Objectives

• Identify the unique vocabulary associated with

thermodynamics through the precise definition of
basic concepts to form a sound foundation for the
development of the principles of thermodynamics.
• Review the metric SI and the English unit systems.
• Explain the basic concepts of thermodynamics such
as system, state, state postulate, equilibrium,
process, and cycle.
• Review concepts of temperature, temperature scales,
pressure, and absolute and gage pressure.
• Introduce an intuitive systematic problem-solving
technique.
1
 THERMODYNAMICS AND ENERGY
• Thermodynamics: The science of
energy.
• Energy: The ability to cause changes.
• The name thermodynamics stems from
the Greek words therme (heat) and
dynamis (power).
• Conservation of energy principle:
During an interaction, energy can change
from one form to another but the total
amount of energy remains constant.
• Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
• The first law of thermodynamics: An
expression of the conservation of energy
principle.
• The first law asserts that energy is a
thermodynamic property.
2
• The second law of thermodynamics:
It asserts that energy has quality as
well as quantity, and actual processes
occur in the direction of decreasing
quality of energy.
• Classical thermodynamics: A
macroscopic approach to the study of
thermodynamics that does not require
a knowledge of the behavior of
individual particles.
• It provides a direct and easy way to the
solution of engineering problems and it
is used in this text.
• Statistical thermodynamics: A
microscopic approach, based on the
average behavior of large groups of
individual particles.
• It is used in this text only in the
supporting role. 3
Application Areas of Thermodynamics

All activities in nature involve some interaction between

energy and matter; thus, it is hard to imagine an area
that does not relate to thermodynamics in some manner. 4
5
IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
• Any physical quantity can be characterized
by dimensions.
• The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions
are called units.
• Some basic dimensions such as mass m,
length L, time t, and temperature T are
selected as primary or fundamental
dimensions, while others such as velocity
V, energy E, and volume V are expressed in
terms of the primary dimensions and are
called secondary dimensions, or derived
dimensions.
• Metric SI system: A simple and logical
system based on a decimal relationship
between the various units.
• English system: It has no apparent
systematic numerical base, and various
units in this system are related to each other
rather arbitrarily. 6
Some SI and
English Units

Work = Force  Distance

1 J = 1 N∙m
1 cal = 4.1868 J
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ
7
A body weighing 60 kgf
on earth will weigh only
10 kgf on the moon.

W weight
m mass
g gravitational
8
acceleration
Specific weight : The weight of
a unit volume of a substance.

9
Dimensional homogeneity
All equations must be dimensionally
homogeneous.

Unity Conversion Ratios

All nonprimary units (secondary units) can be
formed by combinations of primary units.
Force units, for example, can be expressed as

They can also be expressed more conveniently

as unity conversion ratios as

Unity conversion ratios are identically equal to 1 and are unitless,

and thus such ratios (or their inverses) can be inserted conveniently
into any calculation to properly convert units. 10
11
12
SYSTEMS AND CONTROL VOLUMES
• System: A quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study.
• Surroundings: The mass or region outside the system
• Boundary: The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from
its surroundings.
• The boundary of a system can be fixed or movable.
• Systems may be considered to be closed or open.
• Closed system (Control mass): A fixed amount of mass, and no mass
can cross its boundary

13
• Open system (control volume): A properly
selected region in space.
• It usually encloses a device that involves mass
flow such as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle.
• Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of
a control volume.
• Control surface: The boundaries of a control
volume. It can be real or imaginary.

14
PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
• Property: Any characteristic of a
system.
• Some familiar properties are
pressure P, temperature T, volume
V, and mass m.
• Properties are considered to be
either intensive or extensive.
• Intensive properties: Those that
are independent of the mass of a
system, such as temperature,
pressure, and density.
• Extensive properties: Those
whose values depend on the size—
or extent—of the system.
• Specific properties: Extensive
properties per unit mass.
15
 Continuum
• Matter is made up of atoms that are
widely spaced in the gas phase. Yet
it is very convenient to disregard the
atomic nature of a substance and
view it as a continuous,
homogeneous matter with no holes,
that is, a continuum.
• The continuum idealization allows us
to treat properties as point functions
and to assume the properties vary
continually in space with no jump
discontinuities.
• This idealization is valid as long as
the size of the system we deal with
is large relative to the space
between the molecules.
• This is the case in practically all
problems.
• In this text we will limit our
consideration to substances that can
be modeled as a continuum.
16
DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Density Specific gravity: The ratio
of the density of a
substance to the density of
some standard substance
at a specified temperature
Specific volume
(usually water at 4°C).

Specific weight: The

weight of a unit volume
of a substance.

Density is
mass per unit
volume;
specific volume
is volume per
unit mass.
17
STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
• Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium
states.
• Equilibrium: A state of balance.
• In an equilibrium state there are no
unbalanced potentials (or driving forces)
within the system.
• Thermal equilibrium: If the temperature
is the same throughout the entire system.
• Mechanical equilibrium: If there is no
change in pressure at any point of the
system with time.
• Phase equilibrium: If a system involves
two phases and when the mass of each
phase reaches an equilibrium level and
stays there.
• Chemical equilibrium: If the chemical
composition of a system does not change
with time, that is, no chemical reactions
occur. 18
The State Postulate
• The number of properties
required to fix the state of a
system is given by the state
postulate:
✓ The state of a simple
compressible system is
completely specified by
two independent,
intensive properties.
• Simple compressible
system: If a system involves The state of nitrogen is
no electrical, magnetic, fixed by two independent,
gravitational, motion, and intensive properties.
surface tension effects.
19
PROCESSES AND CYCLES
Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to
another.
Path: The series of states through which a system passes during a process.
To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states, as
well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.
Quasistatic or quasi-equilibrium process: When a process proceeds in such a
manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at
all times.

20
• Process diagrams plotted by
employing thermodynamic properties
as coordinates are very useful in
visualizing the processes.
• Some common properties that are
used as coordinates are temperature
T, pressure P, and volume V (or
specific volume v).
• The prefix iso- is often used to
designate a process for which a
particular property remains constant.
• Isothermal process: A process
during which the temperature T
remains constant.
• Isobaric process: A process during
which the pressure P remains
constant.
• Isochoric (or isometric) process: A
process during which the specific
volume v remains constant.
• Cycle: A process during which the
initial and final states are identical.
21
The Steady-Flow Process
• The term steady implies no
change with time. The
opposite of steady is
unsteady, or transient.
• A large number of During a steady-
engineering devices operate flow process, fluid
for long periods of time properties within
under the same conditions, the control
and they are classified as volume may
steady-flow devices. change with
• Steady-flow process: A position but not
process during which a fluid with time.
flows through a control
volume steadily.
• Steady-flow conditions can
be closely approximated by
devices that are intended for
continuous operation such
as turbines, pumps, boilers,
condensers, and heat
exchangers or power plants
or refrigeration systems. 22
 TEMPERATURE AND THE ZEROTH LAW
OF THERMODYNAMICS
• The zeroth law of
thermodynamics: If two
bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with a third
body, they are also in
thermal equilibrium with
each other.
• By replacing the third
body with a
thermometer, the zeroth
law can be restated as
two bodies are in
thermal equilibrium if
both have the same
temperature reading
even if they are not in
contact.
23
 Temperature Scales
P versus T plots
• All temperature scales are based on
some easily reproducible states such as of the
the freezing and boiling points of water: experimental
the ice point and the steam point. data obtained
• Ice point: A mixture of ice and water from a constant-
that is in equilibrium with air saturated volume gas
with vapor at 1 atm pressure (0°C or thermometer
32°F). using four
• Steam point: A mixture of liquid water different gases
and water vapor (with no air) in at different (but
equilibrium at 1 atm pressure (100°C or low) pressures.
212°F).
• Celsius scale: in SI unit system
• Fahrenheit scale: in English unit
system
• Thermodynamic temperature scale: A
temperature scale that is independent of
the properties of any substance.
• Kelvin scale (SI) Rankine scale (E)
• A temperature scale nearly identical to
the Kelvin scale is the ideal-gas
temperature scale. The temperatures
on this scale are measured using a A constant-volume gas thermometer would
constant-volume gas thermometer. 24
read -273.15°C at absolute zero pressure.
 Comparison of
temperature
scales.

Comparison of
magnitudes of
various
temperature
units.

• The reference temperature in the original Kelvin scale was the ice point,
273.15 K, which is the temperature at which water freezes (or ice melts).
• The reference point was changed to a much more precisely reproducible
point, the triple point of water (the state at which all three phases of water
25
coexist in equilibrium), which is assigned the value 273.16 K.
PRESSURE 68 kg 136 kg
Pressure: A normal force exerted by a
fluid per unit area

Afeet=300cm2

0.23 kgf/cm2 0.46 kgf/cm2

P=68/300=0.23 kgf/cm2

The normal stress (or “pressure”) on the

feet of a chubby person is much greater
than on the feet of a slim person.

Some
basic
pressure 26
gages.
• Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is
measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
• Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and
the local atmospheric pressure. Most pressure-measuring devices are
calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate gage
pressure.
• Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.

Throughout this
text, the pressure
P will denote
absolute
pressure unless
specified
otherwise.

27
Variation of Pressure with Depth
When the variation of density
with elevation is known

28
The Manometer
It is commonly used to measure small and
moderate pressure differences. A manometer
contains one or more fluids such as mercury,
water, alcohol, or oil.
Measuring the
pressure drop across
a flow section or a flow
device by a differential
manometer.

The basic
manometer.

29
THE BAROMETER AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
• Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the
atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure.
• A frequently used pressure unit is the standard atmosphere, which is defined as
the pressure produced by a column of mercury 760 mm in height at 0°C (Hg =
13,595 kg/m3) under standard gravitational acceleration (g = 9.807 m/s2).

The length or the

cross-sectional area of
the tube has no effect
on the height of the
fluid column of a
barometer, provided
that the tube diameter
is large enough to
avoid surface tension
(capillary) effects. 30