of Grammarly:

 Works with the majority of online tools like Word, Slack, etc.
 Plagiarism checker tool
 Tone detector

Pricing:
 Free with limited functionality
 Paid plans start from: Premium ($11.66/month), Business ($12.50/month) as at early
2022

4. Endnote (endnote.com)
Endnote wants people to research smarter by simplifying the tiresome work of formatting
bibliographies, finding full text, and searching for references. Endnote is collaborative in nature
as it allows researchers to share selected groups of references, manage team access, and track
activity and changes from one single dashboard. With smarter insights, Endnote automatically
finds the impact of our references and finds the best-fit journal for our papers.

The platform also enables users to automatically create, format, and update bibliographies.
Quickly export references and full-text PDFs into EndNote and start working instantly. With a
bunch of EndNote templates and plug-ins, researchers can enhance their Endnote experience
and get the most of the platform.

Key Features of Endnote:

 Import filters for prior research
 Tracking teammates’ activity on a shared library
 Automatic reference and link updating

Pricing:
 Free with limited functionality
 Paid plans start from $249 as at early 2022.

5. ResearchGate (www. Researchgate.net)

This is also an awesome tool for researchers. ResearchGate gives researchers access to over
135 million publication pages, allowing them to stay up to date with what’s happening in their
field. With a built-in community, researchers can share their research, collaborate with peers,
and discover new papers and bibliographies.
ResearchGate also provides deep analytics on who’s been reading our works and keeps track
of our citations. With over 17 million users, ResearchGate is a research community to join!

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Key Features of ResearchGate:
 Share and find researchers
 Analytics to see who’s reading our work
 Citation tracking

Pricing:
 Free

6. Scopus
The largest database of abstracts and citations of peer-reviewed research literature in the world,
Scopus includes more than 36,000 titles. It covers subjects such as physical, life, social, and
health sciences, with numerous publishers from around the world. It’s free to search for author
profiles, as well as claim and update our own. Non-subscribers can also view journal rankings
and metrics.
7. arXiv
Run by Cornell University, arXiv is a free, open-access repository of more than 1.5 million
scholarly preprints that are accessible online. It covers fields including computer science,
physics, economics, mathematics, statistics, quantitative biology, quantitative finance, and
electrical engineering and systems science.
8. GanttPRO (www. Ganttpro.com)

No matter what kind of research we do, we need to organize, plan, and stay focused on all of
our activities. Without a robust planning tool, researchers may fall behind the schedule and
lose their progress. GanttPRO project and task management tool makes it easy for single
researchers and groups of any size to plan their tasks on a visually appealing Gantt chart
timeline, follow their progress, and all the deadlines.

GanttPRO allows researchers to create a limitless number of tasks, groups of tasks, and
subtasks on one timeline. Besides, it is a perfect planning tool for assigning tasks to fellow
researchers or creating virtual resources, whoever or whatever they may be. The software is a
good choice for collaboration, time tracking, as well as sharing and exporting schedules.

Key Features of GanttPRO:

 Dozens of ready-made templates.
 Real-time collaboration with fellow researchers.
 Elegant user interface with a short learning curve.

Pricing:
 Free 14-day trial with all features available.
 Paid plans start from Team ($4.5/user/month), Individual ($15/month), Enterprise
(contact sales) as at early 2022.

9. LaTeX (https://www.latex-project.org/)

LaTeX is a method of high-quality typesetting. It contains features designed to produce

scientific and technical documentation and it is very useful because it comes as free software.

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Summary
Research is hard work - from finding and managing contents to organizing and publishing -
research takes a lot of time and effort. However, with the awesome list of tools, researchers are
surely going to get out the most of their time and effort and get work done more efficiently.

Self-Assessment Questions

1. Explain the research tools available for conducting quantitative and qualitative researches

2. Discuss the features of any five named electronic tools available to a researcher.

40
Unit 6: The Research Methodology
Expected Duration: 1 week or 2 contact hours

Introduction
“The scientific method is a set of basic rules for a scientist to develop a controlled experiment
in order to test and observe events, so that to reach conclusions and report those conclusions,
that, in case of validity, are then applied to science” (Wikipédia). In this Unit, the concept of
research methodology, especially as it relates to Computer Science, is explored.

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this Unit, you should be able to explain:

6.1 Difference between Research Method and Methodology

6.2 Research Instruments in Computer Science (CS)
6.3 Difference between Framework and model
6.4 Areas of Research Focus
6.5 Guidelines on Research Methodology
6.6 Measurements’ Justification

6.1 Research Method and Methodology: Any Difference?

“Method”, in the context of research, is an approach, procedure, and guidelines that are used
in conducting a research. A method might require different tools, instruments, equipment, and
such.
Whereas “methodology” is a scientific approach that investigates, compares, contrasts, and
explains the different ways that a research could be conducted alongside different methods that
could be used in these processes. That is, methodology discusses the alternative approaches
and methods to tackle the research problem. It discusses the advantages/disadvantages,
properness / improperness, feasibility, practicality, ethical issues, and such parameters for the
approaches to do the research. The methodology, as a main ingredient of research, clarifies
why a particular approach has been taken to address the “research question(s)” and how this
approach would be implemented.
The correct definitions of the term ‘methodology’ are:
 The systematic, theoretical analysis of the methods applied to a field of study, or the
theoretical analysis of the body of methods and principles associated with a branch of
knowledge. Typically, it encompasses concepts such as paradigm, theoretical model,
phases and quantitative or qualitative techniques.
 The design process for carrying out research or the development of a procedure; it is
not in itself an instrument for doing those things.
Based on what is mentioned, the research methodology should reflect on the nature of the
research and help the researcher to tackle the research area properly. For this purpose, the
researcher should find out, through theoretical / factual discussions, the research category and
the paradigm, which better show the characteristics of the research and serve the research to be
conducted more properly. For this, Baban (2009) categorizes research based on three main
themes summarized as follows:

41
1. The application of the research study
 Pure research: It aims in discovering new knowledge without expecting an instant
effect on the current situation of the field.
 Applied research: It aims in solving a specific problem, which is currently the concern
of the field.
2. The objectives in undertaking the research
 Descriptive research: It aims in explaining the situation and characteristic of a specific
problem in order to benefit from it in other research.
 Exploratory research: It aims in finding proper information in the area within which
researcher cannot find previous information in order to build a profound hypothesis.
 Correlational research: It aims in discovering the correlations among different
variables of problem area in order to recognize the impacts of a phenomenon.
 Explanatory research: It aims in explaining the reasons behind the characteristics of
a phenomenon (answering to the why) or how the characteristics of a phenomenon
forming it.
 Analytical research: It can be considered as an extension to the descriptive research
because it does not stay at the description level, and moves beyond that to discover the
reasons behind a problem or the behavior of a phenomenon.
3. The type of information sought
• Positivism
• Phenomenological
To set a proper paradigm and to suggest well-suited methods that could best serve the research
purpose are paramount to the research. (Baban, 2009, pp. 28-29) discusses both quantitative
and qualitative approach based on certain assumptions that researchers may make. These
assumptions are ontological assumptions, epistemological assumptions, axiological
assumptions, rhetorical assumptions, and methodological assumptions.
6.2 Research Instruments in Computer Science (CS)
An instrument is a tool to facilitate the process to get us to the output. There are many research
instruments available out there; but for CS researchers the following instruments are the most
important ones to get familiar with.
1. Programs: A program to a computer scientist is like a novel to a writer. It is a platform to
try ideas and address thoughts. This is by far the most reliable tool to test and evaluate
performance of an application. Programming skills, therefore, is a must-have ability of a CS
researcher, whether one likes it or not.
2. Formal language: The language such Z is a mathematical scripting language used to prove
the hypothesis mathematically. A tradition of axioms and lemma can be effective in avoiding
the flaws later in the developmental stages.
3. Systems : Evaluate a system in its context of use
4. Questionnaires : Measure attributes of an application

6.3 Framework and model, any Difference?

It is always happening, that whenever a study is conducted, a frame work or model is proposed.
The question is: are framework and model the same?

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A model is the presentation in schematic form, often in a simplified way, of an existing or
future state or situation. The modelling technique determines the way in which the situation
is represented in a schematic way. Popular modelling techniques are: process model,
workflow model, life cycle model.
According to Imre Horvath (2022), A Model is the result of a process of representing a real-
world object or phenomenon as a set of logical, mathematical and computational concepts and
equations. Contemporary scientific practice employs at least three major categories of models:
concrete models, mathematical models, and computational models. Simulation of a system is
the operation of a model in terms of time or space, which helps analyze the performance of an
existing or a proposed system.
A framework is an entity between a ‘model’ and a ‘method’. A framework is, or contains, a
(not completely detailed) structure or system for the realization of a defined result/goal. Many
frameworks comprise one or more models, based on the modelling techniques mentioned above
and often based on (best) practices. Compared with methods, frameworks give the users much
more freedom regarding the (partial or entire) use of the framework and the use of the models
or techniques therein.
A Framework is an abstraction (purposefully arranged and interrelated concepts) in which a
system providing generic functionality can be selectively changed by additional, purposely
developed constituents, thus providing application-specific features and services. In a
pragmatic view, a framework (a software, a system, or an environment) is a platform for
developing specific applications. It supports logical, functional, computational, interaction, and
application aspects.
Summarily, a model is a concept of something like a Car or a House; a Framework is used to
show or guide one on how to make it, or what components he might need!
6.4 Areas of Research Focus
The subject of research in Computer Science (CS) varies from one area to another within the
discipline of CS itself. The table below summarizes the area of focus for CS.

No. CS subject Area of focus

1 algorithms algorithms
2 Artificial Intelligence Methods, techniques, algorithms
3 Programming Languages Languages, language components or features
4 Architecture Instruction sets, memory hierarchies, architectures
5 Theory Models, theorems, proof techniques
6 Systems Systems, components of systems, system
architectures

It is interesting if we can narrow down which of the area of focus should a researcher goes for.
Although it depends on many other factors, the one that we feel within our grab should be the
utmost priority. The area of focus (AoF) varies by their size, potential variety and cost of
evaluation. The size refers to the scope of study a researcher has to cover in order to come
up with a practical and useful observations.

43
(1) Small size: algorithms, language features, architectural components
(2) Medium-size size: instruction sets, proof techniques
(3) Large size: languages, architectures, machines
The potential variety of area of focus gives an indication the volume of similar structures is
low or high. If the potential variety is low then there is a good possibility that a lot of research
have covered many of the AoF and in order to pursue the researcher needs to find new potential.
If the potential variety is high one can rest assure that there are a lot more areas of focus that
might not be covered. This is important to a researcher so as not to repeat the same study and
claim that it is a new discovery. The examples are:
(1) Low variety: sorting algorithms, cache designs
(2) High variety: AI algorithms, languages, architectures
The other factor that characterizes the area of focus is the cost of evaluation. It refers to the
level of effort that needs to be realized to establish meaningful end results. Some examples of
this factor are:
(1) Low cost: algorithms, AI methods
(2) Medium cost: theorems, components architecture
(3)High cost: languages, architectures, ideal models
By having to know such features, one can foresee the kind of research to be pursued. Generally,
smaller area of focus exhibits less variety and lower cost of evaluation, therefore they are easier
to do research on.
6.5 Guidelines on Research Methodology
 The Methodology must be related to the research objectives.
 We highlight the breadth and depth of the research.
 The research design is mapped out – it would be good to put it into a flow chart,
framework or model diagram or algorithm presentation. This is like stating your
research instruments. We must provide justification for selection of the instruments
based on theory, research question, subject characteristics, etc.
 Explain the design – the work flow, how the model or framework functions.
 The data source, nature and size are explained.
o Data collection plan is explained. Describe the instruments that will be used to
gather data (tests, techniques, surveys, online data repository, etc)
o We give a detailed sampling plan – the target population characteristics, specific
sampling plan, target sample size
 Variables are identified
 Provide reliability and validity information to show techniques are valid for the study
 Highlight and explain the metrics for evaluation of your model, e.g. speed, accuracy,
precision, etc.
6.6 Measurements’ Justification
How do we know that our measurement is good? There are three ways to justify that our
measurements are good. They are:
1. Validity: The extent to which an instrument measures what it intended to measure. The
extent to which differences found with a measuring instrument reflect true differences
among those being measured

44
2. Reliability: Instrument should provide consistent results. Contributes to validity (Note that
reliable need not be a valid instrument, but a valid instrument is always reliable). Takes care
of noninterference of transient and situational factors
3. Practicality: The practical use of the end product. This can be measured through the user’s
acceptance testing.
4. Easy to measure
5. Applicable early in the design process
6. Convincing

In Computer Science, CS, some evaluation criteria are as follows:

o CPU time
o Cycles per instruction
o Percentage for correct classification
o Number of serious interface flaws identified

Summary
In this Unit, you have learnt the basic concepts in research methodology. The differences
between research methods and research methodology, model and framework and some
guidelines on research methodology in Computer Science.
Self-Assessment Questions

1. State the guidelines you will follow in carrying out your research methodology.
2. Any difference between research methods and methodology, model and framework?
Explain.

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Unit 7: Writing a General Research Report
Expected Duration: 1 week or 2 contact hours

Introduction

After a research is completed, a report must be written. In this Unit, the nitty gritty of writing
a viable research report is discussed.

Learning Outcomes

When you have studied this Unit, you should be able to explain:
7.1 Research Report
7.2 Features of Research Reports
7.3 Reasons for Writing
7.4 Mode of Communications
7.5 Research Report Format

7.1 Research Report

A detailed account of the research experience from selection and definition of the problem,
formulation of hypotheses or models, gathering, analyzing and interpreting data, testing of
hypotheses or models, making conclusion and suggesting further research in the related
problem area is called a research report.

7.2 Features of Research Reports

The following are the essential features of a good research report:

(i) Clarity
(ii) Conciseness
(iii) Veracity
(iv) No place for figures of speech, lyrical prose and in using anecdotes (narrations,
stories).
(v) No lengthy digressions
(vi) Only necessary details
(vii) Absolute uncompromising honesty
(viii) Serious attempt and not a game

7.3 Reasons for Writing

The following are the main reasons on account of which the researcher should write the
research report.
(i) It is a logical conclusion of doing the research.
(ii) It enriches the curriculum vitae of the researcher which helps him in appointment and
promotion.
(iii) Writing of the research report is an easy task and it is not that difficult as understood.

46
7.4 Mode of Communications

The researcher may use any of the following mode for communicating his research results:

(i) A research monograph:

The researcher may publish a research monograph on the basis of his research results
through a research journals or a reputed research publisher. Publishing depends upon the
standard of the research work and the reputation of the researcher.

(ii) A research journal:

The researcher may publish a research paper in a reputed research journal. But this
requires that the paper should be acceptable to the Editor of the journal. The prestigious
journals send these papers to reviewers who are conversant with the research area in
which the research paper has been written.

(iii) Presenting in the meeting of the Association/ Society /Congress:

There are annual conferences of the associations, societies and Congress in each subject
area. They provide opportunities to the researchers to present their research results in the
form of a research paper before the members of the association or the society or the
delegates of the Congress which are followed by the discussions. The journals of those
organizations publish these papers in the form of the proceedings of the Association /
Society / Congress. For instance, we have Proceedings of Nigeria Computer Society (NCS).

7.5 Research Report Format

The research reports are divided into the following parts:

(a) Preliminary Section, consisting of the following sections:

(i) Title Page
(ii) Preface
(iii) Table of Contents
(iv) List of Tables
(v) List of figure, maps and illustrations

(b)Introduction, consisting of the following:

(i) Background introduction
(ii) What is the problem?
(iii) What is the relation of the problem with previous theory and research?
(iv) What are the aim and objectives of the study?
(v) What is its importance?
(vi) What are the hypotheses? (if necessary)
(vii) Delimitations of the study
(viii) Assumptions of the study
(ix) Definition of important terms.

(b) Literature Review, consisting of the following:

(i) Theoretical framework for the research with basic concepts and theory of the
research domain are discussed.
(ii) Related works, where most relevant and current related works already done in the
research domain are discussed.

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(c) Methods

For Empirical Software Engineering and Social Science Computing related research, the
method may consist of the following:

(i) How was the study conducted?

(ii) From which population was the sample selected?
(iii) How many subjects were selected?
(iv) What were the demographic characteristics of the subjects?(male/female, average age)
(v) Was there any characteristic which make the sample a typical to the population?
(vi) How were the subjects assigned to groups?
(vii) What instructions were given to the subjects?
(viii) How conditions were controlled?
(ix) What was the treatment of variables?
(x) How, when and on what were subjects measured?
(xi) What data collection instruments were used?
(xii) What was the format of items?
(xiii) What was the reliability of the instrument?
(xiv) What was the validity of the instrument?
(xv) What are the details of the instruments which was prepared by the researcher?

However, for other computing research, the research methods may consist of the following:

(i) The research framework or model presentation

(ii) Explanation of the working principles of model or the framework
(iii) Assumptions on the model
(iv) The theoretical principle or the algorithm presentation
(v) Data, its sources, size and nature
(vi) Performance evaluation metrics

(d) Results, consisting of the following:

(i) What were the principal findings?
(ii) Graphical and Pictorial presentations of results
(iii) Explanation of the presentations and their implications

(e) Discussion, consisting of the following:

(i) What were the original purposes of the study?

(ii) How were these purpose met?
(iii) Why the obtained results occurred?
(iv) What were the conclusions of the researcher for practice, theory and future research?
(v) What is the contribution of the study to the research literature?
(vi) What are the strengths and weaknesses of the study?

(f) Reference Section, consisting of the following:

(i) Bibliography
(ii) Appendices: Questionnaires, Codes, Data samples, etc, etc.

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Summary
In this Unit, you have learnt the basic concepts in research report writing. The different
aspects of research reports are discussed.

Self-Assessment Questions
Write detailed explanations on the following:

1. Features of Research Reports

2. Reasons for writing a research report
3. Mode of Communications
4. Research Report Format

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Unit 8: Data Analysis
Expected Duration: 1 week or 2 contact hours

Introduction

Data analysis in quantitative studies consists of identifying patterns through descriptive

analysis, comparing data, hypothesis testing and finding relationship between variables. In
qualitative studies, this process consists of identifying, understanding meaning and assigning
code to the data, identifying patterns and emerging themes, and constructing framework to
explain certain phenomena. This activity will be described in a subsequent sections in this Unit.

Learning Outcomes

When you have studied this Unit, you should be able to explain:
8.1 Data Analysis Plan
8.2 Quantitative Data Analysis
8.2.1 Measurement Scale and Different Statistical Techniques
8.3 Descriptive Statistics
8.4 Defining Intervals for Frequency Distributions
8.5 Summary Statistics and Frequency Distribution
8.6 Measure of Central Tendency
8.7 Measure of Dispersion
8.8 Choice of Measures
8.6.1 Alternative Measures
8.7 Other Descriptive Statistics
8.7.1 Sub-group Analysis
8.8 Statistical Tests
8.8.1 Finding Association/Correlation
8.8.2 Finding Causality: Group Comparison
8.8.3 Finding Causality: Prediction
8.9 Qualitative Data Analysis
8.10 Rigour in Qualitative Research
8.11 Validity and Reliability in Analysing Qualitative Research

8.1 Data Analysis Plan

Depending on the research questions we set to answer and the type of data we have collected
(i.e. quantitative or qualitative data), different types of analysis can be performed. Before we
begin to analyse the data, we need to remember the different audiences to be reached with the
results and recommendations of the research project. What are their needs for information, and
what is the best way to reach them?

To ensure that the analysis is undertaken in a systematic manner, an analysis plan should first
be created. The analysis plan should contain a description of the research question and the
various steps that will be followed in the research process. It is best practice to develop a data

50
analysis plan at the start of a research project, in order to capture the hypotheses for the research
question. The data analysis plan may be amended as the research progresses.

It is essential that the analysis and most importantly, the presentation of findings, be carefully
considered to avoid potential misinterpretations that could lead to inappropriate conclusions
and/or responses. Emphasis should be placed on simplicity and interpretability because
stakeholders need to both understand the information provided and also be able to interpret it
correctly. Data analysis should take place along with the data collection process. This continual
data analysis process facilitates regular sharing and discussion of findings. An important
preliminary consideration when designing a data analysis plan is to clearly define the primary
objectives of the analysis by identifying the specific issues to be addressed.

8.2 Quantitative Data Analysis

Before any statistical analysis is undertaken, some factors need to be taken into account in order
to select the most appropriate statistical analysis approach. These are described briefly below.

8.2.1 Measurement Scale and Different Statistical Techniques

Measurement scale is a way to define and categorize variables. There are four different
measurement scales (nominal, ordinal, continuous and ratio scale). Each measurement scale
has different properties, which are required for different statistical analysis. Table
8.1 summarizes the properties for different measurement scales, described in detail below.

Table 8.1: Summary of measurement scale properties

Measurement Category/difference Rank/order Meaningful Meaningful

number number scale
+ - - -
Nominal
+ + - -
Ordinal
+ + + -
Continuous
+ + + +
Ratio

The nominal scale can only differentiate the category. We cannot say that one category is higher
or better than the other category. An example of a nominal scale is gender. If we code Male as
1 and Female as 2 or vice versa (i.e. when we enter the variable into the computer), it does not
mean that one gender is better than the other. The numbers 1 and 2 only represent categories
of data.
Ordinal scales represent an ordered series of relationships or rank order. However, we cannot
quantify the difference between the categories. We can only say that one category is better or
higher than the other categories. An example of an ordinal scale is the level of a health facility
(e.g. primary, secondary, tertiary).
Continuous scales represent a rank order with equal unit of quantity or measurement. However,
in this scale, zero simply represents an additional point of measurement not the lowest value.

51
An example of such a scale is a temperature scale in Celsius or Fahrenheit. In this scale, zero
(0) is one point on the scale with numbers above and below it.
Ratio scale is similar to the continuous scale, in that it represents a rank order with equal unit
of quantity or measurement. However, ratio scale has an absolute zero, in which zero is the
lowest value. An example of ratio scale is Body Mass Index (BMI) in which the lowest value
(theoretically) is zero.
The continuous and ratio data are referred to as parametric as these types of data have certain
parameters with regards to distribution of the population as a whole (assumption of normal
distribution with mean as a measure of central tendency and variance as a measure of
dispersion). Parametric also means that the data can be added, subtracted, multiplied and
divided. The statistical analysis for these types of data is referred to as parametric test.
On the other hand, nominal and ordinal scales are referred to as non-parametric. Non-
parametric data lacks the parameters that the parametric data have. Furthermore, it lacks
quantifiable values and as such nonparametric data cannot be added, subtracted, multiplied or
divided. Nominal and ordinal data are analysed using non-parametric tests.
A parametric test is considered to be more robust than a non-parametric test. Furthermore, there
are more statistical options available for analysing parametric data. However, most parametric
tests assume that the data is normally distributed.

8.3 Descriptive Statistics

Quantitative research generates large volumes of data that require organizing and summarizing.
These operations facilitate a better understanding of how the data vary or relate to each other.
The data reveals distributions of the values of study variables within a study population. For
example:
 The number of children under five years in various households in a given population.
 Daily outpatient attendance in a health facility.
 The birth weights of children born in a particular health facility over a period of time.
 Educational levels of mothers of children born in a particular health facility.
Analysis of the type of data described above essentially involves the use of techniques to
summarize these distributions and to estimate the extent to which they relate to other variables.

The use of frequency distributions for this purpose has several advantages:

 Useful for all types of variables

 Easy to explain and interpret for audiences without specialist knowledge.
 Can be presented graphically and in different formats to aid interpretation (e.g. tables, bar
charts, pie chart, graphs, etc.).
The different data presentation formats help to reach different target audiences. Tables are a
useful presentation format when you want to communicate within the scientific community.
Graphical data presentations help to communicate with a wider, less scientific, audience in the
community or policy makers.

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8.4 Defining Intervals for Frequency Distributions

A key decision in constructing a frequency distribution relates to the choice of intervals along
the measuring scale. For example:
 Ordinal: Level of health facility (e.g. primary, secondary, tertiary).
 Continuous: Body temperature (e.g. below normal, normal, above normal).
 Ratio: Body mass index (BMI) (e.g. <25, 25–29, 30+).

There are two conflicting objectives when determining the number of intervals:
 Limiting the loss of information through the use of a relatively large number of intervals.
 Providing a simple, interpretable and useful summary through the use of a relatively
small number of intervals.
Note: Distributions based on unequal intervals should be used with caution, as they can be
easily misinterpreted, especially when distributions are presented graphically.

8.5 Summary Statistics and Frequency Distribution

Careful examination of the frequency distribution of a variable is a crucial step and can be an
extremely powerful and robust form of analysis. There can be a tendency to move too quickly
to the calculation of simpler summary statistics (e.g. mean, variance) that are intended (but
often fail) to capture the essential features of a distribution.

Summary statistics usually focus on deriving the measures indicating the overall tendency
location of a distribution (e.g. how sick, poor or educated a study population is, on average) or
on indicating the extent of variation within a population. However, the reasons for selecting a
particular summary statistic should relate to the purpose for which it is intended.

8.6 Measure of Central Tendency

The central tendency measures the central location of a data distribution. The mean, or average,
is the most commonly used parameter because the mean is simple to calculate and manipulate.
For example, it is straightforward to combine the mean of sub-populations to calculate the
overall population mean. However, the mean is often inappropriately used. It can also be
misinterpreted as the typical value in a population.

The median, defined as the middle value, is relatively easy to explain. The magnitudes of other
values are irrelevant. For example, if the largest value in a given range increases or the smallest
value decreases, the median remains unchanged. When a data set is not skewed (or when data
is distributed ‘normally’), the mean and the median are the same (Figure 8.1).

53
Figure 8.1: Normal distribution: the mean is the measure of central location

It is therefore preferable to use median as a measure of central tendency when the data set is
skewed as the value is independent to the shape of the data distribution. In a skewed
distribution, the mean is difficult to interpret (Figure 8.2).

Figure 8.2: Skewed distribution

8.7 Measure of Dispersion

Measure of dispersion denotes how much variability occurs in a given population, as follows:
 Low variability: Measures of location can be seen as reasonably representative of the
overall population; there is limited loss of information through aggregation.
 High variability: Measures of location are less useful; there is a substantial risk of losing
information by aggregation unless the nature of the distribution is well understood.
8.8 Choice of Measures

Variances, standard deviations and coefficients of variation are widely used in statistical
analysis. As with the mean, this is not because they are always the best measures of variability
(they can be easily interpreted for normally distributed variables but not for other distributions),
but mainly because they can be readily calculated and manipulated.

54
For example, given the variances of two population sub-groups it is easy to combine them to
calculate the overall population variance. However, while they may have technical advantages,
these measures have serious limitations in terms of policy application.

8.6.1 Alternative Measures

More readily interpreted measures include quartiles and percentiles. Quartiles: divide data into
four quarters (Q1 to Q4), with 25% of available data in each:
 Q2 is the median.
 Q1 is the median of the data points below the median.
 Q3 is the median of the data points above the median.
Q3–Q1 is the inter-quartile range, comprising the middle 50% of a population. Percentiles
divide the data into two parts:
 p percent have values less than the percentile.
 (100 – p) percent have greater values.
 50th percentile = median; 25th percentile = first quartile.

Other common percentiles:

 20th (which defines the first quintile group).

 10th (which defines the first decile group).

8.7 Other Descriptive Statistics

8.7.1 Sub-group Analysis

The outcomes of an intervention may vary substantially between different sub-groups of the
target population. Sub-group analysis can be complex if the sub-groups are not pre-defined.
Investigating a relationship within a sub-group simply because it appears interesting could bias
the findings.

Data mining (i.e. exploring data sets to discover apparent relationships) is useful in formulating
new hypotheses but requires great caution in Information Retrieval (IR). The context within
which this sub-analysis is undertaken should be considered carefully, because relationships
between inputs and outcomes may be mediated by contextual variables. For example, we might
assume that it would be useful to undertake an analysis of chronic illness by age group and sex,
as shown in Table 8.2. For meaningful interpretation of the results, the type of chronic illness
and the background of the patients experiencing them will be important variables to consider.

55
Table 8.2: Background variables of patients with chronic illness

Age Chronic illness

group prevalence

Males Females

15–24 0.55 0.80

25–44 1.79 4.01

45–64 4.91 12.28

65 12.86 20.00

All 1.77 4.25

8.8 Statistical Tests

Statistical test is performed so that we can make inferences concerning some unknown aspects
of a statistical population from the sample that we have collected from a study. There are
different types of statistical tests that we can use depending on the research questions, type of
measurement scale and assumptions about data distribution. A Simple univariate and bivariate
analyses should be done before a sophisticated analysis such as the multivariate analysis, is
undertaken.
8.8.1 Finding Association/Correlation
Association is a relationship between two variables which are statistically dependent. The two
variables are equivalent; there are no independent and dependent variables. Correlation can be
considered as one type of association where the relationship between variables is linear. There
are several statistical tests to assess the correlation between variables (Table 8.3).
Table 8.3: Different statistical tests for finding associations according to existing
assumptions
Measurement scale Assumption of Analysis Measurement scale
distribution
Nominal or Ordinal - Chi square test Nominal or Ordinal
Continuous or Ratio Normally distributed Pearson correlation Continuous or Ratio
Avoid outliers data

8.8.2 Finding Causality: Group Comparison

Group comparison analysis is used to explore the statistically significant difference of study
outcomes between groups. The groups can be categorized by exposures under study. When
there is a significant difference between groups we assume that the difference is due to the
exposures (Table 8.4).

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Table 8.4: Different statistical tests for group comparison according to the existing
assumptions

Measurement scale Assumption of Type of group Analysis

distribution
Nominal or Ordinal - Independent Chi square test
- Paired (before-after) Sign test
Continuous or Ratio Normally distributed Independent Independent t test
Paired (before-after) Paired t test
Not normally Independent Mann Whitney
distributed
Paired Wilcoxon

8.8.3 Finding Causality: Prediction

Regression analysis is the type of analysis used to predict study outcome from a number of
independent variables. If the outcome variable is on a continuous or ratio scale and has a normal
distribution of data, we can use linear regression. If the outcome variable is dichotomous i.e.
the variable has only two possible values such as “yes” or “no”, we can use logistic regression.
8.9 Qualitative Data Analysis
There are many traditions of qualitative research and it has been argued that there cannot and
should not be a uniform approach to qualitative analysis methods (Bradley et al.
2007). Similarly, there are few ‘agreed-on’ canons for qualitative data analysis, in the sense of
shared ground rules for drawing conclusions and verifying sturdiness. Many qualitative studies
adopt an iterative strategy: collect some data, construct initial concepts and hypotheses, test
against new data, revise concepts and hypotheses. This approach implies that data collection
and analysis are embedded in a single process and are undertaken by the same individuals.
However, with the increasing use of qualitative research in health research, objectives are often
pre-defined prior to the start of data collection, as opposed to being developed as information
for the data collected emerges.
Researchers can also use several different computer qualitative data analysis (QDA) software
to help them manage their data. The term “QDA software” is slightly misleading because the
software does not actually analyse the data, but organizes them to make it easier to find and
identify themes. Software can also be relatively expensive (up to around US$900 per single
user). For these reasons, some researchers prefer analysing data manually. However, as the
software improves, researchers are finding QDA increasingly useful in helping analyse data
and saving time. Here are some of the more common QDA software names:
 AtlasTi (http://www.atlasti.com) deals with large data sets, unstructured coding, and
mimics paper code and sort functions.
 MAXQDA (http://www.maxqda.com) provides powerful tools for analysing interviews,
reports, tables, online surveys, videos, audio files, images and bibliographical data sets.
 QSR NVivo (http://www.qsrinternational.com) (previously called Nud*ist 6) caters for
unstructured coding, finds patterns/relationships in codes.

57
  EZ-TEXT 3.06C (http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/topics/surveillance/resources/software/ez-
text/index.htm).
Whatever approach is used, all qualitative analyses involve making sense of large amounts of
data, identifying significant patterns and communicating the essence of what the data reveal.
Qualitative data analysis consists of data management, data reduction and coding of data. In
short, the goal is to identify patterns (themes) in the data and the links that exist between them.
As mentioned, there is no set formula for analysing qualitative data, but there are three core
requirements of qualitative analysis to adhere to:
A. Detailed description of techniques and methods used to select samples and generate data.
B. Carefully specified analysis, paying attention to issues of validity and reliability.
C. Triangulation with other data collection methods.

The following steps describe these three core components in more detail:
A. Detailed description of techniques and methods used to select samples and generate
data
o If conducting interviews or focus group discussions, all sessions are recorded (preferably
with a recording device, although where this is not accepted by the participants, with hand
written notes).
o All recordings have to be transcribed verbatim (i.e. typed out in full, word-for-word).
o If observation has been done, document the times, locations and important events (e.g.
interruptions, significant events, etc.)
o All background information about the participants should be appended to each transcript.

B. Carefully specified analysis, paying attention to issues of validity and reliability

o In the initial step of the analysis, the researcher will read/re-read the first set of data and
write notes, comments and observations in the margin, with regard to interesting data that
is relevant to answering the research question(s).
o While reading the data, the researchers should begin developing a preliminary list of
emergent categories into which they will group the notes and comments. These categories
are guided by the purpose of the study, the researchers’ knowledge and orientation, and
the meanings made explicit by the participants. A list of these categories is compiled and
attached to the data.
o The next set of data collected is then carefully read and, with the previously constructed
list of categories in mind, notes, comments and observations are once again recorded in
the margin. This second data set is grouped into categories and a list of the categories is
compiled. The two lists are then compared and merged to create a master list of categories.
This list reflects the recurring regularities or patterns in the study.
o These categories are then given names. Category names may emerge from the researcher,
from the participants or from the literature. According to Merriam (1998), these categories
should be: exhaustive; mutually exclusive; sensitive to what is in the data; conceptually
congruent; and, in effect, the answers to the research questions. Category names or codes
in data analysis can also be derived from the questions asked in the data collection tools
based on the objectives of the study.

58
o Once the researchers are satisfied with the categories, the data is assigned to these
categories. Taking a clean copy of the data, the researcher organizes the data into meaning
units and assigns them to the relevant categories, writing the category code in the margin.
o The researchers then create separate files for each category and cut and paste the meaning
units into the relevant category, creating a file containing all the relevant data. Care should
be taken to avoid context stripping by carefully cross-referencing all units and coding them
with the participants’ pseudonym, the date of data collection, and the page number.25
o The researchers then try to link the categories in a meaningful way. Diagrams can be used
to facilitate this process.

C. Triangulation with other data collection methods

o Review your results against those collected using other data collection methods to
determine the validity or truthfulness of your findings.
o Review if routine data sources confirm your findings.

8.10 Rigour in Qualitative Research

The research team must ensure scientific rigour in qualitative methods analysis. For example,
will the study provide participants with a copy of their interview transcripts to give them an
opportunity to verify and clarify their points of view? Will one use software to help manage
your data and increase rigour? Will one conduct member checks (have more than one
researcher analyse sections of the data to compare and verify results (called inter-rater
reliability)? Will one triangulate the data to increase the rigour? Will one report
disconfirming evidence?

8.11 Validity and Reliability in Analysing Qualitative Research

In quantitative studies, reliability means repeatability and independence of findings from the
specific researchers generating those findings.
In qualitative research, reliability implies that given the data collected, the results are
dependable and consistent.
The strength of qualitative research lies in validity (closeness to truth). Good qualitative
research, using a selection of data collection methods, should touch the core of what is going
on rather than just skimming the surface. When analysing qualitative data, we need to look
for internal validity, where an in-depth understanding will allow one to counter alternative
explanations for his/her findings.
Summary
The various data analyses available in quantitative and qualitative research techniques were
discussed in this Unit.

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Unit 9: Computer Science Research Project Writing
Expected Duration: 1 week or 2 contact hours

Introduction

It is expected world over that at the final year of study, every student must write a project. This
is to assess the depth of knowledge, particularly the writing skill, acquired by the student. It is
expected that after University education, student of Computer Science should write well as an
academic and good as a software developer.

Learning Outcomes

When you have studied this Unit, you should be able to explain:
9.1 Nature of Computer Science Projects
9.2 Project Deliverables
9.3 Choosing a Project
9.3.1 Notes on Project Choice
9.4 Re-Use of Projects That Have Been Attempted In The Past
9.5 Project Supervision
9.6 Planning the project
9.7 Timings
9.8 Languages and Tools
9.9 Project Proposals
9.10 Research Project Format
9.10.1 Title page
9.10.2 Certification or Approval Page
9.10.3 Dedication Page
9.10.4 Acknowledgement
9.10.5 Table of Content
9.10.6 List of Tables/Figures/Symbols
9.10.7 Abstract
9.10.8 Chapter One (Introduction)
9.10.9 Chapter Two (Literature Review)
9.10.10 Chapter Three (Methodology)
9.10.11 Chapter Four (Results Presentation and Discussion)
9.10.12 Chapter Five (Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations)
9.10.13 References
9.10.14 Appendices

9.1 Nature of Computer Science Projects

Computer Science study encompasses programming, design, analysis, and theory. Hence,
Computer Science project ideas involve designing and development of various application-
based software products and solutions.

Traditionally, different specialization fields opted for a theoretical and instructions-oriented

approach. However, today, most job roles demand professionals who have hands-on industry
experience. Computer Science is one such discipline where academic learning does not suffice

60
– students need to undertake practical training through real-world Computer Science projects
and assignments. It aims to impart students with practical knowledge of operating computer
systems.

Henry [7 p. 46] identifies several specific reasons for undergraduate research projects,
including:
 Experience in applying knowledge and skills previously taught in the programme;
 Preparation for subsequent employment;
 “Self-direction” — development of the student’s independent working skills;
 Communication skills;
 Assessment — “sorting the sheep from the goats”.

Computing students must undertake an individual project during their fourth or fifth year of
study. The project is usually “unstructured” in the sense that the student is - within reason -
free to choose both the topic and the methodology to be used for investigating the topic.
Typically, such a project involves the design and implementation of an item of software,
although students on joint programmes with engineering may build hardware, and students on
joint programmes with business may be involved in activities whose primary focus is business
rather than technical. Students are expected to apply good practice they have already learned
during the programme, as well as learning any new technologies and other material which may
be necessary to progress their work.

Each student is allocated a supervisor, who would normally be from the Computer Science
Department, but supervisors from other departments are acceptable for students on
interdisciplinary programmes. The normal expectation is that the supervisor will engage with
each supervisee regularly, though at the time of this study no detailed guidance was provided
as to the length or frequency of such meetings, and the pattern of meetings varies depending
on the preferences of both the academic and the student.

9.2 Project Deliverables

There are four deliverables of projects:

(i) An initial formal specification of their project;
(ii) A short progress report at the end of the first Semester, possibly up to
Chapter Three (Methodology / Design);
(iii) A presentation at the end of the second semester, possibly the results; and
(iv) A final write-up of the project accounting for about 70% or more of the total
marks.

The presentation affords students the opportunity to demonstrate their software (where
appropriate). The project write up called dissertation in some institutions, is a technical
document of five chapters (recommended): Chapter One: Introduction, Chapter Two:
Literature Review, Chapter Three: Methodology (covering Design and Implementation
details), Chapter Four: Results and Chapter Five: Summary, Conclusion and
Recommendations.

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9.3 Choosing a Project
Computer Science project topics are commonly practical based. Undergraduates of computer
science are charged to implement their projects especially those into the technical part of the
research. Just like other fields, computer science students also choose their project topics and
ensure to get them approved before proceeding for research. This means that one can actually
get a research topic right or wrong no matter what your intention are. Computer science projects
are tactical and sometimes demanding; this is because like earlier highlighted, it requires
practical skills and some amount of expertise to accomplish. Undergraduates of computer may
have to build and present software in partials fulfillment of their undergraduate research
project.
Students have a great deal of freedom in the selection of a project, and should start narrowing
down the possibilities by identifying starting points or ideas that appeal to them. These initial
ideas should be refined to a coherent project plan, which is then submitted as the project
proposal. The proposal will be discussed informally with the supervisors, but is then submitted
to the Department as a formal statement of intent.
The main sources of inspiration for students are commonly:

1. Ideas proposed by candidates.

2. Suggestions made by Supervisors or Directors of Studies.
3. The project suggestions on the projects web page or notice board.
4. Past years’ projects. Most recent projects are available to read in the library or online, if
available,
5. Proposals put forward by industry, especially companies who have provided vacation
employment for students.

When ideas are first suggested or discussed, it is good to keep an open mind about them - a
topic that initially seems very interesting may prove unreasonable on further consideration,
perhaps because it will be too difficult. Equally, many ideas on topics that are unfamiliar to a
student will need study before he/she can appreciate what would be involved in following them.
Almost all project suggestions should also be seen as starting points rather than fully worked
out proposals.

9.3.1 Notes on Project Choice

Some project ideas can be discarded very quickly as inappropriate. It is almost always best to
abandon a doubtful idea early on rather than to struggle to find a slant that will allow the
supervisors to accept it. Projects are expected to have a significant Computer Science content;
for example, writing an application program or game-playing program, where the main
intellectual effort relates to the area supported rather than to the computation, are not suitable.
Projects must also be about the right size to fit into the time available. The implications of this
will best be judged by looking at past years’ projects and by discussing plans with a Supervisor.
They should not allow you to waste much time considering either ideas that would prove too
slight or ones that are grossly overambitious.
It is important to pick a project that has an achievable core and room for extension. You should
pick a suitably challenging project, where you will likely have to learn new things in order to
successfully complete it. In addition, it is expected that the student will make use of existing
libraries and tools (i.e. don’t reinvent the wheel) unless there is a good reason for producing
his/her own implementation.

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9.4 Re-Use of Projects That Have Been Attempted In The Past
Projects are intended to give students a chance to display their abilities as Computer Scientists.
They are not required (or indeed expected) to conduct research or produce radically new results.
It is thus perfectly proper to carry out a project that has been attempted before, and it is
commonplace to have two students in the same year both basing their projects on the same
original idea.
In such cases it is not acceptable to run a simple action replay of a previous piece of work.
Fortunately all projects of the required scale provide considerable scope for different
approaches; producing a new variation on an existing theme will not be hard. Furthermore the
report produced at the end of a previous attempt at a project will often identify areas that led to
unexpected difficulties, or opportunities for new developments—both these provide good
scope for putting a fresh slant on the ideas involved.

9.5 Project Supervision

In some cases the most critical problem will be finding a suitable project Supervisor, somebody
whom the student will see regularly to report his/her progress and obtain guidance about project
work throughout the year. This might be one of the main course Supervisors or a separate,
specialist project Supervisor, but it should not be assumed that a person suggesting a project
will be willing to supervise it. Supervisors have to be appointed by the Department, but in most
cases it will be left up to the students to identify somebody willing and able to take on the task.

9.6 Planning the project

As part of the project proposal, students should provide a detailed description of the work that
needs to be performed, broken down into manageable chunks. They will need to identify the
key components that will go to make up the final product. Credit is awarded specifically for
showing a professional approach using any relevant management or software engineering
methods at all stages of project design, development and testing. Students are to plan an order
in which they intend to implement the project components. Arranging both the list of tasks and
the implementation order will provide a student with a sequence of points in the project where
he/she can assess progress. Without a set of milestones it is difficult to pace the work so that
the project as a whole gets completed on time.

9.7 Timings
When a student has decomposed his/her entire project into sub-tasks, he/she can try to identify
which of these sub-tasks are going to be hard and which easy, and hence estimate the relative
amounts of effort involved in each. These estimates, together with the known date when the
project must be submitted, should allow the student to prepare a rough timetable for the work.
The timetable should clearly make allowance for lecture loads, unit-of-assessment coursework,
vacations, revision and writing the final project write-up. Looking at the details of such a plan
can give students insight into the feasibility of the project. Ideally one should plan to start
writing the project from the beginning of the First Semester.

9.8 Languages and Tools

It will also be necessary to make decisions about operating systems, programming languages,
tools and libraries. In many cases there will be nothing to decide, in that the essence of the
project forces issues. However, where students do have a choice, then they should take care to
balance out the pros and cons of each option. It is expected that students will be prepared to

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learn a new language or operating system if that is a natural consequence of the project they
select.
Uncommon languages or ones where the implementation is of unknown reliability are not ruled
out, but must be treated with care and (if at all possible) fallback arrangements must be made
in case insuperable problems are encountered.
9.9 Project Proposals

Submission of the project proposals is the first step in writing a project. The proposals for the
topic should have the following sections:
[1] The Title of the project, student’s name and matriculation number
[2] A brief but comprehensive description of background to the project. This section can
contain some literature reviews.
[3] Problem statement
[4] Aim and objectives (milestones)
[5] Brief description of methodology to be adopted, with an illustrative model diagram.
[6] Software or algorithm and hardware to be employed
[7] Assumptions made on the project (if available)
[8] Justification for the project
[9] A list of references.

By the time the proposal is well-written, the student is more or less done with Chapter One
of his/her Project Write-up

9.10 Research Project Format

[1] Title page
[2] Approval or Certification page
[3] Dedication
[4] Acknowledgement
[5] Table of content
[6] List of tables
[7] List of figures
[8] List of symbols/nomenclature(where applicable)
[9] Abstract
[10] Main work (Chapters 1-5)
[11] References
[12] Appendices(where applicable)

9.10.1 Title page

This is the first page that will give full information about the Project/Dissertation/Thesis: The
title, author, purpose and date. A dummy title page could be the one presented next:

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 A Comparative Study on Accuracies and Training Times of Machine Learning Algorithms

By

Usman Ugochukwu Olalekan

(Matric. No.: 101201)

Being a Project/Dissertation/Thesis Submitted to the Department of …. (Computer Science),

Faculty of ……. (Science), University of ….. (Ibadan)

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of B.Sc./M.Sc./PhD degree in …..
(Computer Science).

December, 2022

Students should check for the correct format in the Department.

9.10.2 Certification or Approval Page

The name of the institution and department, then a statement signifying approval for the work
by the supervisor, head of department and external supervisor. Space is reserved for signatures
of all listed parties as well. A sample dummy for Certification Page is:

Certification

This is to certify that Usman Ugochukwu Olalekan with matriculation number ………. carried
out this research work titled “A Comparative Study on Accuracies and Training Times of
Machine Learning Algorithms” in the Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Science,
University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo state, for the award of Bachelor/ Master / PhD Degree in
Computer Science.

-------------------- (Signature) --------------

Dr/ Prof. ………………(Supervisor) Date
B.Sc, M.Sc. PhD (Ibadan)

-------------------- (Signature) --------------

Dr/ Prof. ………………(Head of Department) Date
B.Sc, M.Sc. PhD (Ibadan)

Students should check for the correct format in the Department.

9.10.3 Dedication Page

This is the part of the project write-up where the student can either choose to dedicate the
project to God, a friend, marriage partner, parents, children or Ancestors.

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9.10.4 Acknowledgement
This is the part where the researcher writes to acknowledge those that contributed to the success
of the research project.

Tips on Writing a Good Acknowledgement:

1. It must be scholarly NOT journalistic or full of ‘prayer meeting’ language

2. It is not an opportunity for praise singing or boot licking
3. Remove all non-scholarly expressions
4. Flowery language should be avoided
5. Write the names correctly
6. First Paragraph: The Institution where the research work was conducted, libraries used
both within and outside, and other places relevant to the data collection
7. Second Paragraph: The department starting with the supervisor, and all other lecturers
(both within and outside your department) who have imparted a great measure of
knowledge to you (Names should be arranged well; Professors, and others with their
initials). Also, those have contributed to the research work.
8. Lastly, the sponsor, family (just wife/husband, children/siblings) who are relevant (in one
or two lines).

9.10.5 Table of Content

The main heading(s) and sub-heading(s) and page numbers are listed here. This serves as a
navigational map for the research work. Making page identification and reference very easy.
The table of content should be edited at the end of the work so that every part of the work can
be captured in the table of content.

Table of Content: Tips

1. It is the list that contains ALL the Front Matter, Main Content and Back Matter of the
Project/Disssertation/Thesis.
2. Front Matter includes; Certification page, Dedication Page, Acknowledgement page,
Abstract page and Table of Contents
3. Main Content includes; Chapters, Sub-headings and Endnotes at the end of each Chapter
4. Back Matter includes; Bibliography (to be sub-divided into Books, Internet, Journals,
Magazines, Newspapers, Periodicals, Proceedings, Unpublished Thesis,),
Appendix(ces), Bio-data (CV format), and the University Compliance Form or Ethical
Approval (if needed in the study).
5. It is the LAST thing to be completed so that it is 100% accurate
6. It should be easy to read and accurately formatted
7. Headings and page numbers of all the front matter, main content and back matter should
align with the body of the work

9.10.6 List of Tables/Figures/Symbols or Acronyms

The list is to aid the reader in locating tables/figures/symbols. It should contain the tag numbers,
tags which reflects the content and the page numbers. It should be well-numbered and
unambiguous. In the main content, the figure/table should be well-labeled

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A dummy for the List of Tables:

Table Title Page

1.1 Computing knowledge domains 9
2.1 Compilation of machine learning techniques 37
3.1 List of existing methodologies 48
4.1 Accuracy of the model 84

A dummy for the List of Figures:

Figure Title Page

1.1 The Computing Cycle 11
2.1 The Machine Learning Model 57
4.1 Precision and Accuracy of the Model 84

A dummy for the List of Acronyms:

Abbreviation Meaning
MAE Mean Absolute Error
UI University of Ibadan

9.10.7 Abstract
The abstract is a brief summary of the major points of the written work and it is often written
last with the tense in past. This summary is usually in the range of 250 to 300 words and it is
expected to summarize the problem statement, the research methodology and
recommendations. This should be in a single paragraph and the word limit not exceeded. Some
institutions adopt four paragraphs. In any case, things to include in an abstract are:

1. The brief introduction to the project/study and the main objective of the study
(One or two sentences)
2. The Gap filled and theory used (Two sentences)
3. The Methodology Used (research design, population, sample and sampling
techniques, instrument for data collected and analysis) (Four sentences)
4. Key results (stating values if it is empirical research work) (Two sentences)
5. Major conclusion (A sentence)
6. Major recommendation (A sentence)

9.10.8 Chapter One (Introduction)

This is usually the introduction. It describes the background, scope and purpose of the research
project. The rest of the report should be tied to the information supplied. The student should
strive to present sufficient details regarding why the study was carried out. Carefully laying out
his/her content in a hierarchical order would be preferred. i.e., arrange the content from top to
bottom. Usually the Chapter contains the following sub-sections:

[1] Background to the project

The background sets the general tone for the study. The researcher is expected to
discuss in detail and convincingly the background, need and rationale for the topic. It
should start by introducing the broad overall topic and providing basic background
information surrounding the dependent variable of interest from a global approach and

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 narrowing the topic down to a more specific research context. In other words, this
should have a funnel structure.

[2] Problem statement

Inform the reader of the specific problem under study. This should flow from gaps
existing and how the present study will fill that gap.

[3] Aim and objectives

Always begin the aim of the study/project with: The aim of this study/project is
to………...
While the objectives could be two or more and should be stated as follows in numbered
format: The objectives of this project/study are to:
i. Design and implement a model …..
ii. Evaluate the model
iii. Compare the model with ....

Note that each objective must be measurable, achievable, must have methodology and must
generate some result(s).

[4] Methodology: Briefly explain the materials and methods used in the study/project.

[5] Significance/Justification of the study/project: Indicate those that will benefit from
findings of the study and how.

[6] Scope and limitation of the Study/Project. The scope of the study should cover what
the project covers, the extent of the research. The limitation gives the obstacles or
factors that limits the full implementation of the work

[7] Project Layout. This section shows how the Chapters are laid out. For example,
Chapter One gives the general introduction to this project. It covers the background of
the study/project, the problem statement, aim and objectives of the study/project as well
as the scope and limitation of the study/project. The literature reviewed is presented
Chapter Two…

[8] Glossary of Terms. Operational Definition of unfamiliar terms are presented here State
clearly the definitions of some terms or keywords that might be confusing to the reader.

9.10.9 Chapter Two (Literature Review)

The Chapter Two of the project should cover the theoretical literature review as well as related
works. The project should be based on the ground work done by others. This is the chapter
where the student would have to present the work done by others, summarizing the points made
by past authors and the areas left untouched by the authors. The basic theoretical concepts on
the research domain must be presented first before the review of related works is done,
paragraph by paragraph. The researcher discusses the existing solutions for her problem. Those
existing solutions should be in recent works (For instance. Last 3 years) and it is better if the
drawbacks are discussed for those existing works.

While writing the literature review students should properly give due credits to past authors
and researchers whose works they may be using as a reference. They should reduce the use of

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quotations, paraphrasing may be preferred while writing the literature review. This means to
summarize the works in their own words and not copying verbatim to avoid plagiarism.
Students could comment on the work of past authors on the field and care should be taken while
writing a literature review not to derail into criticism of an existing literature on the subject of
study as this is unprofessional and unethical. Focus should be on the author’s contributions and
they should try to also point out some of the relevant facts and details left out by some of the
past authors.

For a research project, the literature review is discussed under the following sub-headings:
2.1 Conceptual Framework: The conceptual model of the study should be provided here
with explanation of linkages.
2.2 Theoretical Framework: Here the researcher should have a review of the major theory
or theories related to the topic and indicate the relevance of the theories to his/her study.
2.3 Empirical studies using relevant sub-headings: Empirical studies are abstract-like in
nature. It should indicate the purpose of study, sample and sampling technique,
instruments for data collection, method of data analysis, and major findings of the
studies reviewed. Ensuring that the studies being reviewed are related to the research
work.
2.4 Appraisal of Reviewed Literature: The literature reviewed should be summarized. You
should also indicate the gap in literature that justifies your own study.

Usually at the end of this chapter, a summary table of all the related works is presented. The
table will comprise of the following column headings:
1. Authors’ surnames and initials and year of publication
2. Title of the paper
3. Methodology used in brief
4. Results obtained
5. Strength(s) of the paper
6. Major weakness (research gap) of the paper

9.10.10 Chapter Three (Methodology)

This Chapter contains the research project methodology and the language used here should be
in the past tense. It is a sum-up of the research design: model or framework designed for the
research, discussion of the model/framework, procedures and algorithms, data and its sources
are detailed as well. The method used, from all alternatives, should also be justified. The
materials and equipment used should be included. Explanation of all the performance
evaluation metrics for the study must be presented as well as their implications. For instance,
in machine learning and data mining we have accuracy, precision, Area Under the Curve
(AUC), Receiver Operating Characteristics (ROC) Curve, Mean Absolute Error (MAE), etc.

For an undergraduate software development project, it is expected that the candidates present
in this Chapter the following subsections:
1. Overview of the existing system
2. Features of the proposed system
3. Data Flow Diagrams starting from the Context Diagram to Level 1 Diagram
4. Algorithm(s) on the project/study
5. The UML Design Diagrams for the project
6. Normalized database design up to at least Third Normal Form (3NF).
7. Functional and non-functional requirements of the project

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 8. Implementation details: Programming language used, other implementation tools.
Justifications for the tools used or design approach adopted must be clearly stated.

All the diagrams must be fully explained by the students.

9.10.11 Chapter Four (Results Presentation and Discussion)

The results collated during the research will be presented here, that is why chapter four is
usually the best place to use visual presentations like graphs, charts, tables etc.

This is where findings from the study are reported and are presented in a systematic manner. It
should be reported in sufficient detail to justify any conclusion. The use of tables and figures
must be judiciously employed to present summaries. Number the tables in the order of
occurrence in the text. In referring to the tables or figures use such phrases as “see Table 4.1”
or “as shown in Figure 4.2”. Avoid such references as “the table below” or “the figure above”.

Each table or Figure presented must be discussed. The effects and application of the result
should be detailed as well. Results in forms of charts and tables should be outlined correctly
and discussed.

Towards the end of the Chapter, a general discussion of results should be presented as a
subsection. The results and their implications should be discussed here and compared to the
result of past authors.

The Discussion of Results section is where you elaborate on your findings, and explain what
you found (in the case of research questions) or start with a clear statement in support or non-
support of the main hypotheses of the project. Areas of similarities and differences between
the results and the work of others should be stated, adding your own personal interpretations.
In discussing the findings, you are required to accomplish three things (1) state what your
findings are (2) discuss how each finding agrees or disagrees with the previous research
mentioned in the literature review and then (3) put your work into perspective by justifying
why your own findings agree or disagree with the work of others. For instance, if there are five
set of findings in your study, you should discuss each finding based on the three points listed
above, addressing each finding individually.

For undergraduate projects, students are expected to present the following in this Chapter:
1. A brief introduction of the Chapter
2. Screen shots of the major aspects of the software developed presented as figures
3. Discussion of the screen shot figures, bringing out the main features in the figures and
their implications
4. Software and hardware (System) requirements
5. System Manual

9.10.12 Chapter Five (Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations)

In the summary section, students are expected to summarize all they have done in the
project/study starting from Chapter One to Four.

In the Conclusion section, from the results of the research, conclusions are made, and then
there are suggested options for improvement for other researchers with similar interest.

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Students should draw up a summary of the entire work as their conclusion. The major results
obtained and the implications of the results are explained.

Based on the whole happenings, recommendations are suggested for tackling the issues raised
during the research.

Other Sections in this Chapter are:

 Contribution to Knowledge (M.Sc. and Ph.D. Students only): What contribution has
the project made or added to existing knowledge. How has the study helped to resolve
the original problems which led to the investigation?

 Suggestions for Further Study: Indicate the possible dimensions that the work could
address.

9.10.13 References

This is a comprehensive list of all the books, journals, and other sources of information cited
in the research or project work, this could either be online or print materials. Most students still
use referenced materials to create heavily plagiarized research and they face disciplinary
actions when caught. It is better to avoid writing plagiarized research work and all quoted and
exact words of different sources should be properly referenced, in-text and at the references’
list/bibliography. MLA, APA and Chicago style are the commonest referencing styles.

Pick up any past project that was well supervised to find out how references are cited in-text
and how they are organized as a list at the end of Chapter Five.

9.10.14 Appendices

Materials that are relevant to the work but were not added should be listed here. This is to back-
up the facts of the research. It encapsulates extensive proofs, official data from case study, list
of parameters, Questionnaire sample, Interview questions, Program codes, etc

Tips:
 After writing, time should be taken to proof read the content of the research and if possible
an independent editor should be consulted to help edit the research for grammatical and
spelling errors as this may affect the quality of the research content.
 Ensure that the final submission is clear and uses the specified font and font size required
for the research.
 Above all ensure that the research is up to standard, read through other works that have
been written in the field and use them as a guide to writing your own research.

Important Notes

1. Project/Dissertation/Thesis title should contain a maximum of 23 words

2. All chapter titles in block letters and center placed
3. All sub-headings in initial capital except words like in, on, of, the, a, an etc.
4. All chapters and Sub-headings in bold text
5. Use A4 size of paper

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 6. Set 1.3 inches for the left margin to allow for binding and equal margins of 1inch for
top, bottom and right margins
7. Use Times New Romans font style with 12 font size
8. Justify the typing lines
9. Title of tables should be on the top of the table while title of figures or plates should be
below the figure or the plate
10. Each chapter must start from a new page
11. All tables and figures must occupy individual separate pages and discussions on them
are made in previous pages before the Table or Figure, or on the next pages after the
Table/Figure, depending on the institution’s style. - Use indented paragraph in typing
the body of the report
12. Use double line spacing. Some institutions accept 1½ line spacing. Find out which is
acceptable.

Summary
In this Unit, you have been introduced to what it entails to carry out a study or project at
undergraduate or even postgraduate level. How the write-up should be organized were also
discussed.

Self-Assessment Questions
1. Discuss the layout of an undergraduate project
2. Explain what should be the contents of the background, problem statement and objectives
of a project
3. Explain how results of research/project should be presented and discussed in Chapter Four.

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Unit 10: Suggested Computer Science Project Ideas
Expected Duration: 1 week or 2 contact hours

Introduction

It is expected world over that at the final year of study, every student must write a project.
There are so many different projects that a student (supervisee) can propose to his/her
supervisor for approval. The student should think about what is in demand at the time and how
much time it will take him/her to complete. Most supervisors will want students to
incorporate the design, implementation and the specification of software programs or of
hardware devices. Some will actually give students a list of projects that they must follow to
get ideas, and others will let them brainstorm without any restraints.

Learning Outcomes

When you have studied this Unit, you should be able to

(i) Understand some Computer Science projects, how they are designed and implemented.
(ii) Formulate a project, design and implement it

Some Common Areas of Computer Science Projects

 Simple object-oriented language programming

 3D printing for medical scans
 Algorithm development
 Structure Based Biocomputing Applications
 Electronic Commerce Protocol
 GPGPU Automatic Translation
 Data mining
 Categorical Databases
 Complex Root Isolation and Exact Algorithms
 Modeling and reasoning on networked complex systems

This list of computer science project ideas for students is suited for beginners, and those just
starting out with Python or Data Science in general. These computer science project ideas will
get them going with all the practicalities they need to succeed in their career as a software
developer. Some computer science project ideas that will strengthen a beginner student’s base
and allow him/her to climb up the ladder are discussed below. Note that all the projects
described here have been implemented and are available on the net. You can only study the
projects and try to fashion out how to improve on them if you will like to undertake any of the
projects.

1. Face Detection

One of the best ideas to start experimenting hands-on computer science projects for students is
face detection software. This project focuses on building a face detection software using the
OpenCV library. The face detection program will be modelled in a way that it can detect faces
in live stream videos from webcam or video files stored in a PC’s local storage. The software

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uses pre-trained XML classifiers to detect faces in real-time and track them. Students can also
use different classifiers to identify various objects through this detection program.

To run this program, you need to install the OpenCV library on your local machine. Also, it
would be best if you created appropriate paths for the XML classifier files before executing
the program.

2. Online Auction System

In an online auction, buyers and sellers engage in transactional business, wherein buyers
purchase items through price bidding. Here, the bids have a starting price and an ending time.
Potential buyers who place the highest bidding price for an item are declared the winners and
owners of particular items.

In this project, students may create a secure online auction system using the fraud detection
method with binary classification. If a user wants to buy a product through an online auction,
they must provide their identification details like PAN number, email address, license number,
etc. The system will then screen the users, authenticate, and authorize them. Only authorized
users can bid in the auction. The system will be designed to predict fraudulent users in the early
stages, thereby eliminating the risk of online fraud and scams. This beginner-level computer
science projects will help build a strong foundation for fundamental programming concepts.

3. Evaluation of Academic Performance

This project involves the creation of an evaluation system that can analyze the academic
performance of students by utilizing the fuzzy logic method. In the fuzzy logic method, one
will consider three parameters, namely, attendance, internal marks, and external marks, to
evaluate the final academic performance of students of an institution. The fuzzy inference
system is much more accurate than conventional techniques. While developing this Computer
Science project, one should make sure that the student information uploaded is correct (devoid
of errors). Faulty data entry may lead to inaccurate results.

4. e-Authentication System

This project focuses on building an e-Authentication system using a combination of QR code

and OTP for enhanced security. The e-Authentication system is designed to avoid hacking of
accounts through shoulder surfing and misuse of login credentials. To be able to use the system,
a user has to first register in the system by entering the basic registration details (name, address,
zip code, etc.).

Once the registration is complete, the user can access the login module to authenticate the
account by entering the email id and password combination they used during registration. Then,
the user can proceed to the next authentication step using either of the two options – QR (Quick
Response) code or OTP (One Time Password). As per the option selected by the user, the
system will generate a QR Code or an OTP. While the QR code will be sent to the user’s mail
id, the OTP will be sent via SMS to the registered mobile number of the user.

The system randomly generates the QR Code and OTP at the time of login. It makes the login
more secure. However, to use this system, one always needs an active Internet connection.

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5. Cursor Movement on Object Motion

This is a project where students will design a cursor that can move through desktop and perform
actions based on hand gestures. The system’s object movement will be based on RGB (red,
green, and blue) colour - it can detect RGB colour object that will function as the mouse. It
would help if the Java AWT library is imported to coordinate with the cursor. The system
setting uses a webcam to track the movement of the red, green, and blue objects and based on
the object movement patterns, accordingly trigger an event.

The cursor movement system will acquire a single frame from the video recorded by the
webcam and flip the frame for the user to see. It converts the captured image into a binary
image wherein the RGB objects will become white. The system further adds a bounding box
around the object that the user can move throughout the display.

6. Crime Rate Prediction

This is one of the interesting computer science project ideas to create. As the name suggests,
this Computer Science project involves building a prediction system that can analyze and
predict the crime rate of a particular location. Naturally, the system needs to be fed with
relevant data. It uses the K-means data mining algorithm to predict the crime rate. The K-means
algorithm can cluster co-offenders and organized crime groups by detecting relevant crime
patterns via hidden links, link prediction, and statistical analysis of crime data.

It functions somewhat like this – the admin will feed the crime data into the system. The
algorithm will analyze crime data stored in a database and extract information and patterns
from it. It will then collate the crime groups based on the patterns found in the dataset. The
clusters will be made based on factors like where the crime took place, which people were
involved in the crime, and when the crime occurred.

7. Android Battery Saver System

This is one of the simple computer science projects yet an exciting one. The Android battery
saver is designed to analyze the battery usage data from built-in classes and create a
consolidated list of apps that drain the power of the Android phone. The system can also
determine the battery level of the phone. In situations where the battery level is low, and
numerous apps are consuming too much power, this system will trigger an alarm telling the
user to force stop or close the apps that are drawing power.

While the battery saver system has no backend, it uses Android Studio as the frontend. Since
the system feeds on data from the Android phone, it does not need a backend framework. The
primary aim of this battery saver system is to notify users of the apps that are high on power
consumption, thereby allowing them to take specific actions to stop battery drainage.

8. Symbol Recognition

This is one of the excellent computer science project ideas for beginners. The proposed project
seeks to build a system that can recognize symbols inserted by the user. This symbol
recognition system leverages an image recognition algorithm to process images and to identify
symbols. First, the system converts RGB objects into grayscale images which is then further
converted into black and white images. During the process, image processing is applied to

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remove unwanted objects and environmental interference. The system further uses optical
character recognition for recognizing the images with 60-80% accuracy. This is one of the
interesting computer science projects.

In the system, all symbol templates will be stored in a specific directory. The size of each image
is fixed to allow the easy recognition of the symbols with accuracy. The templates will remain
in black and white form, and the system will create a dataset of these templates. When a user
inputs a query image into the system, it will resize the query image, compare the resized image
values against the template image values in the dataset, and finally display the result in text
format. So, while the system takes inputs as images, it delivers output in a textual form.

9. Public News Droid

This is one of the excellent computer science projects for beginners. The public news droid is
an informative software application that informs users about the trending news, occurrences,
and interesting events happening in and around their locality. Thus, the idea behind creating
this information system is to keep the users informed about the happenings in their vicinity.
The system uses Android Studio as the frontend and SQL Server as the backend.

The system involves two modules, one for the admin and one for the user. The admin monitors
the accuracy and relevancy of news and information. For instance, if the admin encounters fake
news or app misuse, they can take necessary action to stop the spread of such irrelevant
information. On the contrary, users can view news and informative articles only of their
respective localities/towns/cities, and they can add news related to any other city.

To use the app, users need to register into the system to use this app and add all the necessary
details. Once the registration process is successful, the user can see the latest news, refresh the
app, browse for more information, add new information and upload it (within 450 words), and
so on. Users can also add images and title for the news they add.

10. Search Engine

This search engine is developed using web annotation. It is one of the trending computer
science projects where when users enter specific words or phrases in a search engine, it
automatically fetches the most relevant pages that contain those keywords. Web annotation
makes it possible. Web annotation helps to make an application user-friendly. Thanks to web
annotation, users can add, modify, and remove information from Web resources without
altering the resource itself.

This project uses web annotation on pages and images. When the user enters words, names, or
phrases in the system, it will fetch the information and pictures having the same annotation.
Then the system displays a list of results that contain the image or content matching to the user
input. For this search engine, students need to use an effective algorithm to generate a query
result page/search result records based on users’ queries.

11. Online eBook Maker

One of the best ideas to start experimenting hands-on computer science projects for students is
working on online eBook maker. This online eBook maker will allow users to design and create
eBooks free of cost. The system has two modules – admin login and author login. The admin

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can accept requests from users (authors), check and validate their details, evaluate completed
eBooks, and process the request by mailing eBooks to the authors. Users can register in the
system using the author login.

After filling in the necessary details, users can create new books, specify the context of books,
add the title, number of pages, add a book cover, etc. Existing users can simply log in using
their ID and password, and they can either create new books or resume editing the existing
(unfinished) eBooks. Authors can keep only three incomplete eBooks at a time, of which they
must complete at least one book before starting a new book.

12. Mobile Wallet with Merchant Payment

This can be an interesting and useful computer science project ideas. As you can guess by the
name, this is a QR code scanning application designed for handling and facilitating liquid cash
transactions between sellers (merchants) and consumers. The aim of building this app is to
provide a secure, reliable, and efficient platform for monetary transactions on both ends. Each
time, the system generates a unique QR code ID, and all passwords are encrypted using AES
Encryption Algorithm.

There are two parts of this application – an Android application for merchants that can scan the
QR code and the other part for the consumer for generating the QR Code. The frontend uses
Android Studio, and the backend uses SQL Server. This system functions something like this
– when merchants scan the QR code generated by the app, the desired amount is transferred
into their wallet that is easily transferable into their bank accounts. As for the consumers, they
need to add money to their wallet via their credit/debit cards linked to their bank accounts.
They can save the card details for future use. Merchants can also change their personal and
bank details. And this is the perfect idea for your next computer science project!

Summary
In this Unit, you have been taken through some Computer Science project samples, how they
were implemented. This should open your eyes clearly now on how you can fashion out your
own research projects in the future.

Self-Assessment Question
Study any of the projects discussed again. Think of how it could be improved and implemented.

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Unit 11: Reference Citations and Listings
Expected Duration: 1 week or 2 contact hours

Introduction

No matter how, in any research or project task, one has to look into what others have done
before in the research / project domain and summarize the related ones in the literature review
or some other sections of the final report. After doing that, we have to quote the source from
which the information is obtained. This is giving credits to the authors of those papers and it
means “citation”. In this Unit, we shall study the ways citations are done in research report.

Learning Outcomes

When you have studied this Unit, you should be able to understand
11.1 Citation and Citation Style
11.2 How to Choose a Citation Style
11.3 APA Format Citation Guide
11.3.1 Core Components of an APA Reference:
11.3.2 APA Referencing Basics: Reference List
11.3.3 APA Referencing Basics: In-Text Citation
11.3.4 How to Cite Different Source Types
11.4 IEEE Style
11.4.1 In-text Citing
11.4.2 Creating a Reference List
11.4.3 Examples of IEEE citations for different materials:

11.1 Citation and Citation Style

A citation is a way of giving credit to individuals for their creative and intellectual works that
we utilized to support our research. It can also be used to locate particular sources and combat
plagiarism. Typically, a citation can include the author's name, date, location of the publishing
company, journal title, or DOI (Digital Object Identifier).

A citation style dictates the information necessary for a citation and how the information is
ordered, as well as punctuation and other formatting.

11.2 How to Choose a Citation Style

There are many different ways of citing resources from a research. The citation style sometimes
depends on the academic discipline involved. For example:

 APA (American Psychological Association) is used by Education, Psychology, and

Sciences
 MLA (Modern Language Association) style is used by the Humanities
 Chicago/Turabian style is generally used by Business, History, and the Fine Arts
 IEEE style is used in Computational and other Sciences

However, in this Unit, we shall study only APA and IEEE styles.

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11.3 APA Format Citation Guide

This is a complete guide to APA (American Psychological Association) in-text and reference
list citations as adapted from Pittsburg Library (2021). This easy-to-use, comprehensive guide
makes citing any source easy.

11.3.1 Core Components of an APA Reference:

11.3.2 APA Referencing Basics: Reference List

A reference list is a complete list of references used in a piece of writing including the author
name, date of publication, title and more. An APA reference list must:

 Be on a new page at the end of the document

 Be centered
 Be alphabetically by name of first author (or title if the author isn’t known, in this case
‘a’, ‘an’ and ‘the’ should be ignored)
o If there are multiple works by the same author these are ordered by date, if the works are
in the same year they are ordered alphabetically by the title and are allocated a letter (a,b,c
etc) after the date
 Contain full references for all in-text references used

11.3.3 APA Referencing Basics: In-Text Citation

In-text references must be included following the use of a quote or paraphrase taken from
another piece of work. In-text citations are citations within the main body of the text and refer
to a direct quote or paraphrase. They correspond to a reference in the main reference list. These
citations include the surname of the author and date of publication only. Using an example
author Akinola S. O., this takes the form:

Akinola (2017) states… Or …(Akinola, 2017).

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The structure of this changes depending on whether a direct quote or parenthetical used:

 Direct Quote: The citation must follow the quote directly and contain a page number after
the date, for example (Akinola, 2017, p.104). This rule holds for all of the variations listed.
 Parenthetical: The page number is not needed.

(a) Two Authors:

The surname of both authors is stated with either ‘and’ or an ampersand between. For example:
Akinola and Usman (2017) assert that giving credits to authors is called citation.
Or
Giving credits to authors is called citation (Akinola & Usman, 2017).

(b) Three, Four or Five Authors:

For the first cite, all names should be listed:
Akinola, Usman, and Chukwudi (2017) state that giving credits to authors is called citation
Or
It is a well-known fact that giving credits to authors is called citation (Akinola, Usman, &
Chukwudi, 2017).
Further cites can be shorted to the first author’s name followed by et al.:
Akinola et al. (2017) state…
Or
… is called citation (Akinola et al., 2017).
(c) Six or More Authors:
Only the first author’s surname should be stated followed by et al., see the above example.
(d) No Authors:
If the author is unknown, the first few words of the reference should be used. This is usually
the title of the source.
If this is the title of a book, periodical, brochure or report, it should be italicized. For example:
(A guide to citation, 2017).
If this is the title of an article, chapter or web page, it should be in quotation marks. For
example:
(“APA Citation”, 2017).
(e) Citing Authors With Multiple Works From One Year:
Works should be cited with a, b, c etc. following the date. These letters are assigned within the
reference list, which is sorted alphabetically by the surname of the first author. For example:
(Usman, 2017a)
Or
(Usman, 2017b).

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(f) Citing Multiple Works in One Parentheses:
If these works are by the same author, the surname is stated once followed by the dates in order
chronologically. For instance:
Chukwudi (2007, 2013, 2017)
Or
(Chukwudi, 2007, 2013, 2017)
If these works are by multiple authors then the references are ordered alphabetically by the first
author separated by a semicolon as follows:
(Akinola & Usman 2017; John, Olubisi, & Yusuf, 2015).
(g) Citing a Group or Organisation:
For the first cite, the full name of the group must be used. Subsequently this can be shortened.
For example:
First cite: (International Citation Association, 2015)
Further Cites: (Citation Association, 2015)
(h) Citing a Secondary Source:
In this situation the original author and date should be stated first followed by ‘as cited in’
followed by the author and date of the secondary source. For example:
Boyles (1980) as cited in Charles (2017) states that …..
Or
… is a good way of thinking (Boyles, 1980, as cited in Charles, 2017)

11.3.4 How to Cite Different Source Types

 In-text citation doesn’t vary depending on source type, unless the author is unknown.
 Reference list citations are highly variable depending on the source.
(a) How to Cite a Book (Title, not chapter) in APA Format
Book referencing is the most basic style; it matches the template above, minus the URL section.
So the basic format of a book reference is as follows:

Book referencing examples:

Mitchell, J. A., Thomson, M., & Coyne, R. P. (2017). A guide to citation. London, England:
Willey

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Jones, A. F. & Wang, L. (2011). Spectacular creatures: The Amazon rainforest (2nd ed.). San
Jose, Costa Rica: Willey
(b) How to Cite an Edited Book in APA Format
This reference format is very similar to the book format apart from one extra inclusion: (Ed(s)).
The basic format is as follows:

Edited book example:

Williams, S.T. (Ed.). (2015). Referencing: A guide to citation rules (3rd ed.). New York, NY:
My Publisher
(c) How to Cite a Chapter in an Edited Book in APA Format
Edited books are collations of chapters written by different authors. To reference a single
chapter, a different format is needed. The basic structure is as follows:

Edited book chapter example:

In the following example, B.N. Troy is the author of the chapter and S.T. Williams is the editor.
Troy, B.N. (2015). APA citation rules. In S.T, Williams (Ed.). A guide to citation rules (2nd
ed., pp. 50-95). New York, NY: Publishers.
(d) How to Cite an E-Book in APA Format
An E-Book reference is the same as a book reference expect the publisher is swapped for a
URL. The basic structure is as follows:
Author surname, initial(s) (Ed(s).*). (Year). Title (ed.*). Retrieved from URL
*optional.
E-Book example:
Mitchell, J.A., Thomson, M., & Coyne, R.P. (2017). A guide to citation. Retrieved from
https://www.mendeley.com/reference-management/reference-manager
Sometimes, and indeed very good, we also put the date of retrieval at the end of the citation.
(e) How to Cite an E-Book Chapter in APA Format
This follows the same structure as an edited book chapter reference except the publisher is
exchanged for a URL. The structure is as follows:

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Last name of the chapter author, initial(s). (Year). Chapter title. In editor initial(s), surname
(Ed.). Title (ed., pp. chapter page range). Retrieved from URL
E-Book chapter example:
Troy, B.N. (2015). APA citation rules. In S.T, Williams (Ed.). A guide to citation rules (2nd
ed., pp. 50-95). Retrieved from https://www.mendeley.com/reference-management/reference-
manager
(f) How to Cite a Journal Article in Print or Online in APA Format
Articles differ from book citations in that the publisher and publisher location are not included.
For journal articles, these are replaced with the journal title, volume number, issue number and
page number. The basic structure is:

Journal Article Examples:

Mitchell, J.A. (2017). Citation: Why is it so important? Mendeley Journal, 67(2), 81-95
Mitchell, J.A. (2017). Citation: Why is it so important? Mendeley Journal, 67(2), 81-95.
Retrieved from https://www.mendeley.com/reference-management/reference-manager
(g) How to Cite a Newspaper Articles in Print or Online in APA Format
The basic structure is as follows:
Author surname, initial(s). (Year, Month, Day). Title. Title of Newspaper, column/section, p.
or pp. Retrieved from URL*
**Only include if the article is online.
Note: the date includes the year, month and date.
Newspaper Articles Example:
Odeleye, J.A. (2017). Changes to citation formats shake the research world. The Mendeley
Telegraph, Research News, pp.9. Retrieved from https://www.mendeley.com/reference-
management/reference-manager
(h) How to Cite Magazine Articles in Print or Online in APA Format
The basic structure is as follows:
Author surname, initial(s). (Year, month day). Title. Title of the Magazine, pp.
Magazine Article Example:
Mitchell, J.A. (2017). How citation changed the research world. The Mendeley, pp. 26-28

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(i) How to Cite Non-Print Material in APA Format
 How to Cite an Image in APA Format
The basic format to cite an image is:

Image Example:
Millais, J.E. (1851-1852). Ophelia [painting].
Retrieved from www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/millais-ophelia-n01506
 How to Cite a Film in APA Format
The basic format of a film citation is:
Producer surname, initial (Producer), & Director surname, initial (Director). (Year of
Release). Title of film [Motion Picture]. Country of Origin: Studio.
Film Example:
Hitchcock, A. (Producer), & Hitchcock, A. (1954) Rear window. United States of America:
Paramount Pictures.
 How to Cite a TV Programme in APA Format
The basic format is as follows:
Writer surname, initial(s) (Writer), & Director surname, initial(s) (Director). (Year of Release).
Episode title [Television series episode]. In Executive producer surname, initial(s) (Executive
Producer), TV series name. City, State of original channel: Network, Studio or Distributor
TV Programme Example:
Catlin, M., and Walley-Beckett, Moire (Writers), & Johnson, R (Director). (2010). Fly
[Television series episode]. In Schnauz, T. (Executive Producer). Breaking bad. Culver City,
CA: Sony Pictures Television
 How to Cite a Song in APA Format
The basic format to cite a song in APA format is as follows:

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Song Example:
Beyonce, Diplo, MNEK, Koenig, E., Haynie, E., Tillman, J., and Rhoden, S.M. (2016) Hold
up [Recorded by Beyonce]. On Lemonade [visual album]. New York, NY: Parkwood Records
(August 16)
(j) How to Cite a Website in APA Format
When citing a website, the basic structure is as follows:
Author surname, initial(s). (Year, month day). Title. Retrieved from URL [Possibly put date]
Website example:
Mitchell, J.A. (2017, May 21). How and when to reference. Retrieved
from https://www.howandwhentoreference.com. March 2022

11.4 IEEE Style

The Institute for Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) is a professional organization
supporting many branches of engineering, computer science, and information technology. In
addition to publishing journals, magazines, and conference proceedings, IEEE also makes
many standards for a wide variety of industries.
IEEE citation style includes in-text citations, numbered in square brackets, which refer to the
full citation listed in the reference list at the end of the paper. The reference list is organized
numerically, not alphabetically. For examples, see the IEEE Editorial Style Manual
(http://ieeeauthorcenter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/IEEE_Style_Manual.pdf).

11.4.1 In-text Citing

It is not necessary to mention an author's name, pages used, or date of publication in the in-text
citation. Instead, refer to the source with a number in a square bracket, e.g. [1], that will then
correspond to the full citation in your reference list.
 Place bracketed citations within the line of text, before any punctuation, with a space
before the first bracket.
 Number your sources as you cite them in the paper. Once you have referred to a source
and given it a number, continue to use that number as you cite that source throughout
the paper.
 When citing multiple sources at once, the preferred method is to list each number
separately, in its own brackets, using a comma or dash between numbers, as such: [1],
[3], [5] or [1] - [5].
The below examples are from Murdoch University's IEEE Style LibGuide
(https://libguides.murdoch.edu.au/IEEE/text).
Examples of in-text citations:
"...end of the line for my research [13]."
"This theory was first put forward in 1987 [1]."
"Scholtz [2] has argued that..."
"Several recent studies [3], [4], [15], [16] have suggested that...."

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"For example, see [7]."
11.4.2 Creating a Reference List
The Reference List appears at the end of your paper and provides the full citations for all the
references you have used. List all references numerically in the order they've been cited within
the paper, and include the bracketed number at the beginning of each reference.
 Title your list as References either centered or aligned left at the top of the page.
 Create a hanging indent for each reference with the bracketed numbers flush with the
left side of the page. The hanging indent highlights the numerical sequence of your
references.
 The author's name is listed as first initial, last name. Example: Adel Al Muhairy would
be cited as A. Al Muhairy (NOT Al Muhairy, Adel).
 The title of an article is listed in quotation marks.
 The title of a journal or book is listed in italics.
The below examples are from the IEEE Citation Reference Guide, IEEE Reference Guide
(https://ieee-dataport.org/sites/default/files/analysis/27/IEEE Citation Guidelines.pdf),
and
Murdoch University's IEEE Style LibGuide (https://libguides.murdoch.edu.au/IEEE/home).
11.4.3 Examples of IEEE citations for different materials:
Material Type Works Cited
Book in print [1] D. Sarunyagate, Ed., Lasers. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996.
Chapter in book [2] G. O. Young, "Synthetic structure of industrial plastics,"
in Plastics, 2nd ed., vol. 3, J. Peters, Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill,
1964, pp. 15-64.
eBook [3] L. Bass, P. Clements, and R. Kazman, Software Architecture in
Practice, 2nd ed. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley, 2003. [E-book]
Available: Safari e-book.
Journal article [4] G. Liu, K. Y. Lee, and H. F. Jordan, "TDM and TWDM de Bruijn
networks and shufflenets for optical communications," IEEE Trans.
Comp., vol. 46, pp. 695-701, June 1997.
eJournal (from [5] H. Ayasso and A. Mohammad-Djafari, "Joint NDT Image
database) Restoration and Segmentation Using Gauss–Markov–Potts Prior
Models and Variational Bayesian Computation," IEEE Transactions
on Image Processing, vol. 19, no. 9, pp. 2265-77, 2010. [Online].
Available: IEEE Xplore, http://www.ieee.org. [Accessed Sept. 10,
2010].
eJournal (from [6] A. Altun, “Understanding hypertext in the context of reading on
internet) the web: Language learners’ experience,” Current Issues in
Education, vol. 6, no. 12, July, 2005. [Online serial]. Available:
http://cie.ed.asu.edu/volume6/number12/. [Accessed Dec. 2, 2007].

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Conference paper [7] L. Liu and H. Miao, "A specification based approach to testing
polymorphic attributes," in Formal Methods and Software
Engineering: Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on
Formal Engineering Methods, ICFEM 2004, Seattle, WA, USA,
November 8-12, 2004, J. Davies, W. Schulte, M. Barnett, Eds.
Berlin: Springer, 2004. pp. 306-19.
Conference [8] T. J. van Weert and R. K. Munro, Eds., Informatics and the
proceedings Digital Society: Social, ethical and cognitive issues: IFIP
TC3/WG3.1&3.2 Open Conference on Social, Ethical and Cognitive
Issues of Informatics and ICT, July 22-26, 2002, Dortmund,
Germany. Boston: Kluwer Academic, 2003.
Newspaper article [9] J. Riley, "Call for new look at skilled migrants," The Australian,
(from database) p. 35, May 31, 2005. [Online]. Available: Factiva,
http://global.factiva.com. [Accessed May 31, 2005].
Technical report [10] K. E. Elliott and C.M. Greene, "A local adaptive protocol,"
Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, France, Tech. Rep. 916-
1010-BB, 1997.
Patent [11] J. P. Wilkinson, “Nonlinear resonant circuit devices,” U.S.
Patent 3 624 125, Jul. 16, 1990.
Standard [12] IEEE Criteria for Class IE Electric Systems, IEEE Standard
308, 1969.
Thesis/Dissertation [1] J. O. Williams, “Narrow-band analyzer,” Ph.D. dissertation,
Dept. Elect. Eng., Harvard Univ., Cambridge, MA, 1993.

Summary

In this Unit, you have been introduced to reference citation styles especially the APA and IEEE
style. Try and explore the other available styles. Also note that every institution has her own
style too. For instance, we have University Ibadan of Manual of Styles. You may have to
explore the institution’s, Journal’s or Conference Manual of Styles when you are packaging a
research report for publication in your Institution, Journal or Conference Proceedings.

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Unit 12: Journal or Conference Article writing
Expected Duration: 1 week or 2 contact hours

Introduction

At the end of a research project, a report is written. The report cannot just be kept on the shelf,
it has to be published in a well reputable journal or conference proceeding. In this Unit, we
explore the Scopus Journal styles for packaging a journal article.

Learning Outcomes

When you have studied this Unit, you should be able to understand
12.1 How to Write a Scopus Indexed Journal Article
12.2 Key Things to Note While Writing a Quality Article in a Standard Way
12.3 Precautions Needed To Be Taken Care of Before Writing a Paper
12.4 How to Identify a Potential Journal?
12.4.1 Methods for Identifying Potential Journal
12.5 Journal Citations, Indexing
12.5.1 The H-index
12.5.2 The i10-index
12.5.3 How to improve One’s Citation
12.5.3.1 When do I need to cite?
12.5.3.2 Improving Citation

12.1 Writing a Scopus Indexed Journal Article

A quality article starts with finding an effective research gap. Thus we are more concerned and
invest much effort and time in making an in-depth analysis of the research gap in the research
contexts and in generating a novel idea to handle it. Recent research papers from the last three
years only are taken for references for article preparation.

The easiest way of writing a Scopus indexed journal article is as follows.

1. Find an interested Domain

The very first step in writing an article is to pick an interesting research domain. So, the
researcher must find a domain he/she wants to do research like Mobile Computing, Cloud
Computing, Software Engineering, Machine Learning, etc.

2. Select an area in the interested domain

Select anyone interested area from that domain such as clustering in Mobile computing. It is
better to choose a broader area than a narrow one. For example, if clustering is chosen, it can
be compared with many other domains like Data Mining, Cloud Computing, Big Data, etc.

3. Identify a problem in the interested domain

Generally, identifying the research problem is the first step every researcher should take. So,
find anyone problem by making a literature survey in that particular area such as reducing the
time consumption when clustering of data in Mobile Computing. While identifying a research
problem, ensure that it is feasible.

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4. Find solutions from other domains
After identifying problems, find existing solutions in some other domains similar to the
interested domain like Data mining or Cloud Computing which uses the same attributes like
the one chosen. However, the selected areas should be relevant to the interested domain.

5. Make an in-depth study to adapt other domain’s solution into the present research
However, definitely there could be the same problem addressed in that domain in different
ways. Thus, make an in-depth study of that solution. If possible, adapt the same solution to our
domain. But mind it we cannot use the same solution in that domain into ours. So, we have to
be thorough in our domain such that we could make all the modifications to make a novel
solution suitable for our problem.

12.2 Key Things to Note While Writing a Quality Article in a Standard Way

A quality article should possess the below standards so that it can be considered for rapid
publication in reputed journals like Springer (https://www.springer.com/gp) or Elsevier
(https://www.elsevier.com/en-in). All the sections actually represent the sections expected in a
complete journal.

TITLE
 Attract the reader’s attention
 Be specific
 Keep it informative and concise
 Avoid jargon and abbreviations

Example:
 Original: Preliminary observations on the effect of lecture periods on performance of
students in Computer Programming
 Revised: Effect of lecture periods on performance of students in Computer
Programming
 Remarks: Long title distracts readers. Remove all redundancies such as “Preliminary
observations on”, etc.

ABSTRACT

The abstract is written after the title of the research, immediately after the authors’ names and
affiliations

 Make the abstract first and be firm in it. At the same time, try not to modify the abstract
depend on the flow of the paper.
 If it tends to change, it means you have not done the literature survey properly.
 Make the abstract to be below 300 words.
 Be precise in mentioning an unsolved issue as well as your solution for that issue.
 Keywords are the labels of your manuscript. Use only established abbreviations (e.g.
CNN for Convolutional Neural Network) and check the “Guide for Authors”

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1. INTRODUCTION

 Make sure it has all the answers related to your research questions like What? How?
Why? etc.,
 The goal of the intro is to identify as well as to clear the research question.
 However, make your introduction with a clear outline of your problem.

2. LITERATURE SURVEY

The literature survey is considered to be the bone of standard article because it leads to the
development of new and innovated ideas.
 More care is needed while making literature survey because it only proves how serious
you are in your problem definition.
 Don’t just list all the algorithms used in related works.
 Make a clear description on techniques related to your work with their drawbacks and
how it is addressed in your work.
 So choose papers that have issues that could be resolved in your proposed system.
 Some journals expect Yes/No based tabulations on features and their existence in
existing and proposed systems.
 It should show the gap between your proposed work and the existing works.

3. METHODOLOGY

 Make a precise but in-depth explanation of methodology.

 Create algorithms and pseudo-codes wherever necessitates with citations, if any.
 Build the flow to be continuous and don’t wander between concepts.
 Be connective in binding your concepts.
 Do not describe previously published procedures
 Thus, on introducing the new technique into your problem definition, make the origin
of the technique more clearly. Don’t just start defining the technique into the problem.
Embed it more carefully.

4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

 The result should contain elaborated discussion.

 At least 3 parameters are expected to be discussed on efficiency analysis.
 Make a clear tabulation on data used to make those graphs and figures.
 Mention in detail about simulation if used.
 Hint on the data set with its source, if used.
 Sum up the analysis, results, findings as well as contributions from the previous
literature.

5. CONCLUSION

 In conclusion, strengthen and emboss your paper by mentioning few things that make
your paper stand out from others.
 It sounds good if your work worth start like “This is the first work implementing this
technique”. But you must be careful in stating so because it depends on the limit of your
knowledge in the research domain.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Ensures those who helped in the research are recognized.

REFERENCES

 Cite the main scientific publications on which your work is based.

 Do not use too many references.
 Avoid excessive self-citations.
 Avoid excessive citations of publications from the same region.
 Conform strictly to the style given in the Guide for Authors.

12.3 Precautions Needed To Be Taken Care of Before Writing a Paper

First, the sentences should be taken care. For example,

 Present tense for known facts and hypotheses.

“The average life of a honey bee is 6 weeks”

 Past tense for experiments you have conducted.

“All the honey bees were maintained in an environment with a consistent temperature of 2
degrees centigrade…”

 Past tense when you describe the results of an experiment.

“The average life span of bees in our contained environment was 8 weeks…”

 Use active voice to shorten sentences.

Passive voice: “It has been found that there had been…”
Active voice: “We found that…”

 Avoid abbreviations: “it’s”, “weren’t”, “hasn’t” .

Never use them in scientific writing. Only use abbreviations for units of measure or established
scientific abbreviations, e.g. DNA, CNN

Some Other Important Notes

 Usually reputed journals expect more result and discussion part than that of the
methodology part.
 Ensure all the figures in the article with high resolution.
 Make proper connectivity between sections in the article.
 Follow the rule of the journal thoroughly even while mentioning bibliography.
 The references should be listed in the order in which it is referred.
 In addition, order reference as it is referred.

12.4 How to Identify a Potential Journal?

Finding a potential journal among 2.6 Million research journals (up to 2018 year) is a difficult
task. The journal growing at a rate of about 10% per year. The author should have an idea
before they publish an article. This section will provide some methods to identify potential
journals, measuring research impact and useful tips to improve citation of author’s article.

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1. Browse Legit Journals

Academic publishing market had an annual revenue of ~$7.5 Billion (e-paper). The growth
has given rise to a large number of predatory publishers and also attracted by the prospect of
getting published sooner. The early career researchers often fall prey to these publishers. So,
avoid getting scammed by these predatory journals like unsolicited calls /emails, non-clarity
on article processing charge etc.,

2. Check websites

 For non-indexed journals, check with PubMed, JSTOR, SCOPUS, SHERPA,

and DOAJ.

Also, check websites like ,

 Scopus – https://www.scopus.com/
 SCIMAGOJR – https://www.scimagojr.com/
 Web of Science – https://clarivate.com/
o Emerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI)
o Science Citation Index (SCI)
o Science Citation Index Expanded (SCIE)
o Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI).

12.4.1 Methods for Identifying Potential Journal

There are 3 ways to identify potential article and they are,

1. Using Tools

The following tools will help you to find relevant journals for your article in easy way.

 https://journalfinder.elsevier.com/

Elsevie JournalFinder guides you to identify publications that may be better qualified to publish
your research paper. For more additional information review the Aims and Scope of the journal.
The Publisher must eventually determine how well the paper suits the publication.

 https://jane.biosemantics.org/

By simply entering the paper title and/or abstract in the box and click on ‘Find journals,’ ‘Find
authors’ or ‘Find articles.’ Jane can then compare the paper against millions of PubMed papers
to identify the strongest matching articles.

 https://journalsuggester.springer.com/

On the basis of your manuscript data, the journal matching technology identifies related
articles. This helps to check whether both Springer and BMC papers fits your manuscript. Also
helps to easily compare relevant journals and to find the best position to write.

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  https://www.journalguide.com/

JournalGuide is a free resource developed at Research Square by a community of app

developers, former researchers and veterans of scholarly writing. They helps to choose the best
journal for their research.

2. Using Database

The following are the database links to relevant journals for journal.
 https://www.scopus.com/home.uri
Scopus is the abstract and citation site for peer-reviewed literature, scientific articles, books as
well as conference proceedings. Scopus provides free services to unsubscribed users which is
available from Scopus Previews.

 https://www.ulrichsweb.com/

Ulrichsweb.com is an authoritative knowledge base with facts on more than 300,000 series
from all over the globe, comprising scientific and professional publications, peer-reviewed
books, newspapers and other series in all topic fields.

3. Manual search

 Check scope and aim of the journal you choose. Read some of the articles the journal
has published and find whether there is similarity between those articles and your own
manuscript.
 Refer literature review wherein the papers you cited have been published.
 Check how long a journal takes to publish articles.
 Look for journal with broad scope, wider target audience and an online presence.

12.5 Journal Citations, Indexing

12.5.1 The H-index

 The h-index is short for the Hirsch index – Jorge E. Hirsch (2005).
 The h-index is an author-level metric that attempts to measure both the productivity and
citation impact of the publications of a scientist or scholar.
 The h-index is simply a count of the largest number of papers (h) from a journal or
author that have at least (h) number of citations.
 For instance, an h-index of 17 means that the scientist has published at least 17 papers
that have each been cited at least 17 times. If the scientist’s 18th most cited publication
was cited only 10 times, the h-index would remain at 17. If the scientist’s 18th most
cited publication was cited 18 or more times, the h-index would rise to 18.

12.5.2 The i10-index

 The i10-index is the newest in the line of journal metrics and was introduced by Google
Scholar in 2011.
 It is a simple and straightforward indexing measure found by tallying a journal’s total
number of published papers with at least 10 citations.

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12.5.3 How to improve One’s Citation

A “citation” is the way one tells his/her readers that certain material in his/her work came from
another source.

12.5.3.1 When do I need to cite?

 When you use words, thoughts, ideas, etc. of someone else.

 When you direct quote.
 When you paraphrase.
 When you use or reference an idea or thought that has already been expressed.
 When you make any reference to another source.
 When another’s ideas, words or thoughts have influenced your writing and
research.

12.5.3.2 Improving Citation

 Cite your past work when it is relevant to a new manuscript.

 Carefully choose your keywords.
 Use your keywords and phrases in your title and repeatedly in your abstract. Repeating
keywords and phrases will increase the likelihood your paper.
 Use a consistent form of your name on all of your papers.
o Create ORCID https://orcid.org/
o Google Scholar https://scholar.google.com/
 Make sure that your information is correct (name and affiliation are correct on the final
proofs).
 Make your manuscript easily accessible i.e., open-access journal.
 Share your data in websites like https://www.researchgate.net/
 Present your work at conferences and it will make your research more visible to the
academic and research communities.
 Provide links to your papers on social media.

For Example:
1. https://www.researchgate.net/
2. https://www.academia.edu/
3. https://www.mendeley.com/
4. Your university profile page.
5. Actively promote your work in blog or a website dedicated to your research and share
it.
1. https://www.blogger.com/
2. https://blogger.googleblog.com/

Summary

Writing a good journal article that can be accepted in reputable journals such as Scopus
Journals was discussed in this Unit. How to identify a good journal was not left out

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Unit 13: Plagiarism in Research Papers
Expected Duration: 1 week or 2 contact hours

Introduction

Every reputable institution of learning adopts strategies to help students and academics avoid
plagiarism in academic writing. Writing a research paper involves sifting through a lot of
information to come up with the strongest argument possible. In your paper, you will need to
draw on previously established values and ideas and add relevant material, but you must do so
with caution to avoid plagiarism. To avoid plagiarism, you must grasp how to paraphrase and
quote properly. We study extensively the plagiarism issues in academics in this Unit.

Learning Outcomes

When you have studied this Unit, you should be able to understand
13.1 Meaning of Plagiarism in Research Papers
13.2 Types of Plagiarism
13.3 Steps to Ensure Plagiarism-Free Articles
13.4 Tips for Avoiding Plagiarism
13.5 Self-Plagiarism
13.5.1 Why is self-plagiarism wrong?
13.6 Paraphrasing and Quoting
13.7 Some Principles to Follow When Paraphrasing in Order to Avoid Avoid Plagiarism in
Academic Writing
13.7.1 Strategies for paraphrasing
13.7.2 Tips on how to paraphrase a text without plagiarizing
13.8 Best Tools to Check Texts for Plagiarism

13.1 Meaning of Plagiarism in Research Papers

Plagiarism involves taking the expressions or thoughts of someone else, without praising the
original creator fairly. Plagiarism occasionally includes the intentional copying of someone’s
job, but it occurs unintentionally, by thoughtlessness or inattentiveness. The word plagiarism
is derived from Latin word “Plagiare” means to kidnap.

According to a Vanguard Newspaper report, Plagiarism is the unprincipled practice of stealing

another researcher’s words or ideas (either intentionally or accidentally) or your own earlier
efforts (self-plagiarism) without giving due credit to such sources. Plagiarism is a significant
academic and intellectual infraction that can have far-reaching effects, such as the retraction of
papers and the tarnishing of an author’s credibility. It’s a huge issue right now in academic
publishing, and it’s a big reason why papers get withdrawn or rejected by Journal Paper
reviewers.

13.2 Types of Plagiarism

1. Intentional
Buying or borrowing or cut-copy-paste” or using some others work partly or completely
without giving adequate credit to the original author results in intentional plagiarism.

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2. Unintentional
Using some others work with wrong paraphrasing or improper citation refers to unintentional
plagiarism.

3. Plagiarism of ideas
Ideas or thoughts of others without giving adequate credit to the original authors.

4. Plagiarism of text/direct plagiarism/word-for-word plagiarism

Copying a portion of text from another source without giving credit to its author.

5. Mosaic plagiarism (patchwork plagiarism)

The author fails to write in his own words and “uses the same words or phrases or paragraphs
of the original source.

6. Self-plagiarism
Stealing or borrowing some amount of work” from his or her previously published articles
refers to self-plagiarism.

13.3 Steps to Ensure Plagiarism-Free Articles

1. Make note of the analysis sources you are working with.

Take account about every source you refer like books and articles. And also consider websites,
magazine articles, and videos referred. This helps you to quickly examine where you’ve
noticed a word, detail or concept you like to include in your article. Try not to copy–paste the
text from the reference paper. Instead, restate the idea in your own words. Also, understand the
idea(s) of the reference source.

2. Paraphrasing or quoting your own references (and inserting your own ideas).

Quoting is copying of text word for word. The copied content should be written with your own
words with quotation marks, as well as referred accurately to the original writer. More on
paraphrasing later.

3. Point out the original author in a citation section as well as in collection of references
in the article.

Each time you cite or paraphrase, you should provide an in-text citation for describing the
original author. Also it sometimes involves the year of publication as well as a page number.
Each in-text quotation shall correlate a full reference at the later part of your article in the
reference section or bibliography. This fully explains where the data came from, enabling your
viewers to pinpoint their own source. There are several different kinds of citation, but it has its
own rules for quotation. Among the most popular are APA, MLA as well as Chicago Style.
The most essential thing is to continuously implement one style over the entire text.

Also, identify what does and does not need to be cited.

 Any words or ideas that are not your own but taken from another paper need to be cited.
 Cite your own material, if you are using content from your previous paper.
 The scientific evidence you gathered after performing your tests should not be cited.

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4. Choose a plagiarism checker tool and check your article in it before submission.

Choose a plagiarism checker tool and check your article in it before submission. This helps you
to distinguish certain sections where you have missed a quote, taken out quotation marks or
have used a paraphrase too similar to the real document. You may then take an appropriate
measures to address any cases of possible plagiarism with ease.

Manage your citations by maintaining the records of the sources you refer.
 EndNote – https://endnote.com/
 Mendeley – https://www.mendeley.com/
 Refworks – https://www.refworks.com/
 BibTex – http://www.bibtex.org/

13.4 Tips for Avoiding Plagiarism

 When paraphrasing, make sure you don’t just change or rearrange a couple of words.
Read the document you intend to paraphrase correctly. Start writing the idea down with
your own words. Test the paraphrase to the original document to ensure that you
haven’t used the exact words or terms unintentionally.
 Remember to follow the citation style guidelines and rules set by your instructor (e.g.,
APA, MLA, Chicago).
 At the starting of the first sentence consisting a quote as well as paraphrase of another’s
work, make it absolutely clear this is the idea of others (e.g., According to Smith . . . ).
 Ensure to provide in-text citations about all details obtained from the research of
another author in your article. A typical citation in text involves the last name of the
author as well as the source page number. At the later part of the last sentence, the in-
text citation is placed having a quote or paraphrase from another’s work-example:
(Jones, 127). For other examples of citations in text, verify with your instructor as well
as librarian.
 Books: Print the database details of any books you can use for your paper while you
utilize the library catalog to locate books; Catalog records keep providing brief data
such as the author / s, title, publisher, as well as date of publication. The title and
copyright pages may even be photocopied from the book that you need for your article.
Notice the numbers of pages that you need to quote.
 Journal, Magazine & Newspaper Articles: keep a record of the articles you use for
your paper online or in paper form. If you are using a library database post, you’ll need
to provide the database details in your statement. The details from the database that you
need to use may depends on the format type your instructor has stated. Many library
databases do have citation tool which produces a citation automatically in the format
you define. These citation tools are a good approach for modifying your references but
they may still need to be “tweaked” as per the guidelines of your instructor.
 Web Sites: Take a copy of the web pages you utilize online or even in paper for your
document. Ensure the exact page URL address is recorded on the website that is being
used.

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13.5 Self-Plagiarism

This involves on one hand, the reuse of a paper earlier turned in for one class and then submits
the same paper or parts of that for additional lessons without instructor’s approval (self-
plagiarism). Since it does not reach the point of real theft of the ideas of others, it can
nevertheless create problems in the world of scholarly publishing.

Self-plagiarism may often apply to the publishing in two cases (sometimes termed “duplicate
printing”) of similar documents. In fact, it is good idea to carefully reference your past research,
particularly though you are merely recreating an old concept or a previously written comment.

13.5.1 Why is self-plagiarism wrong?

Though certain ways of self-plagiarism can appear normal, there are threefold explanations for
preventing this activity, from the conceptual to the practical:

1. The vital role of research papers

The strongest reason for avoiding self-plagiarism is about the credibility of the research record
as well as the overall scientific discovery. It is generally recognized that any paper written
should contain new insights and outcomes that improve our view of the universe. If your
manuscript includes uncited reused data, then unspoken assumption that you will be addressing
completely new discoveries.

2. Publisher rights-You cannot possess your own words

It is worth noting that in many journals, the standard publication method involves the
surrendering of copyright of the finished paper to the publisher. If you are indeed the moral
owner of the concepts and findings, the publisher owns the paper. So, it is not permissible to
reuse the content without attribution and authorization. While this is problematic, reusing your
own words is a copyright in the eyes of the law, even if you’ve written them. Open access
journals generally utilize creative common licenses that enable reuse along with attribution.

3. Journals will catch it and will delay or block your publication process
The overwhelming majority of academic publications use iThenticate ® tools to search for
plagiarized research after submission. Because once you copied text from a document that was
already written, that would be highlighted throughout this phase. If you’re not rejected for the
problem, it will induce a delay because the publisher asks you questions as well as you rewrite
or otherwise recognize the reused content more easily. Reuse of your own vocabulary is
permissible in such situations, but the initial text is still to be cited.

13.6 Paraphrasing and Quoting

To paraphrase is to put someone else’s thoughts or viewpoint into your own words. To write
someone else’s notion in a different language without affecting the meaning is all it takes to
paraphrase. Instead of copying and pasting someone else’s exact words and putting quotation
marks around them, you can paraphrase. When writing for an academic audience, paraphrasing
rather than directly quoting demonstrates that you’ve read and absorbed the source material,
and it also gives your work more of an original voice.

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It is critical to cite your sources every time you paraphrase, otherwise, it will amount to
plagiarism as the main idea did not originate from you. In addition, you must avoid using
language that sounds too much like the original.

To quote, your document must have the same words as the original without altering any part.
The quotation marks (“ ”) or indenting the cited text distinguishes it from your own words in
your writing. All quoted material should be cited, whether in endnotes, footnotes, or in-text
citations, in addition to quotation marks or indenting. It is a known practice that when you have
up to 40 words you want to quote, you are expected to indent and cite the author in a bracket.

13.7 Some Principles to Follow When Paraphrasing in Order to Avoid Avoid Plagiarism
in Academic Writing
1. Vital information should be duly referenced.
2. Place the concepts in the same order as they appear in the original text to avoid
confusing the reader.
3. Avoid including opinions or information that is not of the author’s statement.
4. Do your best to adopt phrases or words different from the primary text.

13.7.1 Strategies for paraphrasing

1. Switch the structure of the sentence

2. Switch the part of speech
3. Non-generic words should be replaced with synonyms
4. Use passive tones in place of active tones and vice versa
5. Switch between clauses and phrases and vice versa

13.7.2 Tips on how to paraphrase a text without plagiarizing

As discussed initially, to paraphrase, you need to read a book and any other resource material
and then use your own words to confirm what you learned from it. When paraphrasing, you
don’t have to copy everything word for word; instead, you just need to convey your point.
Please note, you are still plagiarizing if what you do is copy+paste+edit. This is far from what
is expected of you.

So, here are some tips for paraphrasing a text:

1. Paraphrasing contents seems to be an excellent opportunity to reduce citations while

also reducing word count till the essential idea is synthesized.
2. Be sure you alter the sentence form while retaining the primary ideas of the sentence
by creating a connection between them.
3. So that the paraphrase does not become plagiarism, it must differ sufficiently from the
original content. When you use “your own words,” remember that plagiarism is still an
issue if you don’t cite where you got them and they sound too much like the originals.
4. Keep in mind that paraphrasing does not equate to summarizing the original passage.
This is because a summary can cover more ground while still concentrating on the most
important aspects of a larger topic. While paraphrasing focuses on a single thought or
idea.
5. If you want to avoid using long quotes, Paraphrasing is a great tool.
6. Use languages or words other than those used by the author. However, make certain
that the word used does not take away or depart from the author’s idea.

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 7. Ensure that the paraphrased idea is free-flowing by connecting it to the rest of your
writing.
8. It’s not an easy effort to paraphrase a text. You might be tempted to use online
paraphrasing tools but if not well managed, they can mess things up for you.
9. Know when to paraphrase and when to quote: When there is a lot of information to cite
and the thoughts can’t be articulated clearly, quoting will be great. Paraphrasing, on the
other hand, is reserved for texts with a lot of information that can be expressed in your
own words. When you paraphrase, you are doing a kind of translation from one
language to another. The fundamental idea of the author should be preserved no matter
how the paper is formatted or what words are employed.
10. Know the reason for Paraphrasing: You should know as well as you can about the work
you are using to support your study before you begin paraphrasing. It is not just about
rewriting someone else’s words. The goal of paraphrasing is to employ a variety of
sources to enhance your writing and make it easier for your readers to understand.
11. Understand the passage you want to paraphrase: To avoid accidentally plagiarizing the
ideas in the source material, be sure you comprehend the work you’re paraphrasing.
12. Avoid Copying without using quotation marks: Do not paraphrase and directly quote
without crediting the original author by putting their name in quotation marks around
their ideas. Keep in mind that direct quotations are utilized whenever three words from
another author’s work appear together in a sentence. To avoid being accused of
plagiarism, make sure all quotations are enclosed in quotation marks.

13.8 Best Tools to Check Texts for Plagiarism

(i) Grammarly

Grammarly is probably the perfect resource for both students and instructors to test for
plagiarism. The Grammarly Plagiarism Checker is a comprehensive plagiarism checker used
in the premium package for the Grammarly. The platform to check plagiarism is based on more
than 16 billion web pages as well as academic papers that are saved in the ProQuest database.
The tool will keep comparing a text to those databases to find sections in the database as well
as online version that suit the contents.

(ii) Quetext

Quetext emerged as a basic plagiarism or checker of content duplicates. Then it may have some
of the amazing advantages, conversely, trying to make it one of the best plagiarism checkers.
The ‘Checker’ of Quetext Plagiarism provides results which gives a good summary that are
simple to understand. It highlights the resemblances, as well as shows a percentage of
plagiarism.

(iii) Duplichecker

Duplichecker is an online, completely free, plagiarism checker. For using this plagiarism
checker, you could either import your document, but rather copy-paste text. Duplichecker is
really easy to use, offering you immediate feedback (within a few seconds).This method is
suitable for practitioners that outsource a lot of online material, including blog entries, and
freelance writers’ web content.

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(iv) Copyleaks

Copyleaks Plagiarism Checker will analyze text online and run exhaustive internet searches
and various repositories to locate related content, show only valid findings and help you stay
free from plagiarism. Detect plagiarism, paraphrased text, and related text with the online
plagiarism checker and utilize the advanced Artificial Intelligence (AI) powered algorithms in
100 + languages.

(v) PaperRater

PaperRater.com is being used in over 46 countries by schools and colleges to help the students
develop their writing. Based on Artificial Intelligence, PaperRater incorporates identification
of proofreading and plagiarism. It will check papers for syntax and spelling defects, get tips for
writing and even get an essay assessed instantly – and all of this for free.

(vi) Plagiarisma

Plagiarisma is the leading global checker of plagiarism among authors, graduates, instructors,
readers. Plagiarism Software gives one the comfort to check plagiarism for textual content of
any kind.

(vii) Plagiarism Checker

The tool has the ability to detect plagiarism by comparing the text against trillions of Internet
webpages. When you submit your content, it automatically runs it in seconds against any
existing content on the web, trying to make it the most intelligent yet fastest plagiarism scanner
one will ever find in a lifetime.

(viii) PlagScan

The PlagScan software is tailored to your needs. It assists in checking a text’s validity in only
a few actions. This Software for Plagiarism Detection deals for all common file formats. It is
simple to use.

(ix) PlagTracker

PlagTracker checker helps professors, students, website owners and everyone else who needs
to secure their content.

(x) Plagiarismhunt

Plagiarism Hunt scans the file or document for any copied information, and reports the
plagiarism percentage for the first three plagiarism testing methods.

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Unit 14: Patents
Expected Duration: 1 week or 2 contact hours

Introduction

In this Unit, we explore the meaning of patents and what are involved in claiming a patent in
research

Learning Outcomes

When you have studied this Unit, you should be able to understand
14.1 Meaning of a Patent?
14.2 How to file a Patent?
14.3 Patent Forms
14.3.1 Provisional filing
14.3.2 Complete filing
14.4 Why does One has to File Request for Examination?
14.5 Important two categories

14.1 What is a Patent?

A patent is an exclusive right granted to an innovation which is a product or service that

generally provides a new way of doing things, or introduce a new technological solution to an
issue. To gain a patent, a patent applicant must provide invention details on the technology to
the public. Protection shall be provided for a finite time, typically 20 years from the
application’s filing date.

14.2 How to file a Patent?

The first step in obtaining a patent for the innovation is to register a patent application with the
Country’s Patent Office. To submit a patent application, the patent office may request a series
of forms.

14.3 Patent Forms

The communication to the patent office is made only through forms because the particular data
is required by patent office. Usually, there are totally 31 forms for granting patent. Along with
these forms, the applicant add a covering letter at top of the forms requesting to accept this
form for filing as application. Some communication can be made on top of the forms but not
without the forms.

There are two ways of filing a patent form:

1. Provisional specification or filing
2. Complete specification or filing

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14.3.1 Provisional filing

The Provisional filing is valid only for one year, after that automatically its get lapsed. This
filing is not mandatory. Before one year, the applicant needs to file the complete specification.
In case of filing the provisional application as an individual, the filing costs some money. When
filing in online mode in India, they get 10% lesser than offline mode. E-filing requires digital
signature with its associated costs. The signature is provided by many online websites or patent
office itself will suggest some digital signature providers. E-mudhra is famous one. In this
provisional specification, 4 forms should be submitted. It is better to submit all these forms
together for examination.
Form 1- Application for grant of patent
Form 2- Provisional/Complete Specification
Form 3- Foreign Filing particulars
Form 5- Declaration as to inventorship

14.3.2 Complete filing

The complete specification is valid for 20 years from the date of filing. If your idea is ready,
complete filing can be carried out. It is a complete legal document for patent rights.
Form 1 – Application for grant of patent
Form 2 – Provisional/Complete Specification
Form 3 – Foreign Filing particulars
Form 5 – Declaration of inventorship
Form 18 – Request for examination

Form 1- Application for grant of patent

The fees is paid to patent office to simply start initial procedures or grant the application. This
form is simple in English and easy to fill. This form consists of details like type of applicant
and chose natural person if applicant is individual and title for innovation should only about 15
words.

Form 2- Provisional/Complete Specification

This form declares whether the filing of patent applications is provisional or complete.

Form 3- Foreign Filing particulars

It describes about foreign filing particulars. It is mandatory to inform the status of patent filing
to the patent office when applicant is filing patent to foreign nations. This form contains details
like name of country, date of applicant, applicant number, status of application and date of
grant.

Form 5- Declaration of inventor ship

Applicant should declare inventorship to the inventors. Signature of the applicant is required
in this form and it states who the applicants for the patent are.

Form 18 – Request for examination

 No examination will be conducted without the submission of form 18. This form 8 costs
some money for hardcopy.
 Sometimes, the patent office has requested the applicant to submit this form.
 Minimum time for submitting this form will be around 3 months.

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  Provisional filing is optional if filed, the complete specification shall be filed within 12
months from date of filing the provisional.
 No extension is allowed.
 No claims are allowed in the provisional specification.
 Cognation of different provisional specifications filed by the same applicant is allowed.
 If applicant go for early publication, form 9 is required and it costs money.
 The fee structure is applicable only for individual’s and start-up companies.
 Instead of submitting form-18, applicant can submit form -18A for faster mode of
examination.

14.4 Why does One has to File Request for Examination?

 Only after receiving the Request for Examination (RTE), the controller transfers the
patent application to the patent examiner. The request for examination has to make from
the date of priority or filing whichever is earlier.
 The patent examiner examines the patent application and prepares the examination
report on the basis of various patentability criteria like:
 Patentable subject matter
 Novelty
 Inventive step
 Industrial application
 Specification enablement

14.5 Important two categories

The below two categories alone have additional benefit of examining the forms faster.
 Women
 Startup company

For example, if there is only one woman applicant along with 4 men applicants, the form of
women will be examined faster for encouragement. Similarly, the start-up companies should
belong to technological domain and should be less than 5 years of period of start.

Patent filing fees

The following are the fees subjected to form numbers 1, 2,3,5,9 & 18 as at the year 2021.
 India-Rs.8900
 US- 1330 USD
 Nepal- 12000 (in Nepalese currency)

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References for Further Readings
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Ahmed Rashed (2022). Lecture Notes in
Management information system (MIS101): Lecture 1 Research Methodology in
Computer Science, University of Khartoum,
https://www.studocu.com/row/document/university-of-khartoum/management-
information-system/lecture-1-research-methodology-in-computer-science/15572645
Accessed March 2022
Atlas of Science (2022). The 11 Best Technology Tools for Researchers
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2022
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Terminology – Revised
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2022
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