PRELIM BITS

Geography of India
Notes For CSE 2024

By Roman
1/9/2024

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INDIA AS A GEOGRAPHICAL UNIT ................................................................................................... 5

East-West time difference is nearly 2 hrs ..................................................................................... 6

India‘s Frontiers ............................................................................................................................... 7

ROCK SYSTEM BASED ON GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF INDIA ...................................................... 16

Archaean Rock System (Pre-Cambrian Rocks) ........................................................................... 16

Purana Rock System (1400 – 600 Million Years) ....................................................................... 17

Aryan Rock System........................................................................................................................ 18

Geological time scale .................................................................................................................... 19

MAJOR PHYSICAL DIVISIONS OF INDIA ........................................................................................ 21

Division of the Himalayas [North to South]............................................................................... 22

Purvanchal or Eastern Hills........................................................................................................... 27

Syntaxial Bends of the Himalayas ............................................................................................... 28

Fault zones in Himalaya ................................................................................................................ 28

REGIONAL DIVISION OF HIMALAYAS ............................................................................................ 31

Kashmir Himalaya ......................................................................................................................... 31

Himachal Himalaya ....................................................................................................................... 32

The Kumaon Himalayas ................................................................................................................ 32

The Nepal Himalayas or Central Himalaya ................................................................................. 33

Eastern Himalaya ........................................................................................................................... 34

IMPORTANT VALLEYS || SNOWLINE || GLACIERS ......................................................................... 37

The Most Important Valleys ......................................................................................................... 37

Snow in Himalayas – Snowline .................................................................................................... 40

Glaciers ........................................................................................................................................... 40

MAJOR MOUNTAIN PASSES IN INDIA & HIMALAYAS ................................................................ 49

MOUNTAIN RANGES IN INDIA ....................................................................................................... 54

North India - North to South ....................................................................................................... 54

Mountain Ranges in Central India – West to East ..................................................................... 55

Chota Nagpur Plateau – North to South .................................................................................... 56

Mountain Ranges in North East India ......................................................................................... 56

Western Ghats Mountains – North to South ............................................................................. 58

Eastern Ghats Mountains – North to South ............................................................................... 60

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Mountain Ranges in India (with few Details)............................................................................. 62

THE GREAT PLAINS OF INDIA ......................................................................................................... 78

Origin of the Great Plains of India .............................................................................................. 79

Longitudinal Profile – Indo Gangetic Plains ............................................................................... 80

Transverse Profile – Indo Gangetic Plains .................................................................................. 83

Significance of the Plain ............................................................................................................... 92

THE INDIAN DESERT......................................................................................................................... 93

The Thar Desert ............................................................................................................................. 93

The Cold Desert of India (Ladakh) ............................................................................................... 94

Theri Desert .................................................................................................................................... 95

PENINSULAR PLATEAU .................................................................................................................... 96

Features of the Peninsular Plateau .............................................................................................. 96

Minor Plateaus in the Peninsular Plateau................................................................................... 97

THE WESTERN GHATS || EASTERN GHATS ..................................................................................107

Western Ghats (or The Sahyadris) .............................................................................................107

Eastern Ghats ...............................................................................................................................112

Difference between Western Ghats vs Eastern Ghats .............................................................114

Significance of the Peninsular Plateau .....................................................................................115

COASTLINE OF INDIA | COASTAL PLAINS OF INDIA ..................................................................116

West Coast of India .....................................................................................................................116

East Coast of India .......................................................................................................................119

Coastlines of Emergence and Submergence ............................................................................122

INDIAN ISLANDS ............................................................................................................................124

Andaman and Nicobar Islands ...................................................................................................124

Lakshadweep Islands...................................................................................................................128

New Moore Island .......................................................................................................................130

Diu Island......................................................................................................................................131

Majuli Island .................................................................................................................................131

Islands Off Mumbai: Butcher Island ..........................................................................................132

Islands Off Mumbai: Elephanta Island ......................................................................................132

Islands Off Mumbai: Oyster Rock ..............................................................................................133

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Regional names for Tropical Cyclones ......................................................................................222

Characteristics of Tropical Cyclones..........................................................................................222

Naming of Cyclones | Cyclones in Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal .................................................225

Naming of Cyclones ....................................................................................................................225

Why there are fewer cyclones over the Arabian Sea as compared to the Bay of Bengal? .226

WESTERN DISTURBANCE || CLOUDBURSTS ................................................................................227

Western Disturbance...................................................................................................................227

Cloudbursts ..................................................................................................................................228

FLOODS: CAUSES, IMPACT & MEASURES ....................................................................................232

DROUGHT: TYPES, CAUSES & CONSEQUENCES OF DROUGHT.................................................238

Types & Causes of Drought .......................................................................................................238

Droughts in India.........................................................................................................................240

Consequences of Droughts ........................................................................................................241

Drought Management ................................................................................................................242

CLIMATIC REGIONS OF INDIA .......................................................................................................243

Trewartha‘s Classification of Climate ........................................................................................244

KOPPEN CLIMATE CLASSIFICATION .........................................................................................247

NATURAL VEGETATION OF INDIA ................................................................................................256

Classification of Natural Vegetation of India ...........................................................................257

A. Moist Tropical Forests ............................................................................................................258

B. Dry Tropical Forests ................................................................................................................264

C. Montane Sub-Tropical Forests ..............................................................................................266

D. Montane Temperate Forests .................................................................................................268

E. Alpine Forests ..........................................................................................................................269

SOIL ..................................................................................................................................................271

Soil types in India (Types of Soil) ..............................................................................................272

Characteristics of Indian Soils ....................................................................................................287

Problems of Indian Soils .............................................................................................................288

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INDIA AS A GEOGRAPHICAL UNIT

 The southernmost point of the country is the Pygmalion Point or Indira Point is located
at 6° 45′ N latitude. ( Great Nicobar)

 North-south extent from Indira Col in Kashmir to Kanniyakumari is 3,214 km.

 East-west width from the Rann of Kachachh to Arunachal Pradesh is 2,933 km. The
extreme east point of India is near Kibithu in Anjaw district of Arunachal Pradesh while
extreme west point is Sir Creek in Kutch, near the ―Guhar Moti‖ in Gujarat,
 With an area of 32,87,263 sq km, India is the seventh largest country of the world.
 India accounts for about 2.4 % of the total surface area of the world.
 The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of the country dividing it into two
latitudinal halves.
o Tropic of Cancer passes through 8 Indian states → Gujarat, Rajasthan, MP,
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura and Mizoram. [Trick – MiRa‘s JCB
at GMT]
o The area to the north of Tropic of Cancer is nearly twice the area which lies to the
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south of it.
 South of 22° north latitude, the country tapers [reduce] off over 800 km into the Indian
Ocean as a peninsula.

East-West time difference is nearly 2 hrs

 The earth moves [rotation] around its axis through 360° in 24 hours. Thus, a difference of 1°
longitude will make a difference of 4 minutes in time
 Therefore the difference of local time between western-most point and eastern-most
point is 30 x 4 = 120 minutes or 2 hours.
 Indian Standard Time is calculated on the basis of 82.5 °E longitude which is just west of
the town of Mirzapur, near Allahabad in the state of Uttar Pradesh.
 IST is maintained by Council of Scientific & Industrial Research‘s National Physical
Laboratory (CSIR-NPL), New Delhi which records time using five caesium atomic clocks.
Demand for 2 Time Zone in India
 Northeast have long complained about the effect of a single time zone on their lives and
their economies.

 In 2006, India‘s federal planning commission recommended the division of the country into
two time zones.

 National Physical Laboratory (NPL) - India‘s official timekeeper - has supported a long
standing demand for a separate time zone for eastern states

Need of Two Time Zones

 India stretches from 97 degree 25 minute East in Arunachal to 68 degree 7 minute East
in Gujarat — almost 30 degrees of longitude which is more than enough to have two
time-zones.

 Northeast lose important daylight which can be used productively as the sun rises as
early as 4 am in summer and offices open at 10.

 Many people in India operate in a time zone that is not an appropriate diurnal cycle for
them

 People‘s productivity and efficiency follows a biological clock that is synchronized with the
daily light-dark cycles.

Benefits
 Lead to greater efficiencies among the workforce and on energy consumption.

 Advancing IST by just a half hour would result in saving 2.7 billion units of electricity
every year by using the waste daylight hours.

 Reduction in energy consumption will significantly cut down India‘s carbon footprint
boosting India‘s resolve to fight climate change.

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 There are also economic benefits to having two different time zones; people will be able to
work better and plan better, according to natural cycles.

 Many social policy objectives can be achieved such as reducing road accidents and
improving women's safety.

 Two time zones will allow aligning standard time with daylight time.

Problems
 Mismatch in office timings, different working hours for banks and a chance that railway
accidents might become more frequent.

 Implementing two time zones will require synchronizing railway traffic which otherwise
will create utter confusion.

 CSIR-NPL would need a second laboratory in the new time zone. This would consist of
‗Primary Time Ensemble-II‘, traceable to the UTC at BIPM in France.

 Two time zones can have adverse political consequences as India apart from getting
divided on the lines of religion, caste, race, language, etc, now will get divided on the lines
of Time Zones.

Available Alternatives
 NIAS (National Institute for Advanced Science) cited that Permanent shift of IST to one
hour will be better than two time zones or DST i.e. 6:30+ UTC to 90 degree east.

 Daylight Saving Time can also be used from April to September. [For DST refer Climatology
Notes)

 Daylight Saving is a procedure in which the time in the clock is adjusted forward in spring &
is readjusted backward in autumn

India’s Frontiers
 India has 15106.7 Km of land border running through 92 districts in 17 States and a
coastline of 7516.6 Km [6100 km of mainland coastline + coastline of 1197 Indian
islands] touching 13 States and Union Territories (UTs).
 Except Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Delhi, Haryana and Telangana, all
other States in the country have one or more international borders or a coastline and can
be regarded as frontline States from the point of view of border management.
 India‘s longest border is with BANGLADESH while the shortest border is with
Afghanistan.
 The length of India‘s land borders with neighboring countries is as under →

Country Length (km)

Bangladesh 4,096

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 In this context, ‗whole grain‘ refers to the endosperm, germ, and bran (pericarp +
aleurone) whereas ‗refined grain‘ refers only to the endosperm.

 The husk is removed from the grains because it is composed of cellulosic matter that the
human body can‘t digest.
 The second common step is to decorticate the grain, i.e. remove any other outer
covering and expose the seed.
o But decortication also makes the grain more edible and visually attractive –
favourable factors in marketing in urban centres.
 The typical next steps are milling, to grind the grains (Milling), and sieving to remove
large ‗impurities‘, including bran.
o Sieving makes the flour more digestible and its nutrients more accessible to the body
but reduced nutrient content due to the loss of bran.
o The longer the grains were milled, the more protein, fat, and fibre contents the
process removed.
 Polishing - Polishing is the process where the bran and the germ are rubbed off.
o For example, brown rice is changed to white rice by polishing.
Effects of polishing
 Processing and preparing millets for consumption can affect nutrients in three ways:
o Enhance them
o Suppress/remove them
o Ignore them
 Polishing which removes 8-10% of grain weight also removed 60-80% of iron,
magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, and manganese in both varieties.
 The loss of bran also compromised the grains‘ fibre content.
Pokkali Paddy
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 Pokkali Paddy is a unique and traditional rice variety cultivated in the coastal regions of
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Kerala, particularly in the districts of Alappuzha, Ernakulam, and Thrissur.

 It has been recognized as a Geographical Indication (GI) product, highlighting its
distinctiveness and local significance.
 Pokkali Paddy is well-known for its saltwater-tolerant nature, making it suitable for
cultivation in saline and marshy areas.
 This characteristic is attributed to its ability to withstand high levels of salinity, making it
a valuable crop for coastal farmers facing the challenges of climate change and rising
sea levels.
 The cultivation of Pokkali Paddy follows a unique and ecologically sustainable farming
system known as Pokkali farming. →
o This method involves the cultivation of rice during the monsoon
season and fish and shrimp farming during the rest of the year . The
paddy fields act as natural fish and shrimp nurseries, providing an integrated
approach to agriculture and aquaculture.
 Pokkali Paddy is not only significant for its adaptive qualities but also for its nutritional
value. It is rich in dietary fibre, vitamins, and minerals, and is known for its high content
of micronutrients like iron and zinc.

Joha rice
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 It is an indigenous rice of Assam.

 It is unique in aroma and grain characteristics and distinct from other aromatic rice like
Basmati.
 It is grown in Sali/ Kharif season.
 Major Joha varieties included in this are Kola Joha, Keteki Joha, Bokul Joha and Kunkuni
Joha.
 This rice is also rich in several antioxidants, flavonoids, and phenolics.
 It has got Geographical Indication (GI) tag.
 A recent study revealed that →
o This rice variety has two unsaturated fatty acids, linoleic acid (omega-6)
and linolenic (omega-3) acid.
o These essential fatty acids (which humans cannot produce) can help maintain
various physiological conditions.
o Omega-3 fatty acid prevents several metabolic diseases such as Diabetes,
Cardiovascular Diseases, and Cancer.
o It has also proved to be effective in lowering blood glucose and preventing diabetes
onset in diabetic rats.

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Laterite Soil
Formation
 This soil has emerged in those regions where the following conditions are fulfilled

o There must be laterite rock or structure (Laterites are rich in iron and aluminium
content)

o Alternating dry and wet periods are more suitable for the development of laterite
soils.

Characteristics
 Brown in colour

 Composed essentially of a mixture of hydrated oxides of

aluminium and iron.

 Iron oxides are found in nodules form

 Its rich in iron and aluminium but poor in Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Potash, Lime, and
Magnesia

 Its humus and water-retaining capacities are moderate

 Bacterial activities have been very high and heavy precipitation develops leaching of humus
as a result humus content is moderate to low.

Distribution
 It is found in patches in Western Ghats (Goa and Maharashtra)

 In Belgam district of Karnataka and in laterite plateau of Kerala

 In the state of Orissa, in the Eastern Ghats,

 Amarkantak plateau region of MP

 Panchmahal district of Gujarat

 Santhal Pangana divisions of Jharkhand

Koraput Kalajeera Rice

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 The farmers of Koraput district in Odisha have domesticated Kalajeera rice over
generations.
 It is known as the ‗Prince of Rice‘ and is an aromatic variety of rice.
 The ancestors of the present tribal communities of Koraput district have
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domesticated the rice in the region for thousands of years, contributing

to the conservation of the crop.
 It is popular among rice consumers for its black colour, good aroma, taste and texture.
 The ancient text explains that Kalajeera rice improves memory and controls diabetes.
 It is believed to increase haemoglobin levels and the body's metabolism.
 This fragrant grain has antispasmodic, stomachic, carminative, antibacterial, astringent
and sedative properties.
 The rice is grown in Koraput district‘s Tolla, Patraput, Pujariput, Baliguda and Mohuli areas.
 Koraput Kalajeera Rice is grown in red and lateritic soil.

Significance
 It is famous for crops like groundnut, cashew nut, etc.

 Laterite soil of Karnataka is given to coffee, rubber, and spices farming.

Cashew Crop
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 Native to Brazil in Latin America; introduced to India by the Portuguese in 1570.

 Climatic Conditions →
o Soil Preference: Flourishes in Laterite Soil & well-drained sandy loam soils;
adaptable to various soil types.
o Coastal Adaptation: Thrives in hot, humid conditions of Indian coastal areas.
o Temperature: Ideal range between 20 to 38 °C.
o Humidity: Prefers relative humidity of 60 to 95%.
o Rainfall: Flourishes in regions receiving 2000 to 3500mm of annual precipitation.
o Constraints: Unsuitable for low temperatures and frost.
 Expansion Areas
o Cultivation extended to non-traditional areas like Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh,
Chattisgarh, and parts of the North East hill region.
 Indian Position:
o India holds the second-largest global share in cashew nut production and exports.
 Export Markets
o Major export destinations include the UAE, the Netherlands, Japan, and Saudi Arabia.

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Forest Soil/ Mountain Soil

 Formation – It is principally found on mountains with steeper slopes, high relief, shallow
profiles.

Characteristics
 It is thin layered and the profiles and horizons are poorly developed

 Due to fast drainage, it has been vulnerable to soil erosion

 It is rich in organic content – humus content is also adequate but other nutrients
aredeficient

 It is a loamy soil when sand, silt, and clay are in mixed form

Distribution
 These are generally found over 900m altitude

 Himalayas, Himalayan foothills, mountain slopes of Western Ghats, Nilgiri, Annamalai, and
Cardamom hills

 Significance – It is very helpful to those crops which need favourable air and water drainage
which is provided by this soil by virtue of being on slopes

 Generally used for rubber plantation, bamboo plantation and also tea, coffee, and fruits
farming

 Large area also given to shifting agriculture where the soil fertility deteriorates after 2-3
years

 Due to less scope of agriculture, silvi pastoral farming (forest+grasses) can be sustained.

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Desert Soil
 This soil is deposited by wind action and mainly found in the arid and semi-arid
areas like Rajasthan, West of the Aravallis, Northern Gujarat, Saurashtra, Kachchh, Western
parts of Haryana, and southern part of Punjab.

 It lacks in moisture content. Humus content is less, and Nitrogen is originally low but
some of it is available in the form of nitrates.

 They are sandy with low organic matter. Living microorganisms are low in content

 It is rich in iron contents. Phosphorous content is nearly adequate, rich in lime and
bases.

 It has low soluble salts and moisture with very low retaining capacity.

 If irrigated this soil gives a high agricultural return.

 These are suitable for less water-intensive crops like Bajra, pulses, fodder, and guar.

Distribution –western Rajasthan, Rann of Kachchh, in patches in south Haryana and south Punjab.

Saline and Alkaline Soil

 Alkali soil contains a large content of NaCl

 The soil is infertile

 These are also called Reh, Usar, Kallar, Rakar, Thur, and Chopan.

 These are mainly found in Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and
Maharashtra.
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 Sodium chloride and sodium sulphate are present in this soil. It is suitable for leguminous
crops.

 Formation and distribution – It is both natural and anthropogenic

o Natural – Includes dried up lakes of Rajasthan and Rann of Kuchchh

 It has emerged in the Palaya basin ( a clay basin in the midst of the desert)

o Anthropogenic –It is developed in western UP and Punjab due to faulty

agriculture.

 Characteristics – Lack of moisture, humus, and living microorganisms, as a result, humus

formation is almost absent

Peaty, and Marshy Soil/Bog Soil

 This soil originates from the areas where adequate drainage is not possible. It is rich in
organic matter and has high salinity. They are deficient in potash and phosphate.

 Characteristics – Dominance of clay and mud which make it heavy

o Rich in moisture content but at the same time, greater content of salt and every
day inundation by high tide has made it infertile soil

o No organic activity due to excessive moisture content

 Distribution – It is characteristic of the delta region of India

o Besides the delta region, it is also found in

o Alleppey(Kerala) (known as Karri along the backwaters or Kayals of Kerala)

o Almora (Uttaranchal)

 Significance – Over Bengal delta, it is suitable for jute and rice, and over Malabar, it is
suitable for spices, rubber, big sized rice

 It has to some extent been favorable to the Mangrove forests of India.

Characteristics of Indian Soils

 Most soils are old and mature. Soils of the peninsular plateau are much older than the soils
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of the great northern plain.

 Indian soils are largely deficient in nitrogen, mineral salts, humus and other organic
materials.

 Plains and valleys have thick layers of soils while hilly and plateau areas depict thin soil
cover.

 Some soils like alluvial and black soils are fertile while some other soils such as laterite,
desert and alkaline soils lack in fertility and do not yield good harvest.

 Indian soils have been used for cultivation for hundreds of years and have lost much of
their fertility.

Problems of Indian Soils

 Soil erosion (Himalayan region, Chambal Ravines, etc.), deficiency in fertility (Red, lateritic,
and other soils), desertification (around Thar desert, rain-shadow regions like parts of
Karnataka, Telangana, etc.), waterlogging (Punjab-Haryana plain) salinity, and alkalinity
(excessively irrigated regions of Punjab, Haryana, Karnataka, etc.), wasteland,
overexploitation of soils due to increase in population and rise in living standards and
encroachment of agricultural land due to urban and transport development.

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NCERT Map of India Soils

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