Volcanoes- Chapter 2:

Key Words:
Magma: Hot liquid rock and metals.

Volcanic: A term used to describe extrusive features.

Plutonic: A term used to describe intrusive features.

Extrusive features form on the earth’s crust when lava cools and solidifies
quickly.

Intrusive features form within the earth’s crust when magma and gases cool
and solidify slowly.

Pyroclastic flow: A mixture of hot steam, dust, ash and cinders.

Cinders: Small volcanic bombs.

Volcanic Activity on the Earth’s Surface:

Volcanic activity results in the formation of extrusive and intrusive features.
• Extrusive features form on the earth’s crust when lava cools and solidifies
quickly.
• Intrusive features form within the earth’s crust when magma and gases
cool and solidify slowly.

Volcanoes form at subduction zones of convergent plate boundaries:

• When an oceanic plate collides with another tectonic plate, the heavier,
denser plate subducts beneath the lighter plate.
• Fluids (water) and gases (carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide) are released
from the crust as it sinks towards the mantle.
• These fluids and gases raise the surrounding temperatures which melt the

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 sinking crust.
• The silica and gas-rich magma formed from the melting crust rises and
burns a path through the overlying crust.
• An explosive volcanic eruption occurs close to the subduction zone once
the magma reaches the surface of the earth.
• A chain of volcanic islands known as an island arc forms at the subduction
zone of two oceanic plates.
• A chain of volcanic mountains known as a volcanic arc forms at the
subduction zone of colliding oceanic and continental plates.
• The Andes volcanic arc has formed where the oceanic crust of the Nazca
Plate subducts beneath the continental crust of the South American Plate.

Volcanoes form at constructive plate boundaries:

• Where two oceanic plates separate, magma rises through a fissure created
on the earth’s crust.
• Coming in contact with the cold ocean water, the lava quickly turns to solid
rock.
• Over time, this builds up to form a mid-ocean ridge of volcanic mountains.
• The Eurasian and North American plates separate to form the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge, which includes the island of Iceland.
• Rising magma plumes have caused the continental African crust to stretch
and split. Magma rises through fissures in the crust forming volcanoes on
the earth’s surface such as Mount Kilimanjaro.

Volcanoes form at hotspots:

• A volcanic island chain is formed at a hotspot.
• Hotspots are regions of the earth’s mantle where the magma is hotter than
the magma in the mantle surrounding it.
• The hotspot is located at a fixed point in the mantle while the earth’s
crustal plates move over it.
• When a weak area of the earth’s crust moves over the hotspot, plumes of
hot magma rise from the mantle to the surface and a volcano is formed.

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“Explain how the study of plate tectonics has helped us to understand the
global distribution of volcanoes.”- 30 marks

Life Cycle of a Volcano:

• Active volcanoes erupt regularly. Mount Etna in Sicily is one of the world’s
most active volcanoes.
• Dormant (sleeping) volcanoes have not erupted in a long time but scientists
believe they could erupt again (e.g. Parcutin, Mexico).
• Extinct volcanoes have not erupted in historic times (over 2,000 years) and
are not expected to erupt again, as they no longer have a magma supply.
(Eg. Lambay Island, located off Ireland’s east coast, was formed by a now
extinct volcano.)

Extrusive ‘Volcanic’ Features:

Volcanic activity can lead to the formation of many features on the earth’s crust.
These extrusive volcanic features include:
• central vent volcanoes
• lava plateaus
• geysers
• black smokers

Vent Eruptions:
Central vent volcanoes are formed when volcanic materials are emitted from
an opening in the earth’s crust called a central vent. Three forms of material are
emitted from the erupting volcano:
• Lava, the name given to magma once it reaches the earth’s surface
• Gases, such as carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen and chlorine.
• Rock fragments called tephra, which include volcanic dust, volcanic ash and
cinders.

Types of central vent volcanoes:

• Shield volcanoes
• Composite/stratovolcano

Shield Volcano:
Example: Mauna Loa, Hawaii

• Shield volcanoes are the largest on earth.

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 • Their slopes are very gradual, as they are formed from the build-up of
successive basic lava flows.

• Basic lava has a low silica content which results in it being quite ‘runny’. This
means it can travel far before cooling and hardening.

• Basic lava results in quiet eruptions as there is less force used to eject the
lava.

Composite volcano/stratovolcano:
Examples: Mt Fuji, Japan; Mount Rainier, Washington, USA
• Composite volcanoes are steep-sided conical-shaped volcanoes built from
alternating layers of acidic lava, tephra and volcanic ash.
• Acidic lava has a high silica level which results in it being very thick. This
means it does not travel far before cooling. It is associated with very violent
eruptions as the lava struggles to escape the vent.
• They are usually found at convergent plate boundaries.

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Calderas:
Examples: Crater Lake, Oregon, USA
• Calderas are formed by violent eruptions at composite volcanoes.
• The explosive eruption removes huge volumes of magma from the magma
chamber and fractures the overlying rock that forms the roof of the
magma chamber.
• The fractured rock collapses into the emptied chamber, producing a large
depression on the earth’s surface called a caldera.

Fissure Eruptions:

Example: Antrim–Derry Plateau

• A fissure eruption occurs when basic lava flows quietly from a linear crack
in the earth’s crust.
• Fissures can be up to 50 metres in width, having been widened by the force
of the rising magma.
• The lava spreads out slowly over a large area, often more than 50 km from
the fissure.
• Repeated lava flows will result in the formation of a lava plateau.

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Hypothermal Vents:
Geysers
Examples: Old Faithful, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, USA.
• Geysers are springs which eject hot water with great force at frequent
intervals. Water descends to the lower crust, where it is heated by the
surrounding hot rock. Pressure builds as the water boils.
• Eventually a spray of hot water and steam explodes onto the earth’s
surface.

Black smokers:
Examples: Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
• Black smokers are chimney-like vents commonly found at depths below
3,000 metres near mid-ocean ridges.
• The superheated water they release contains particles of dissolved
minerals, including high levels of sulphur.

Intrusive ‘Plutonic’ Features:

• Intrusive features form within the earth’s crust when magma and gases
cool and solidify slowly.
• During periods of folding and faulting, cracks appear in the internal rock
structure of the earth’s crust.
• At times these cracks can stretch to the mantle, where molten magma is

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 stored under great pressure.
• The magma is released and intrudes into the crust, where it cools and
hardens, forming various intrusive features called plutons.
• Batholith: Large masses of intrusive igneous rocks formed when magma
solidified slowly at the base of the mountain.
• Dyke: Magma vertically intruded, cooled and solidified within the earth’s
crust.
• Sill: Magma horizontally intruded into a bedding plane of sedimentary rock,
before cooling and solidifying within the earth’s crust
• Laccolith: Magma pushed its way into the bedding plane of a sedimentary
rock, forcing the overlying strata upwards, forming a small dome-shaped
structure.
• Lopolith: Magma pushed its way into the bedding plane of a sedimentary
rock forcing the overlying strata downwards, forming a small inverted
dome-shaped structure.

Batholith:
• A batholith is magma that has cooled slowly underground to form a large
dome-shaped mass of granite.

• The magma cools very slowly underground to form granite.

• Weathering and erosion of the earth surface may expose batholiths

• The surrounding rocks with which the hot magma came into contact are
often changed due to intense heat of the magma (metamorphic rocks are
formed).

• Large masses of this granite rock occur in the middle of mountain ranges
such as in the Wicklow Mountains.

“Explain the processes that have led to the formation of any two volcanic
landforms.”- 30 marks

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Human Interaction with Volcanoes:
Negative impacts of volcanic activity:
• When Mount Vesuvius erupted in AD 79, over 20,000 people lost their lives
in the towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
• In 2010, air traffic was disrupted all over Europe following a volcanic
eruption in Iceland.
• Weather patterns can be significantly altered following volcanic activity.
Thick clouds of ash emitted from a volcano can block the sun’s rays, causing
a global cooling. On the other hand, global warming can result if the
erupting volcano fills the atmosphere with greenhouse gases.
• When Mount St Helens erupted in 1980, its summit was reduced by 401 m.
The eruption also triggered a landslide which travelled at speeds of nearly
200 km per hour, destroying 600 km2 of trees and killing over 7,000 wild
animals.

Positive Impacts:
• New land: New land is forming along the coastline of Iceland due to
continuing volcanic eruptions.
• Building materials: Granite forms when magma cools slowly under the
earth’s surface. It can be used for headstones, grave chippings and table
tops in kitchens.
• Fertile soils: The lava and ash deposits break down to provide valuable
nutrients creating rich, fertile soils. Lava cools to form basalt, which also
weathers to a mineral-rich, fertile soil.
• Mineral deposits: Volcanoes directly or indirectly produce or hold deposits
of diamonds, gold, silver, lead, zinc, copper and bauxite.
• Jobs: The dramatic scenery created by volcanic eruptions attract large
numbers of people creating jobs in the tourist industry.

CASE STUDY: GEOTHERMAL ENERGY PRODUCTION IN

ICELAND:
● By the mid–20th century, Iceland was one of the poorest countries in
Europe, relying on energy derived from imported coal and local peat to
develop its economy.
● Threats to supply, the financial cost of importing coal and the
environmental cost of burning fossil fuels led Icelanders to search for an
alternative.
● With its high concentration of volcanoes and hot springs due to its
location on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Iceland had excellent natural

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 advantages for the generation of geothermal energy.
● Power stations use pipes to carry cold water deep underground, where it
is superheated using the heat from volcanic rocks. When it returns as
steam to the earth’s surface, it moves turbines connected to generators,
producing electricity.
● Magma close to the earth’s surface superheats nearby water which stays
as a liquid due to the pressure of overlying rocks. This hot water is piped
directly to homes, commercial businesses and industries, satisfying their
hot water and space heating needs

Economic benefits of geothermal energy in Iceland:

• Iceland is self-sufficient in food production, with crops such as tomatoes,
cucumbers and green peppers grown in geothermal greenhouses.
Geothermal energy heats the greenhouses, geothermal steam is used to boil
and disinfect the soil, while electric lighting has created a year-round
growing season.
• Geothermally heated water is being used to create optimum
temperatures for the growth of salmon, trout and arctic char in 20 of
Iceland’s 70 fish farms.
• Low-cost green electricity and a reliable transmission system has driven
rapid industrial development over the last 25 years.
• Three aluminium smelters located in Iceland use up to 70% of the
geothermal energy produced in the country.
• The data centre industry is rapidly growing.

Economic benefits of geothermal energy in Iceland:

● Iceland’s most famous tourist destination, the Blue Lagoon, was formed
in 1976 during operations at the nearby geothermal power plant.
● Over the years, people have seen the health benefits of bathing in its
mineral-rich water and applying the silica mud to their skin.

Future challenges for Geothermal Energy in Iceland:

• Ambitious plans are in place to build the world’s largest underwater
connector to allow Iceland to export clean geothermal electricity to the UK.
• The so-called ‘Icelink’ will help the UK to meet its renewable goals.
• Researchers are also working on a method of using geothermal electricity to
split hydrogen from water. The hydrogen fuel cells would then be used to
power the country’s vehicles and fishing trawlers.