Endocrine

system
 Introduction
• Endocrine system = a control system of ductless
glands that secrete hormones within specific organs.
– "messengers“ carried by the bloodstream to
different cells in the body.
– maintain homeostasis & respond to stimuli is
largely due to hormones.
• Endocrine system provides an electrochemical
connection from the hypothalamus of the brain to
control almost all body functions.
 Introduction (cont’d)
• There are 2 types of hormones secreted in the
endocrine system:
– steroidal & non-steroidal [protein based].
• The endocrine system regulates its hormones
through negative feedback, except in very specific
cases like childbirth.
• The multiple hormone systems play a key role in
regulating almost all body functions, including:
metabolism, growth & development, water &
electrolyte balance, reproduction & behaviour.
 Introduction (cont’d)
 Hormone play a key role. For instance, without:
• Growth hormone
– a person would be a dwarf.
• Thyroxin & triiodothyronine
– almost all the chemical reactions of the body become
sluggish, & the person would become sluggish as well.
• Insulin
– the body’s cells could use little of the food carbohydrates
for energy.
• Sex hormones
– sexual development & sexual functions would be absent.
 Types of cell-to-cell signaling…
1. Endocrine hormones travel via bloodstream to
target cells.
2. Neurohormones are released via synapses &
travel via the bloodstream.
3. Paracrine hormones act on adjacent cells.
4. Autocrine hormones are released & act on the
cell that secreted them.
5. Intracrine hormones act within the cell that
produces them.
 Coordination systems
Nervous Endocrine
System System
• Rapid response. • Slow response.
• Short lasting effect. • Long lasting effect.
• Uses • Uses
neurotransmitters hormones
Nervous system
 Exerts point - to - point
control through nerves,
 Similar to sending
messages by conventional
telephone.
 Nervous control is electrical
in nature & fast.
Endocrine system
• Broadcasts its hormonal messages to
essentially all cells by secretion into
blood & extracellular fluid [ECF].
• Like a radio broadcast, it requires a
receiver to get the message.
• In the case of endocrine messages,
cells must bear a receptor for the
hormone being broadcast in order to
respond.
 A cell is a target because it has a specific
receptor for the hormone

• Most hormones circulate in

blood, coming into contact
with essentially all cells.
– a given hormone usually
affects only a limited
number of cells, which are
called target cells.
• A target cell responds to a
hormone because it bears
receptors for the hormone.
 Principal functions of the
endocrine system
1. Homeostasis:
 maintenance of the internal environment at the
optimum biochemical environment:
– Water-electrolyte balance
• stability of body fluid composition.
– Regulation of acid-base balance, ABP & HR.
– Control of body temperature & emotion.
– Change in mass of bone, muscle and fat
 Principal functions of the
endocrine system…
2. Regulation of reproduction:
– gametogenesis
– sexual desire
– fertilization
– fetal growth & development
– nourishment of the newborn

3. Regulation of body growth & development.

4. Production, utilization and storage of energy.
 Components of endocrine system
1. Glands
 HYPOTHALAMUS, PINEAL GLAND, PITUITARY, THYROID,
PARATHYROID, THYMUS, PANCREAS, ADRENAL GLAND &
GONADS.
2. Hormones
 T3 T4 , OXYTOCIN, ADH, ACTH, FSH, LH, GH, INSULIN,
GLUCAGON, ALDOSTERON, TESTOSTERONE, ESTROGEN,
3. Transport media [blood & ECF].
4. Receptors.
5. Target tissue [cells/organs].
 Hormones
• A specific chemical compound released in one
part of the body and act some other parts.
• Made in glands or other cells.
• Transported by blood.
• Transmit signal from one cell to other.
• Cause cell responses.
Chemical classification of Hormones
1. Amines
- Hormones that are derived from tyrosine.
- T4 & T3 (thyroid hormones)
- Epinephrine, Norepinephrine
2. Peptides /proteins
- Hormones that are chains of </>100 amino acids.
– ADH, Oxytocin,
– Insulin & human growth hormone (GH).
 Chemical classification (cont’d)
3. Steroids
- Hormones that are lipids synthesized from cholesterol
• Adrenal cortex (cortical steroids)
• Gonads (sex steroids)
4. Eicosanoids
- Hormones that are lipids synthesized from fatty acid.
• Prostaglandins
• Prostacyclins
• Thromboxanes
 Classes of hormones
Water soluble Lipid soluble
(Hydrophilic hormones) (Lipophilic hormones)
 Catecholamines  Thyroid hormone
– epinephrine – T4 & T3
– norepinephrine  Steroid hormones
Peptide/Protein hormones – Aldosterone
– ADH & Oxytocin – Tetesteron
– GH & Insulin  Vitamin D3
 Hormone:
synthesis, storage, release & transport
 Site of synthesis:
– Protein/peptide hormones: in the rER
– Steroid hormones: in the sER
 Storage:
– Protein/peptide hormones: preprohormones in
vesicles
– Steroid hormones: cholesterol
 Release:
– Exocytosis
 Hormone: synthesis, storage...
 Transport:
• Hormones are transported in blood in two forms:
– free form
– combined with plasma proteins (albumin &
globulin)
 Metabolism:
 metabolized in the liver or by target cells.
 Excretion:
 urine, feces, sweat.
 Hormone receptors
• Transmembrane proteins
where 1st messenger
(hormones) combine.
• Specific.
• Located inside or at
surface of cell.
• Hormone binding bring
receptor activity & alter
cell responses.
 Hormone transport in the blood
 In two ways
1. Freely by the blood:
– Peptide hormones
– Catecholamine
2. Binding on plasma
proteins:
– Cortical steroid
– Gonadal hormones
 Mechanisms of action of hormones
• Hormone reach into the target tissue by diffusion.
– Binding of specific receptors at the target cell.
• Based on hormones solubility, receptors are found:
1. On the cell membrane
 Peptide hormones
 Catecholamine
2. Inside the cell
 Cytoplasm = Steroid hormones
 Nucleus = Thyroid hormones
 Hormone secretion control

NFM
the most
common
hormonal
secretion
controlling
mechanisms.
 Feedback Control of Hormone
Production
• Feedback loops are used
extensively to regulate
secretion of hormones in
the hypothalamic-
pituitary axis.
• An important example of
a negative feedback loop
is seen in control of
thyroid hormone
secretion
Endocrine
glands
&
respective
hormones
1. Hypothalamus
• Is part of the diencephalon,
which forms the floor & the
lateral wall of the 3rd ventricle.
• Represents less than 1% of
the brain mass, about 5 gm.
– Regardless of its size, it
plays most important role in
controlling homeostasis.
• It is the main brain structure
involved in regulating
hormonal levels in the body.
Hypothalamic releasing/inhibiting hormones (Neurosecretions)
Hypothalamic hormone Effect on pituitary

Corticotropin releasing hormone Stimulates ACTH secretion

(CRH)
Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) Stimulates TSH and Prolactin
secretion
Growth hormone releasing Stimulates GH secretion
hormone (GHRH)

Somatostatin (GHIH) Inhibits GH secretion

Gonadotropin releasing hormone Stimulates LH and FSH secretion

(GnRH)
Prolactin releasing hormone (PRH) Stimulates PRL secretion

Prolactin inhibiting hormone Inhibits PRL secretion

(dopamine)
 Hypothalamus …
• Produces releasing & inhibiting neuroendocrine hormones
such as:
– TRH, CRH, GHRH, GnRH, PRH
– GHIH, PIF
– ADH, Oxytocin.

• Controls the glandular secretion of pituitary gland.

• Hypothalamus stimulates cellular activity in various parts of the

body by directing the release of hormones from the anterior &
posterior pituitary glands.
 2. Pituitary gland (hypophysis)
• The master gland
– because it is the main place for everything that
happens within the endocrine system.
• It is divided into two sections:
I. Anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) and
II. Posterior lobe (neurohypophysis)
• Anterior pituitary is involved in sending hormones
that control all other hormones of the body.
 I. Posterior pituitary gland
• Hormones produced by the cell bodies of the
neurosecretory cells are:
 packaged in vesicles & transported through the
axon & stored in the axon terminals that lie in the
posterior pituitary.
• Only store hormones:
- ADH (vasopressin) :regulate body water & BP.
- Oxytocin: contract endometrial & breast smooth
muscles cells.
• Secretion from the gland controlled by nerve
signals.
 Posterior pituitary gland…

• Magnocellular
neurons in the
paraventricular &
supraoptic nuclei
secrete oxytocin
and vasopressin
(ADH) directly into
capillaries in the
posterior lobe
 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), Vasopressin
Function:
• Promotes reabsorption of water in the renal
tubules
• Vasoconstriction of arteries and arterioles
• Involved as a NT in memory and pain
• Regulates osmolality and volume of ECF
Factors stimulating release of ADH
• Hyperosmolality
• Change in blood volume
• An increased in Ang-II
• Drugs, pain, stress
Hypo secretion of ADH: Diabetes inspidus .
Regulation of ADH secretion
Factors activating the SON
1. Body fluid hyper osmolality,
hypovolemia
2. Drugs: morphin, nicotine,
Ach, asprin
3. Ang-II

Factors inhibiting the SON

1. Pressure & volume receptors
2. Drugs: PG-E, alcohol, Ad, NA
3. ANP
 Oxytocin
Function
• Induces uterus contraction (Labor)
• Induces myoepithelial contraction (lactation)
• Acts as PRL releasing hormone
• Facilitates ovulation, transport of sperm in both males &
females ductile system
Regulation of OT secretion
1. Tactile stimulation of the nipple (suckling)
2. Genital stimulation
3. Estrogen increases sensitivity of target cells to OT
4. Fear, pain, adrenalin and alcohol inhibit OT secretion
 II. Anterior Pituitary Gland
Composed of glandular epithelium.
The anterior pituitary lobe receives hormones (RH
& IH) from the hypothalamus via a portal vein
system known as :
– hypothalamic - hypophyseal portal system
No nerve fibers are terminated in to APG.
– Secretion process is regulated by blood born
hormones.
Anterior pituitary hormones
Hormones Functions
GH Promotes growth and metabolism
PRL Promotes milk secretion, breast growth, and
maintains lactation
ACTH Stimulates adrenal cortex to produce
aldosterone and cortisol
TSH Stimulates the thyroid gland to secret T3/T4

LH Promotes ovulation
Stimulates Leydig cells to testosterone
secretion
FSH Stimulates growth and maturation of ova
Stimulates secretion of estrogen
Stimulates spermatogenesis
Hormones of anterior & posterior pituitary glands
 Anterior pituitary gland…
• Parvicellular
neurosecretory cells
 secrete releasing
hormones into capillaries of
the pituitary portal system at
the median eminence
 which are then transported
to the anterior pituitary
gland
 to regulate the secretion of
pituitary hormones.
Anterior pituitary cells and hormones
Cell type Pituitary Product Target
population
Corticotropes 15-20% ACTH Adrenal gland
b-lipotropin Melanocytes
Adipocytes
Thyrotropes 3-5% TSH Thyroid gland
Gonadotropes 10-15% LH, FSH Gonads
Somatotropes 40-50% GH All tissues, liver
Lactotropes 10-15% PRL Breasts
gonads
 Growth hormones
• Promotes tissue growth by stimulating
liver to produce IGF-I/Somatomedin-C :
– Promote protein synthesis
• Increase DNA transcription
• Increase mRNA production
– Enhance amino acids into cell & reduce
protein catabolism.
• Increase protein sparing, not used as energy.
 Growth hormone effects
• On lipid
– Increase FA released from cell.
• On CHO
– Glucose sparing effect. (Hyperglycaemic hormone)
• On electrolytes
– Increase Na+, Cl-, K+ retention & Ca++ absorption.
• On GIT
– Increase absorption of nutrients.
• Others:
– ↑RBC formation, ↑MR, Thermogenic, ↑secretion of
Insulin & Somatomedin-C.
Growth hormones…
 Adrenocorticotropinic hormone (ACTH)
• Control the release of adrenocortical hormones.
– These hormones affect metabolism of:
• glucose, proteins & fat, indirectly.
• Secreted in response to CRH (corticotropic releasing
hormone) from hypothalamus.
• Has target cells on adrenal cortex, so it is specific
hormone.
 Thyroid stimulating hormone
[TSH / Tyrotropin]
• Thyroid gland is the target tissue.
• Controls the rate of secretion of:
– Thyroxine (T4) and
– Triiodothyronine (T3)
• These hormones control the rates of most
intracellular chemical reactions.
 Prolactin(PRL)
Function
• Promotes growth and development of breast
• Maintains lactation, delays ovulation and
suppresses fertility by inhibiting the action of LH
and FSH
• Promotes milk secretion
• Enhances production of progesterone
• Enhances function of testosterone
• Promotes growth
 Prolactin(PRL)…
PRL in males
• ↑Testosterone production, ↑Libido
• ↑ Secretion of prostate gland and seminal vesicles
HYPERPROLACTENEMIA
Excessive production of PRL
↑↑PRL suppresses gonadal function, loss of libido
Causes
1. Hypothalamic disorders
Lesion to dopaminergic neurons
2. Pituitary disorders
 Gonadotropic hormones
• Testes & ovaries are the target organs.
• Gonadotropic hormones are:
– Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) &
– Luteinizing hormone (LH).
• Function
– Control growth of the ovaries & testes.
 3. Thyroid gland
• The largest endocrine gland in the body.
• Positioned on the neck just below the Larynx &
has 2 lobes with one on either side of the trachea.
• It is involved in the production of the hormones T3
(triiodothyronine) & T4 (thyroxine).
– T3 & T4 increase the metabolic activity of the
body’s cells.
 Thyroid gland...
• Thyroid gland manifests a remarkably powerful
active transport mechanism for up-taking iodide
ions from the blood.
– As blood flows through the gland, iodide is converted to
an active form of iodine.
– This iodine combines with an amino acid called
tyrosine.
• 2 molecules of iodinated tyrosine then combine
to form thryroxine.
– Following its formation, thyroxine becomes bound to a
polysaccharide-protein material called thyroglobulin/TG.
 Thyroid gland...
 An enzymatic splitting of the thyroxine from the TG
occurs when a specific hormone (TSH) is released
into the blood.
A variety of bodily defects [either dietary,
hereditary, or disease induced] may decrease the
amount of thyroxine released into the blood.
The most popular of these defects is one that results
from dietary iodine deficiency.
Thyroid gland enlarges, in the continued presence of
TSH from the pituitary to form a goiter.
 Thyroid gland...
• Formerly, the principal source of iodine came from
seafood.
– As a result, goiter was prevalent amongst
inland areas far removed from the sea.
• Today, the incidence of goiter has been
drastically reduced by:
– adding iodine to table salt.
 T3 & T4 function within the body
• Production of T3 & T4 are regulated by TSH,
released by the pituitary gland.
– TSH production is increased when T3 & T4 levels
are too low.
• Thyroid hormones are released throughout the body
to direct the body's metabolism.
– They stimulate all cells within the body to work at
a better metabolic rate.
 T3 and T4 Function ...
• Thyroid hormones release will be increased
under certain situations such as ;
– cold temperatures when a higher metabolism is
needed to generate heat.
• When children are born with thyroid hormone
deficiency they have problems with
– Physical growth & development.
– Brain development can also be severely impaired.
 Function of the thyroid hormones
1. Calorigenic action
 ↑O2 consumption (↑oxidative metabolism)
 ↑Metabolic rate = Thermogenic
 ↑Vit-utilization: Carotinon T3/T4 Vit-A

2. Body growth: promotes growth of bone, teeth and nerve tissue in

children
 ↓T3/T4 = Cretinism, dwarfism plus mental retardation .

3. Effect on NS/CNS
 Promotes growth and maturation of nerve tissue
 Promote normal synaptic development
 Essential for normal function of the brain
 Causes mental alertness. Hyper secretion leads to nervousness
 Function of the thyroid hormones (cont’d)
4. Metabolic function
On CHO metabolism
↑Glycogenolysis
↑Glucose utilization
↑Gluconeogenesis
↑Glucose absorption
On protein metabolism
↑Protein synthesis
↑ ↑T3/T4 = Protein catabolism
On Fat metabolism
↑Lipolysis
Function of the thyroid hormones (cont’d)

5. Other actions of the thyroid hormones

 ↓Plasma cholesterol
 Normal gonadal function
 Lactation: ↑milk secretion
 Stimulates erythropoiesis
 Normal GIT function, appetite
 Water-electrolyte balance
 Calcitonin
• A hormone that is produced in humans primarily by
the parafollicular cells (C-cells) of the thyroid.
– Additional hormone produced by the thyroid &
contributes to the regulation of blood ca++ levels.
• Thyroid cells produce calcitonin in response to high
ca++ levels in the blood:
– Decreases the concentration of ca++ in the
blood.
– Counteract the calcium-producing effects of
PTH.
 Calcitonin...
• This hormone will stimulate movement of
calcium into the bone structure.
• It can also be used therapeutically for the
treatment of hypocalcaemia or osteoporosis.
• Without this hormone calcium will stay within the
blood instead of moving into bones to keep them
strong & growing.
 4. Parathyroid gland
• Small, light-colured lumps that stick out from the
surface of the thyroid gland.
• Are 4 glands located on the thyroid gland.
• They are butterfly-shaped & located inside the
neck, more specifically on both sides of the
windpipe.
• One of the most important functions of this gland is
to regulate the body's calcium & phosphorus levels.
 Parathyroid gland...
• Secrete PTH [parathyroid hormone], which
– Causes release of ca++ present in bone to the
ECF.
• ↓ Osteoblasts (production of bone) &
• ↑ Osteoclasts (removal of bone).
– Signals the kidneys to reabsorb more of this
mineral, transporting it into the blood.
– Signals the small intestine to absorb more of this
mineral, transporting it from the diet into blood.
 Parathyroid gland...
• There are 2 major types of cells that make up
parathyroid tissue:
1. Oxyphil cells
- major cells but function is unknown.
2. Chief cells
- produce parathyroid hormone (PTH).
• PTH finds its major target cells in:
– bone, kidneys & gastrointestinal system.
Parathyroid gland...
 Parathyroid gland...
• The adult body contains as much as 1kg of ca++,
most of this calcium is found in bone & teeth.
• ca++ is important for :
– body metabolism, blood clot, skeletal muscles
contraction...
• If parathyroid glands are removed accidentally
during surgery on the thyroid, there would be a
drop in the ca++ concentration
– as more ca++ is excreted by the kidneys &
intestines, & more incorporated into the bone.
 Parathyroid gland...
• This can produce serious disturbances, particularly in
the muscles & nerves, which use ca++ for normal
functioning.
• Over activity of the parathyroid glands, which
can result from a tumour on the glands, produces a
weakening of the bones.
– This is a condition that makes them much more
vulnerable to fracturing because of excessive
withdrawal of calcium from the bones.
Summary of Ca-homeostasis
 5. Adrenal glands
• Triangular-shaped glands located on top of the
kidneys.
• Through hormonal secretions, they regulate many
essential functions in the body, including:
– biochemical balances that influence:
• Athletic training &
• General stress response.
Adrenal glands...
• Produce hormones like:
– Aldosteron
– Cortisol
– Androgens
• Produces chemicals like:
– Adrenalin/epinephrine
– Noradrenalin/norepinephrine
– Dopamine
 Adrenal Cortex
• The hormones made by the adrenal cortex supply
long-term responses to stress.
• The cortex of the adrenal gland is known to produce
over 20 hormones, but their study can be simplified
by classifying them into three categories:

1. Glucocorticoids ...... Cortisol

2. Mineralcorticoids ... Aldosterone
3. Sex hormones ....... Androgen
 Adrenal Cortex ...
1. Mineralocorticoids (Aldosterone)
– regulate the salt & water balance, leading to the
increase of blood volume & pressure.
2. Glucocorticoids (Cortisol)
– raise blood glucose level, stimulates breakdown
of protein.
3. Sex Hormones (Androgen)
– stimulates reproductive organs & brings on sex
characteristics.
 Adrenal Medulla
• The effects of these hormones provide a short-term
response to stress.
• Hypothalamus starts nerve impulses that
travel the path from the bloodstream, spinal cord &
sympathetic nerve fibers to the adrenal medulla,
which then releases hormones:
– Epinephrine
– Norepinephrine
 Adrenal Medulla ...
• Epinephrine and norepinephrine:
– Produce the "fight or flight" response, similar to
the effect from the sympathetic nervous system.
– Increase
• HR, RR, blood flow to most skeletal muscles.
• Concentration of glucose in the blood.
– Decrease
• Blood flow to the digestive organs & diminish
most digestive processes.
 6. Pancreas
• Very important organ in the digestive system &
circulatory system to maintain blood sugar levels.
• It is both an exocrine & an endocrine organ.
• As an exocrine organ; it is considered to be part
of the gastrointestinal system.
– It produces digestive enzymes to be released into
the small intestine
aid in reducing food particles to basic elements
that can be absorbed by the intestine & used
by the body.
 Pancreas ...
• Pancreas is unusual among the body's glands in that
it also has a very important endocrine function.
– Insulin & glucagon [regulate blood sugar levels].
• Small groups of special cells called islet cells
throughout the organ make the hormones of insulin
& glucagon.
– These hormones are secreted directly into the
bloodstream to affect organs all over the body.
 Pancreas ...
• Groups of endocrine cells (Islets of Langerhans)
secrete two hormones.
1. Beta cells [β]
– secrete Insulin
2. Alpha cells [∂]
– secrete Glucagon.
• The level of sugar in the blood depends on the
opposing action of these two hormones.
 Pancreas ...
• Insulin
– acts to lower blood sugar levels by allowing the
sugar to flow into cells.
• Glucagon
– acts to raise blood sugar levels by causing
glucose to be released into the circulation from
its storage sites.
• Insulin & glucagon act in an opposite but
balanced fashion to keep blood sugar levels stable.
– push-pull system.
 Insulin and Its metabolic Effects
1. On Carbohydrate
– blood glucose level by:
• Converting into glycogen
• Facilitate cells uptake
• Converting to fats & stored in the adipose tissue
2. On Protein
– Promotes amino acid uptake by cells
– Inhibits the breakdown of the proteins in the cell
3. On Cortisol
– Anticortisol effect =blood glucose by:
• inhibiting gluconeogenesis &
• activating glucose uptake