Sinusoidal steady-state power calculations

 Let us consider the following circuit

where
i , V : steady-state sinusoidal signals

 The power at any instant of time is

p V i

notice the use of passive sign convention

 One can write expressions for V and i as

V  Vm cos( t   v )
i  I m cos( t   i )

 If we use zero phase angle for i , we can write

V  Vm cos( t   v   i )
i  I m cos  t

because it is convenient use a zero time corresponding to the instant the

current is passing through a positive maximum.

 Then the instantaneous power expression becomes

p  Vm I m cos( t   v   i ) cos  t

 Using trigonometric identities yield

Vm I m V I
p cos( v   i )  m m cos(2 t   v   i )
2 2
V I V I
 m m cos( v   i )  m m cos 2 t cos( v   i )
2 2
Vm I m
 sin 2 t sin( v   i )
2

 Note that the frequency of the instantaneous power is

twice the frequency of voltage or current

10.1
Average and reactive power

 Note that the instantaneous power can be rewritten as

p  P  P cos 2 t  Q sin 2 t
where
Vm I m
P cos( v   i ) “Average power”
2
V I
Q  m m sin( v   i ) “Reactive power”
2

 Average power is sometimes called “real power”

Why is P called average power ?

 Average power is in fact the average of the instantaneous power over one period, i.e.

1
T T
P pdt

where
T : period of the sinusoidal fn. p

 Substituting p into average power expression gives

1  4 4 
P 
TT  P  P cos
T
t  Q sin t dt
T 
1 1 4 1 4
  Pdt   P cos t dt   Q sin t dt
TT TT T TT T

0 “integration” of 0
a sinusoidal fn
over one period
1
 P T
T
P

 Note that we used the fact that integrating a periodic function over one period equals zero.

Power for purely resistive circuits

 If the circuit between the terminals is purely resistive,

the current and voltage are in phase

 Then the power becomes

p  P  P cos 2 t

10.2
  Note that the instantaneous power can never be negative

not possible to extract energy from a resistive circuit.

Power for purely inductive circuits

 The voltage and current are out of phase by 90 

 In particular, the current lags the voltage by 90 

i.e.  v   i  90 

 The expression for P reduces to

p  Q sin 2 t

 Note that the average power in a purely inductive circuit

P0

 When p  0  energy is being stored in the magnetic fields

 When p  0  energy is being extracted from the magnetic fields

 Why we call Q as the reactive power comes from

the fact that the impedance of an inductor is purely reactive.

Dimension

 We use VAR (volt-amp reactive) for reactive power

Power for purely capacitor circuits

 The voltage and current are precisely 90  out of phase

the current leads the voltage by 90  , i.e.  v   i  90

 The instantaneous power expression becomes

p  Q sin 2 t

 Again the average power is zero.

 The power is continually

Exchanged between the source driving the circuit and electric field
associated with capacitor.

10.3
Power factor

 The angle  v   i determines the computation of average and reactive power

referred to as “power factor angle”

 The cosine of this angle

called the power factor

pf  cos( v   i )

Ex. Calculate the real and reactive power in the line between networks A and B in the following
circuit.

V  100 cos( t  45)

i  20 cos( t  15)

100  20 100  20 1
P cos(45  15)    500 W
2 2 2
from A to B

100  20 100  20  3
Q sin( 45  15)    866 .03 VAR
2 2 2
from B to A

The rms value and power calculations

 Assume that a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the terminals of a resistor

 The average power delivered to the resistor is

1 Vm cos 2 ( t   v )
2

P  dt
TT R
1 1 
   Vm cos ( t   v ) dt 
2 2

R T T 
V 2 rms

R

10.4
  The rms value is also referred to as the effective value of the voltage (or current)

What does rms value mean ?

 The rms value of a sinusoidal source delivers the same energy to R

as does a dc source of the same value.

 The average and reactive power can be written as

Vm I m
P cos( v   i )
2
V I
 m  m  cos( v   i )
2 2
 Vrms  I rms  cos( v   i )
Q  Vrms  I rms  sin(  v   i )

Complex power

 Complex power is the complex sum of real power and reactive power, or
S  P  jQ

 One can compute the complex power directly from the voltage and current phasors of a circuit

P  ReS 
Q  ImS 

 We use the units volts-amps (VA)

 Therefore, we have

Complex power  Volt-amps

Average power  Watts
Reactive power  Vars

Geometric interpretation

 It can be shown as

10.5
  Therefore, we can write

S  P2  Q2
Q
  tan 1 

P
V I / 2  cos( v   i )
 tan   m m  tan( v   i )    v   i
Vm I m / 2  sin( v   i )

Power calculations

 Let us calculate the apparet power as

Vm I m V I
S cos( v   i )  j m m sin( v   i )
2 2

Vm I m
cos( v   i )  j sin( v   i )
2
V I
 m m e j ( v i )
2
1
 V m e j v I m e  j i
2

 Using phasor transformers, we obtain

V I
S   Vrms I  rms
2 2

Phasor values

 or

S  Veff I  eff

Alternate forms for complex power

 Let us consider an equivalent impedance representation as

Veff  I eff  Z
where
Z  R  jX

 Then we compute

2 2 2
S  I eff Z I  eff  I eff Z  I eff R  j I eff X

10.6
  Therefore

2 1 2 2 1
P  I eff R  I m R , Q  I eff X  I 2 m X
2 2

 Or using phasor voltage gives

2 2
Veff Veff
P , Q
R X

Ex. Consider the following circuit

Vs  150 0 
V1  (78  j104 )V
V2  (72  j104 )V
V3  (150  j130 )V
I 1  (26  j 52 ) A
I 2  ( 24  j 58) A

a. Calculate the total average and reactive power delivered to each impedance in the circuit.

b. Calculate the average and reactive powers associated with each source in the circuit.

c. Verify that the average power delivered equals the average power absorbed and the reactive
power delivered equals the reactive power absorbed.

a.
1
(1  j 2)  S1  V1 I 1  P1  jQ1
2
1
 (78  j 104 ) (26  j 52)
2
 (1690  j 3380 ) VA

P1  1690 W , Q1  3380 VAR

1
(12  j 16)  S 2  V2 I  x  P2  j Q2
2
1
 (72  j 104 )(2  j 6)
2
 (240  j 320 ) VA
P2  240 W , Q2  320 VAR

10.7
 1 
(1  j 3)  S 3  V3 I 2  P3  j Q3
2
1
 (150  j 130 )(24  j 58)
2
 (1970  j 5910 ) VA
P3  1970 W , Q3  5910 VAR

b. The complex power associated with the independent voltage source is

1 
S s   Vs I 1  Ps  j Qs
2
1
   150 (26  j 52)
2
 (1950  j 3900 ) VA
Ps  1950 W , Qs  3900 VAR

 The complex power associated with the dependent source

1 
Sd   39  I x  I 2  Pd  jQd
2
1
  39 (2  j 6)(24  j 58)
2
 (5850  j 5070 ) VA
Pd  5850 W , Qd  5070 VAR

c.
Pabsorbed  1690  240  1970  1950
 5850 W
Pdelivered  5850 W

Qabsorbed  3380  5910

 9290 VAR
Qdelivered  320  3900  5070
 9290 VAR

Maximum power transfer

 We investigate to transfer a maximum amount of power from the source to the load

in a sinusoidal steady-state network

 Note that any linear network can be represented

in terms of a Thévenin equivalent circuit

10.8
  For maximum average power transfer

Z L must be equal the complex conjugate of the Thévenin impedance, i.e.

Z L  Z  Th

Justification

 Let Z Th  RTh  jX Th and Z L  RL  jX L , then

VTh
I " rms load current"
RTh  jX Th   RL  jX L 

 The average power delivered to the load is

P  I RL
2

2
VTh RL

RTh  RL 2   X Th  X L 2
 Note that R L and X L are the independent variables

 VTh RL 2 ( X Th  X L )
2
P
 0  X L   X Th
X L 
RTh  RL 2   X Th  X L 2 
2

P

VTh
2
R
Th
2 2

 RL    X Th  X L   VTh RL 2 ( RTh  RL )
2

0
RL R Th  R L    X Th  X L  
2 2 2

RTh  RL 2   X Th  X L 2  2RL RTh  2RL 2  0

0

 RTh  2RTh RL  RL  2RL RTh  2RL  0

2 2 2

 RTh  RL  RL  RTh
2 2

10.9
Maximum average power absorbed

 The maximum average power that can be delivered to Z L

2
VTh
Pmax  2 if the Thévenin voltage is expressed
4 RL in terms of its maximum amplitude
2
V rather than its rms amplitude, i.e.
 m
8RL
Vm
VTh 
2

Ex. Consider the following circuit

a. Determine the impedance Z L that results in maximum average power transferred to Z L

b. What is the maximum average power transferred to the load impedance

a. Let us find the Thévenin impedance by deactivating the independent voltage source

5.20
5 // 20   4
25
4  j 3  4  j 3
Z Th
4  j 3 //  j 6

(4  j 3)( j 6) 18  j 24
 Z Th    (5.76  j 1.68)
4 j3 j6 4 j3

 Therefore
Z L  ZTh
*
 (5.76  j 1.68)

10.10
b.
2
VTh
p max 
8RL
200 
V1  4  160  by source transformation
5

160 
VTh  ( j 6)  (11.52  j 15.36)V
4 j3 j6
 19.2  53.13 

 Then
19 .2  19.2
p max   8W
8  5.76

10.11