Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi

Faculty of Renewable Natural Resources

Dept. of Fisheries and Watershed Management

FSA 353:

PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OF AQUACULTURE

G. Owusu-Boateng

Teaching Assistant
Frank Owusu
 COURSE CONTENT
• Introduction;
 Basis of Aquaculture
• History of aquaculture and its present state
• Selection of sites for aquaculture
• Species selection for culture
• Design and construction of aquafarms
 Inland and coastal pond farms
• Nutrition and feeds
• Reproduction and genetic selection
• Health and diseases
• Control of weeds, pests and predators
• Harvesting and post-harvest technology
• Marketing of aquaculture products
• Economics and financing of aquaculture
• Farm management
• Sustainability and environmental management of aquaculture
• Aquaculture practices
 Carps, Catfishes and Tilapias
 INTRODUCTION
Background

• Capturing giving way to rearing:

loss of perennial product-donor status  intermittent.
 Population growth, urbanization & rising incomes
has triggered :consumption + competing use.

• Search for alternative becames a necessity:

 to culture aquatic organisms to repopulate water
bodies using bio-culture technique, in a set of
activities holistically described as aquatic culture.

Mimicry
• Aquatic culture mimics land culture (agriculture). It
dwells on the concepts & technologies already used
in land culture
Scope of aquaculture and its definition

• Aquaculture is the farming of aquatic organisms,

including fish, mollusks, crustaceans, and aquatic
plants. It is the farming and husbandry of
economically important aquatic animals and plants
under controlled conditions (FAO (1989).

Statistical accounts
• Aquaculture embraces all individually or corporately
owned aquatic organisms throughout their rearing
period and is harvested at the end of stipulated time.

• In contrast fisheries embrace all exploitable aquatic

organisms by the public as a common property/resource
(Hardin, 1968) with or without appropriate license.
Biological and technological merits
For good aquaculture practice, it is important to aim at
intersection of profitability, nutrient production
efficiency and environmental sustainability.

• Nutrient (protein) production efficiency: fish compete

effectively with poultry, pork and beef.

• Less energy for locomotion (cold-blooded).

• Comparable specific gravity (1.076g/ml) to (1g/ml) for H2O.

Advantage: less energy for self-supporting H2O.

• Higher % of energy is used increase body weight

gain per unit of feed intake (low FCR).

• FCR = wt. of dry feed intake

wet weight gain
The lower the FCR, the better (under optimum culture conditions

• Higher % of energy to increase body weight gain per

unit of protein intake (Protein efficiency ration - PER).

PER = wet weight gain

wt. of protein intake

The higher the FCR, the better (under optimum culture conditions

• PER of fish is usually  poultry, > swine, > sheep.

• Not all types of protein are consumed by man. For
efficient utilization of resources, such protein types
are developed into high quality ones through
aquaculture.

• Fish display lower degree of deamination during

protein synthesis compared to 50% by poultry and
67% by pig.

• The simultaneous co-habitation of culturing species

and their wild forms poses risk of genetic alteration.
 the need to isolate through aquaculture.

• The production, distribution and consumption of

products of a culture system are determined by
factors such as production technology, market
conditions and the species (biology).
Strategic economic decision
• It is generally less expensive to produce organisms
that occupy low trophic levels along the aquatic
food chain due to their lower (animal) protein
requirements than those that occupy higher levels
• Production cost and market price correlate. i. e.
organisms at higher levels are sold at higher prices
and vice versa
• ~ a guide for strategic economic decision based on
farmer’s management efficiency.

• The correlation presents two options to operators:

 Produce low-cost products for low price
 Produce high-cost products for high price.

• IMTA: this gives credence to an efficient practice

described as Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture. i. e.
uneaten feed or/and by-products from one species
serve as nutrient and energy inputs for another.
Aquaculture becomes indispensable

Population growth and anthropogenic activities such

as over-fishing land reclamation, irrigation and
hydropower development projects, continue to drive
aquatic species towards extinction.

This makes aquaculture indispensable and not an

option to maintain life. Therefore a call for aquaculture
which is also means of repopulating water bodies
needs to be upheld.
 ORIGIN OF AQUACULTURE
• Started in China during the period: 2000 –1000 B.C
involving common carp (Cyprinus carpio) culture.
Information transferred along generational lines
(no printing technology).

• In Africa, the European aquaculturists attempted

to introduce the practice.
• Failed – due to nomadic habit of most African
communities at the time.

• Flood plains coincidentally served as areas for

propagation of indigenous species e. g. tilapia,
common carp and catfish- kept in:
• depressions during rainy seasons
• marshes during dry seasons.
• In Ghana, aquaculture started in the 1950s (1953),
with the goal of contributing to food security and
poverty alleviation (similar to planting for foods and
jobs?).

• Two different approaches have since been used for

its development:

1). The approach that targeted communities for

adoption of communally owned and managed ponds.
This was the dominant approach in the early, 1950s.

 Government’s policy – triggered by the perennial

drought condition in northern Ghana.
• Through the Department of Fisheries in the North,
dugouts and dams were constructed to provide
reliable source of water for consumption and
farming.

 Due to availability of farm wastes & agro by-

products, crop farms were integrated with
aquaculture for financial boost and improved
nutrition.

 The policy was to convert 5% of irrigation schemes

to fish farms.

 Failed – due to lack of proper management since

the people were not traditionally fishers.
 2). The approach that targeted individuals or
household landowners (1980s).

• There was high participation in pond fish culture due

to massive campaign by the government to persuade
the public to go into fish culture.

• Not very sustainable - about 23% of ponds abandoned

and 67% unproductive at the end of the 1980s.
• Reasons – No extension advice on pond siting, size,
drainability, fertilization, mgt. and fish harvesting.

Current state of aquaculture in Ghana

• Yet, the efforts continues: 16% mean annual growth
rate in the number farms since the year 2000.
• Credit – GoG/World Bank-funded through the MOFAD.
What is practiced most?
Inland fisheries production in Ghana takes place in
three water systems: river, lagoons and lakes.

• Lake Volta contributes about 70% of the total inland

fishery production.

• Artisanal farming (traditional/subsistence fishing) is

characterized by small-scale, low-technology, low-
capital & involves households or ethnic groups.

Contribution of aquaculture to Ghana’s economy

• The most important animal protein source for all;
places (cities or village) and people (rich or poor).
• Employment: Direct & indirect employment to about
1.5 - 2 million people (men, women, children, canoe
carvers, input suppliers, and office workers:
• e. g. along Volta Lake, about 300 000 livelihoods.

• Gender equity: while men engage in main culture

activities, women engage in post-harvest activities
e. g. processing and trading.

• Contributes 3 - 5% to Gross Domestic Product (GDP).

• Produces 52,470.49 metric tonnes of fish a year.

• Fish is the only protein source with shelf life that

readily responds to improvement by low-cost tech/
engineering e. g. smoking, salting and drying and can
be accessed readily on remote markets.
Forms of aquaculture in Ghana
• Traditionally aquaculture consists of:
• Acadjas or brush-parks; lagoons and reservoirs.

• Hatsis (fish holes) and whedos (mini-dams) practiced

in coastal lagoons.

• Afani or freshwater clams (Egeria radiata) practiced in

the lower Volta. In this, operators gather young clams
and "plant’ them in the areas of the water ‘they own’.

• Most common species culture in Ghana: tilapia,

catfish and Heterotis.

• Waters for the culture is mainly freshwater, with some

attempts made in brackish waters (and not marine).
NATIONAL PLANNING OF AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT
• Imperative - due to the contribution that aquaculture is
expected to make to national economy.
• It outlines the objectives & best policies & strategies
that can help achieve its aim.

DRAWING/DESIGNING A NATIONAL PLAN

1). Define objective: based on country’s socio-economic
conditions and availability of suitable environment:
Desert regions vs Coastal regions.

Examples of a country’s objectives:

For food production, to supplement capture fishery,
employment, foreign exchange, productive use of land,
leisure, agro-industrial devt. (feed & equipment manufacture).
2) National resources available
Land, water and climatic conditions are the most
important natural resources.

Generally land areas which are not ‘productive’ may be

used for activities such as agriculture.

All lands not directly used by man have been

wrongfully described as potential sites for aquaculture.

Estimation of such lands among potential aquaculture

production sites of a country is incorrect e. g. some
types of mangrove may not be suitable for aquaculture
3) Technology and human resource needs
• Availability of tested technologies or ability to
develop, modify or adopt existing ones for local
application and economic feasibility.

• Development of appropriate human resource.

Traditionally acquired skills which are transferred
from parents to children need improvement for
modern day industrial aquaculture.

• Institutions: e. g. KNUST, Fisheries Commission to

training personnel as managers and technicians.
Example…………..

• Aquaculture is interdisciplinary so it requires

specialized training programmes for some classes
of personnel.
4) Legal and environmental factors

The legal framework of the country should be suitable

to ensure order and compliance.

Permit should be obtained by aquaculture

entrepreneurs to establish and operate farms in
suitable areas. In Ghana, the authorities include EPA,
WRC, Metropolitan/Municipal/District Assemblies.

Are wetlands are not waste lands?

5. Organization of aquaculture

• State to provide major support services, e. g. research,

training and extension.
• Stakeholder participation: at the planning stage, the
local communities are to be involved.
• Employment opportunities should be considered
• Industrial-scale aquaculture should be pursued if local
or foreign market demands are to be met.
• Recruitment and maintenance of experience personnel.
• Pollution issues: it is criticized for disposal of high
quantities of waste water into the environment.
• Investment requirements: capital intensive.

• Plan reviews and revisions: set period of revision to be

defined. revision should be scientific and data-based.
 SELECTION OF SITES FOR AQUACULTURE
• Selection of the right sites – the most important factor
in aquaculture operations.

• Ideal site may be scarce so any adjustment will be at

extra cost and may affect profitability.

• Some farms have been abandoned due to poor site

characteristics.

• 1). species and available technology factor

• Normally, site selection is based on species to be
cultured and technology available.
 However may be reversed if site needs be used. Site
available will determine the species to be cultivated.
 SELECTION OF SITES FOR AQUACULTURE
• Selection of the right sites – the most important factor
in aquaculture operations.

• Ideal site may be scarce: Any adjustment will be at

extra cost and may affect profitability.
• Some farms have been abandoned due to poor site Xtics.

What are the factors to be considered?

1). species and available technology factor

• Normally, site selection is based on species to be
cultured and technology available.
 but this may be reversed if site needs be used: Site
available will determine the species to be cultivated.
2. Climatic factors
• mean and ranges of air temperature, rainfall,
evaporation, sunshine, speed and winds direction.

• Temperature - warm for tropical species (e.g.

>25C for tilapia & clarias) and cold for temperate
species (>18C for trout).

• High intensity of sunlight for tropical species. In

areas of high elevation, ponds with larger surface
area may compensate for this (Max incidence).

3. Hydrologic factors
• hydrological data (e. g. water table and floods).

4. Security and protection

• Protection against natural disasters , theft.`
5. Installations (land-based aquaculture)
• Where to site them e. g. pond and hatcheries.

6. Vegetation type
• It indicates the type of soil & elevation of water table.
 Water table should not be too high to challenge
draining the use of mechanical equipment .
• In open areas tall vegetative cover around farm can
serve as wind breaker.
• Dense vegetation dominated by tall trees makes
clearing more difficult and expensive.

7. Pollution sources
• Presence, nature and sources of pollution.
• Check for past use of the site: cropland close might
contaminate pond water with pesticides through runoff.
8. Soil characteristics
• Important because of its influence on:
 pond productivity,
 quality of overlying water
 water retention
 suitability for dike construction

• Soil with superior cohesion is better for pond construction

• e. g clay, silty clay, clay loam, silty clay loam and sandy clay

• Investigation of soil characteristics

 Simple: e. g. visual and tactile inspect ion
 Detailed: e. g. subsurface exploration & laboratory tests.

Attributes of such soils

 present large surface area, so absorb high amt of nutrients
 retain of high amount of nutrients
 release of high amount of nutrients for production in ponds
 resist erosion
9. Environmental impact assessment
• Waste disposal needs same attention as economic yields.

• Common wastes:
• SS & dissolved nutrients (N & P).
• Origin: contaminated input water, uneaten or spilled feeds,
faecal matter and fertilization.
• This affects both the environment and aquaculture itself.
• So waste carrying capacity of receiving waters must be known.

• What should be measured?

• 1) Rate of nutrients addition without eutrophication.
• 2) Rate of organic matter addition without disruption of
natural benthic processes.
• 3) Rate of O2 depletion that can occur without biota mortality

10. Others
Communication, access to roads and markets. It is
easier to sell at doorstep or have a permanent buyers.
 SELECTION OF SPECIES FOR CULTURE
• There are many species of fish, difficult to list.
• Possibility - all aquatic organisms, but the main focus is
on contribution to the main objective via:

FACTORS
1). Biological characteristics
• Growth rate (under culture conditions)
 Fish with fast growth rate reach marketable size in
shorter time and offer high harvesting frequency.

 Certain slow-growing species may also be cultured due

to their high market value, but this may not be profitable.

2) Hardiness (ability to survive under unfavourable conditions)

Some species are adapted to poor environmental
conditions (e. g. fluctuation in temperature and
concentration of oxygen which occurs sometimes)
3) Feeding behaviour
• Feed constitutes about 60% of operational cost so species
that utilize feed efficiently are preferred.

• Herbivorous or omnivorous species are preferred because

they feed on natural food in water.
 Availability of natural food can be enhanced through
fertilization.

 In such cases, the cost of feeding will be relatively low

(trophic level for the production of low-priced products).

 Carnivorous species generally need high protein diets so

are more expensive to produce, but this is compensated
for by marketing prices.
4). Size and age at first maturity

• The preferred species are those that reach marketable size

before attaining first maturity
 So they use feed and energy for somatic growth.

 If breeders for hatchery operations are required then

early maturity gives advantage.

5). Escape species

• Special protective measures are required for species which
scape into natural water bodies to upset their ecology.
 Implication: This introduces additional operational cost
& environmental cost.

6). Economic and market considerations

Consumer acceptance
Availability of markets
7). Introduction of exotic species
• Some species are endemic to certain geographic ranges
These are exotic species.

• Economic and market considerations may stimulate interest

in exotic species.
 i. e. desired species may be transported from one natural
geographic ranges to another for culture.

• Disadvantage: they may cause detrimental effects – Thet

may suppress native species or spread of communicable
diseases among local flora, fauna and environment. e. g.
uncontrollable spread of water hyacinth on the volta lake,
allelopathy by Chromolaena odurata, .
 POND FARM DESIGN
• Introduction
• A pond is a water impoundment constructed and
managed for farming of aquatic organisms.
• It is site-specific.
• Sites which have similar features may have ponds with
common features.
• Although the design will depend on many factors,
some basic principles are generally followed.
• The design of pond determines the area of site needed.
• The cost of smaller ponds per unit area is higher than
that of larger ponds: Why?
 due to cost of added embankments, water supply,
lengths of drainage canals & feeder canals needed.
 Inland and coastal pond farms
• it depends on site; so no universal design.
• Aquaculturist & engineers work closely to define an
economical design in favour species and technology.
TYPES OF PONDS
Ponds may be classified based on:
1). how pond fits in the local landscape
2). their purposes
3). the construction materials
4). the construction method
5). the water source(s)
6). Drainability
1) Pond types based on how pond fits in local landscape

Barrage pond
• Created at the bottom of gently sloping valleys with a
dam across the deepest end of the valley. They may be
built in series down the valley.
• It is drainable.
• During flooding, excess water is diverted around one
side of the pond via a diversion canal or spillway to
prevent loss of stock & damage to the pond structures.

• Pond is fed directly from spring, stream or reservoir,

through inlet and flows out through outlet.

•
Sunken pond
• Floor is below the level of the surrounding land.
• Fed directly by groundwater, rainfall and/or runoff.
• Partially drainable or not drainable at all
• May need additional embankments to hold water.
Diversion pond
• Fed indirectly by gravity or from diversion that links a
spring, stream, lake or reservoir.

• Constructed on:
 sloping ground as a cut-and-fill pond;
 flat ground as a four-dike embankment.
 drainable via drainage canal.

Diversion (paddy ponds) on flat ground Cut-and-fill diversion ponds

(four-dike embankment) on sloping ground
2). According to purpose:

 Brood-stock pond

 Transitional pond
o Spawning ponds
o Production or stock pond

 Fattening ponds/Production pond

 Market pond

 Integrated pond

 Wintering pond
• Brood-stock pond
 A pond used to maintain mature individuals species in
captivity to serve as a source of population
replacement or for establishment of new populations.

• Transitional rearing pond

Series of nursery ponds for growing larvae to fry stage
to fingerling (stockable size) to juvenile/yearling to adult.
 Spawning pond
o ponds for production of eggs and small fry
o It holds large quantities of ova (unfertilized eggs)
in water for simultaneous or sequential
fertilization by spermatozoa (milt).
 Nursery pond
o for the production of larger juveniles
• Fattening ponds/Production pond
 Ponds for grow-out to marketable sizes.
 Grow-outs are sensitive to feed type, feed
conversion, nutrient retention, health issues.

• Market pond
 For temporarily and proper-keeping of harvested
species prior to marketing.

• Integrated pond
 Have aquatic species together which supply waste
materials to serve as fertilizer for the pond.

• Wintering pond
 For holding fish during the cold season.
 Economy of ponds
• Absence of transitional rearing ponds in some tropical
farm ponds.

• Depending on the season of activities, some ponds

may be used for more than one purpose e. g.
o spawning ponds  fry nursing
o fry pond  production
o spawning ponds  market ponds
3). According to the construction materials
• Dug-out pond
 Constructed from soil materials only.
 Excavated soil from an area creates a hole which
collects water.
o Generally undrainable
o Fed by rainwater, surface runoff or groundwater.
• Embankment pond
 Formed with no excavation but by diking above
ground level to impound water.
o filled by pumping.
o Usually drainable

• Cut-and-fill pond
 Excavation + embankment on sloping ground.
 Fed by gravity or by pumping.
 Drainable
4). According to the construction method

• Earthen pond (the commonest)

 Constructed by wide escavation of soil/earth
materials.

• Walled pond
 Usually surrounded by blocks, brick or concrete
walls, wooden planking or corrugated metal.

• Lined pond
 Earthen ponds lined with impervious materials
such as a plastic or rubber sheet.
 5) According to the source of water
A. Groundwater
• a). Spring-water pond

Fed by water coming from:

o spring in the pond
o spring very close to the pond.
 Water supply may vary throughout the year.
 Water is usually of constant quality.
b). Seepage pond

 Fed by seepage from the water-table.

 Water level in the pond & water-table correspond.
B). Freshwater
• Fed by freshwater bodies such as stream, lake,
reservoir or irrigation canal.

a)i. Directly fed pond

• They are fed directly by water flowing into the ponds
a)ii. Indirectly fed pond

 Fed indirectly by water entering from a channel.

 Quantity of water entering is controlled by canal
b). Rain-fed pond

 Are usually small depressions in impermeable soil.

 Fed from rainwater and surface runoff.

 No water is supplied during the dry season.

c). Pump-fed pond

 Usually sited at elevations higher than water level.

 Fed by water pumped from well, spring, lake,

reservoir or irrigation canal.
 6). According to drainability
• Undrainable ponds
 Cannot be drained by gravity.
 Generally fed by groundwater and/or surface runoff
 May be dug in swampy areas with groundwater as
the only source.
 Occurs also in excavated land area (galamsey sites)

• Drainable ponds
 Easily drained by gravity.
 Sited at elevations above drain collection point.
 Generally fed by surface water e. g. runoff, spring,
stream or pump-water.

• Pump-drained ponds
 Drained partly to certain level, followed by pumping
GENERAL STRUCTURE OF POND
 Pond construction steps
After designing:
Draw Plan  Survey land  Clear vegetation  Remove top soil
 Determine the elevation of pond, drain pipe & water supply canal
 Peg out the pond  Excavate pond area  Build dykes using the soil
 Install drainage system  Install water supply
TS of pond structure
•
 TANKS
• A tank is a non-earthen vessel made of concrete, plastic,
steel/metal or wood to hold water in rearing aquatic orgs
• Tanks may be used indoors or outdoors.
• Round
• Polygonal

Base-materials used for tank construction

 Concrete (Most common material)
 Plastic
 Fiberglass (common material)
 Steel (lined/unlined)-Metal (common material)
 Wood with coating
 General characteristics of base-materials

• Non-toxic
• UV resistant
• inert to fresh and salt water
• Strong enough to withstand pressure by water
• Non-corrosive
• Non-abrasive
• Smooth interior surface
• Easy and inexpensive to install
 TANKS
• Concrete
 Complex:
difficult to shape

 Heavy

 Durable

 Smooth

 Easy to form

 Cheap

 Slowly erodible
by acidity of water
Plastics
• Adaptable for forming
• Inert in freshwater and marine environments
• Expensive
• Strength limited
• Can be easily dismantled
 TANKS
• Fiberglass

 Very strong

 Light

 Shape adaptable

 Expensive
Clarifiers (solid filters/mechanical filters) & baffles
• Clarifiers are settling tanks used to remove particulates or
suspended solids from wastewater at the bottom of tank.
• It uses the principles of sedimentation
• Baffles are flat plates direct and slow water Solids
• Steel (lined or unlined)

 Strong

 Heavy

 Smooth

 Inert

 Expensive
Wood with coating
• Light
• Smooth
• Cheap (but coatings may be expensive
• Not usually durable
• Complex shaping difficult
• May harbour pathogens