MODULE 1: HORMONES IN THE REPRODUCTIVE f.

(g) Cowper’s Gland (Bulbourethral Gland) - produces a clear,

slippery fluid. This fluid serves to lubricate the urethra and
SYSTEM neutralize any acidity due to residual drops of urine.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM g. Prepuce (Foreskin) - removed in circumcision
- The biological system is made up of all anatomical organs involved
in sexual reproduction. FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
- MALE; Produce Sperm cells: Transfer them to the female
- FEMALE; Produces egg cells: ovum/ova: Receives Sperm cells:
Carries the baby throughout its development.

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

External Structures External Structures (Vulva)

a. Mons pubus - Made from fatty tissue, covered w normal skin
a. Penis - Deposits the sperm into the vagina while mating.
b. Labia Majora - Fleshy folds to cover the urethral & vaginal opening
b. Scrotum - Hangs behind the penis and contains the testicles. It c. Labia Minora - Fleshy folds to cover the urethral & vaginal opening
acts as a climate control system by regulating the temperature of d. Vaginal & Urethral opening - birth, urine, and menstruation
the Testes, sperm form best at 35oC. e. Hymen - Delicate membrane, covers the vagina partially
c. Testis - Responsible for making testosterone and producing f. Clitoris - finger-like projection, pleasure center point of the vulva
sperm cells. g. Vestibular gland (Bartholin’s gland) - lower part of the vaginal
opening, to lubricate.
d. Epididymis - A long, coiled tube that rests on the backside of each
h. Prepuce - cover of clitoris
testicle that carries, stores, and brings the sperm to maturity.
Internal Structures
Internal Structures a. Ovary - Site of oogenesis; produces hormones Estrogen and
a. Vas Deferens (Sperm Duct) - Transports mature sperm to the progesterone.
urethra in preparation for ejaculation. (Vasectomy- saan b. Fimbriae - Picks up the ovum from the ovary.
napupunta sperm cells?) c. Fallopian Tube (Oviduct) - Site of Fertilization; Passage from ovary
b. Ejaculatory Duct - Formed by the fusion of the vas deferens and to uterus.
d. Endometrium - nourishes the embryo; sheds during menstruation.
the seminal vesicles.
e. Uterus - Site of egg implantation; embryo development
c. Urethra - carries urine and semen from the bladder to the outside
f. Cervix - Muscular opening of the Uterus
of the body. g. Vagina (Birth canal) - entry point of penis
d. (g) Seminal Vesicle - Produces fructose that provides sperms with
energy and motility.
e. (g) Prostate Gland - Walnut structure that contributes additional MUST KNOW CONCEPTS!
fluid to the ejaculate and helps to nourish the sperm. Neutralizes - Females have 2 ovaries, which alternate each month to produce
an ovum.
female prod.
- Ovaries contain ~ 400,000 egg cells, but only ~ 400 actually
 mature between 12 - 50 yo. - Growth hormone (GH) - Stimulates Growth
- Pathway of the egg: Ovary > Fimbriae > Fallopian Tube > If - Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) - Stimulates
Fertilized > Uterus Baby; If not > Uterus menstruation Metabolism and homeostasis.
- Pathway of the sperm: Vagina > Cervix > Uterus > Fallopian Tube - Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) - stimulates
IMPORTANT HORMONES production of Cortisol
Hormones - Prolactin - Produce milk
- Chemical messengers of the body to maintain Homeostasis - Antidiuretic hormone (AH) - /vasopressin/ bodily
(equilibrium) functions (facilitates birth and breast stimulation);
- Produced by different glands of Endocrine System. sleepiness and wakeness; management of bleeding
Examples of glands are: abnormalities and septic shock.
a. Hypothalamus - primary function is homeostasis; tells the - Oxytocin - social connection, high levels when stressed,
pituitary gland when to release hormones. (somatostatin, and, sexual attraction.
dopamine, oxytocin, vasopressin) ● Thyroid gland – sits in the neck at the front of the windpipe. It
a. Pituitary Gland (Master gland) - directs and connects every part of releases thyroid hormone (T4 and T3) which is required for
the endocrine system. metabolism and body homeostasis.
b. Pineal Gland - influences sleep-wake cycle (melatonin); converts - Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) - regulates hormones.
nerve signals into hormone signal
● Parathyroid gland – there are usually four parathyroid glands that
lie alongside the thyroid gland. The parathyroid gland is involved
MALE HORMONES
in calcium, phosphate, and vitamin D regulation.
Produce by the Pituitary gland and sent to the testes as messengers
- Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) - stimulates Calcium in body.
1. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) - Signals sperm production
(spermatogenesis) ● Adrenal glands – there are two adrenal glands that sit on top of
2. Luteinizing Hormone (LH) - stimulates production of testosterone. each kidney.
3. Testosterone - Responsible for sex differentiation, male sex a. Outside part (adrenal cortex)
characteristics, spermatogenesis, and fertility. - Cortisol - control sugar level, stress hormone
- Pituitary Gland > Luteinizing Hormone > Testes > Testosterone - Aldosterone - Regulating Blood pressure
FEMALE HORMONES - Sex hormones (Estrogen & Testosterone)
1. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) - Signals ovum production b. Center part (adrenal medulla)
(oogenesis) - Promotes Follicle maturation and estrogen secretion - Adrenaline - Response in rigorous action
in the ovary. ● Pancreas – an organ of digestion that is inside the abdomen.
2. Luteinizing Hormone (LH) - promotes ovulation and progesterone - Insulin - Lower blood sugar
production in the ovary - development of ova and stimulation of - Glucagon - Raise Blood Sugar
estradiol (estrogen) and progesterone production. - Somatostatin (GH)- Physiological function,
3. Estrogen - Regulates Menstrual Cycle - development in fat gastrointestinal activity, and reproduction of normal and
distribution in hips, legs, breasts, and reproductive organs; tumor cells.
secreted by ovaries BEFORE ovulation. ● Thymus - produces antibodies
4. Progesterone - prepares the body for potential pregnancy; - Thymosin - lymphocytes
prohibit muscle contractions in the uterus that would cause the
rejection of egg; Secreted by ovaries AFTER ovulation; If egg is not
● Ovaries – are inside the female pelvis.
- Estrogen (LH)
fertilized, progesterone levels become low and menstruation
- Progesterone (LH)
happens.
5. Oxytocin - Stimulates Uterine contractions ● Testes – they hang in the male scrotal sack.
- Testosterone (LH)

Nice to know:
● Pituitary gland – is inside the brain. It oversees the other glands
and keeps hormone levels in check.
- Gonadotropins (LH and FSH) - Stimulates Reproduction
SS:

Seminiferous tubules - production site

Diploid - merged
Haploid - halved

Head - Nucleus
Body - Mitochondria
Tail - Plasma Membrane
Follicle - mature the egg cells
MODULE 2: THE FEEDBACK MECHANISMS OF THE HORMONE REVIEW
1. GnRH (Gonadotropin-releasing Hormone)
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM (a) comes from the Hypothalamus
Important Terms (b) Needed to secrete LH and FSH in the pituitary gland.
1. MENSTRUATION - The process in which blood and other tissues 2. FSH (Follicle-Stimulating Hormone) - Released by Pituitary Gland
are shed from the uterus and leave the body through the vagina. 3. LH (Luteinizing Hormone) - Released by Pituitary Gland
2. MENARCH - Onset of menstruation, normally occurs between 11-15. 4. Estrogen Released by Ovaries
3. MENOPAUSE - Normally occurs between 45-55. 5. Progesterone Released by Ovaries
4. REMEMBER: The ovary releases an egg every 28 days
FEEDBACK MECHANISMS
- The process through which the level of one substance influences
the level of another substance
Homeostasis - State of balance within a system

FEEDBACK MECHANISM IN MENSTRUAL CYCLE

Positive Feedback Mechanisms Negative Feedback Mechanisms
- Stimulates the increase of a - Inhibits (decreases) the production
hormone of a hormone.
Before Ovulation After Ovulation

(IMG1)
1. Flow/ Menstruation Phase (Days 1-5)
(a) Endometrium is shed
(b) Low Hormones
(c) follicle growth in the ovary.
2. Follicular Phase (Days 1-10/11)
(a) follicles grow and mature.
(b) Secrete Estrogen
(c) Endometrium Thickens (Days 6-10)
(d) Stimulates LH
3. Ovulation (Day 14): LH peaks cause secondary oocytes to burst
from the follicle in the ovary into the oviduct (fallopian tube)
Estrogen stimulates the Progesterone inhibits the
(a) (Days 12-17) Fertilization of the woman.
production of GnRH and LH production of GnRH and LH
4. Luteal Phase (Days 18-25): LH causes Corpus Luteum to develop
from follicle. - Corpus luteum secretes E&P:
(a) Estrogen drops, Progesterone rises
(b) Thicken endometrium (P prevent contraction)
FEEDBACK MECHANISM IN LABOR AND CHILDBIRTH

1. Pressure of Child in Cervix

(a) Stimulates receptor cells to send a chemical signal to the
brain.
(b) Allowing the release of oxytocin by the posterior pituitary
gland.
2. Contractions Begin
- Stimulated by Oxytocin
3. More pressure on cervix, Oxytocin released
4. More contractions
5. Baby is born

Breastfeeding is also a positive feedback loop; as the baby suckles -> the
mother’s pituitary gland produces more of the hormone prolactin ->
which causes more milk to be produced.

MODULE 3: FEEDBACK MECHANISMS COORDINATED BY

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
NERVOUS SYSTEM (y) Stimulus - regulated variable is not in the normal range
- Major control system of homeostasis and “main processing center”
- Provides monitoring, response, and regulation of all systems in the The coordination of the Nervous System and its Regulation Feedback
human body. Mechanism to Maintain Homeostasis
- Divided into two: Central Nervous System and Peripheral The complex tissues, organs, and organ systems in our body must
Nervous System respond to the different conditions The body has a variety of control
systems to keep its internal environment stable and responsible for
maintaining homeostasis.
HOMEOSTASIS (m)
- Responsible for the regulation and maintenance of the internal
I. NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
environment of the body. - Oppose initial change
- Regulates body temperature, fluids, salts, acids, gases, and
- Resist change to bring the body closer to a normal state
nutrients that help support human life.
- A control system to minimize any conditions of the body, which
- Internal control system of the body responds immediately to
helps the whole body system to be stable.
change from the different conditions or internal environment.
- There are different control systems in the body: sensors, control - The term negative is a deviation from a set point.
center, and communicating system. - The secretions of hormones from the endocrine glands are under
the control of the hypothalamus, which is also controlled by
A. SENSORS: Receptors negative feedback.
- Gather information about the conditions inside and outside of the Components of Negative Feedback
body. Receptor
- The human body is made up of sensory neurons that carry - Detects changes within the body.
impulses to the brain or spinal cord - Monitors the body's internal condition and responds to stimuli.
B. CONTROL CENTER: The Brain Control Center
- Receives information from the sensors. - The brain, which establishes the set point.
- It then examines the information to the ideal values (setpoint) in - Integrates info given by receptors.
which the body functions well. Effector
- If the setpoint is below the control center, it quickly responds by - Maybe cells, organs, or other structure
sending messages through the communicating systems – the - Responsible for the response to changes.
nervous system and the endocrine system Negative Feedback Loops
C. COMMUNICATING SYSTEMS: Nervous and Endocrine System 1. Stimulus occurred
- Carries information to all parts of the body. 2. The information (stimulus) is picked up by the receptor/sensor
- Nerve impulses and hormones dictate to the target cell or organs 3. Receptors send the info to the control center
in the body how to respond to the internal and external changes. 4. The Control center determines if the variable is out of the normal
- Targets: are any organ, tissue, or cell responsible for the changes range
in the activity of the body in response to the message received. 5. The Control center sends signals to the effector.
- The human body is made up of electrical signals or neurons that 6. Effectors cause a physiological response that will return the
receive input, process the input, and produce a response. variable back to its normal homeostatic range.
7. If the variable is back to normal, the Control center allows
effectors will return to their normal routine.
II. POSITIVE FEEDBACK
Important Terms - Reinforce initial change in variable
1. Setpoint - to the normal value and ideal requirement of the body - increase the rate of processes.
to maintain homeostasis. - Result in more of a product
2. Variable - the factor being regulated. Eg. Temp, Chemicals
 - Occurs when something needs to happen rapidly - Difficulty in walking
- Bring the body farther away from normal variable
- Stopped by negative feedbacks once the process it was used for is
3. PARKINSON’S DISEASE
complete.
- Disorder of the nervous system that affects the movement of a
Positive Feedback Loops
person.
1. Stimulus occurred
- It develops gradually and tremors start in the hands.
2. The information (stimulus) is picked up by the receptor/sensor
- In early stages, the face shows little or no expression. The arms do
3. Receptors send the info to the control center
not swing when one walks.
4. The Control center determines if the variable needs rapid
Symptoms: Treatment:
response
- Tremors - Cannot be cured,
5. The Control center sends signals to the effector.
- slow movement but symptoms can
6. Effectors cause a physiological response that will continuously - Impaired posture and balance be improved
reinforce the stimulus. - penmanship changes
through surgery to
7. If the variable is back to normal, the Control center allows - speech changes
regulate the region
effectors will return to their normal routine. - emotional changes and depression
- difficulty swallowing of the brain.
- sleep disorder
COMMON DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
- blood pressure change
1. MENINGITIS - inability to smell, and
- Inflammation of the meninges of the brain or spinal cord caused - constipation.
by a bacterial infection or a virus.
- The infection occurs most often in children and young adults. 4. BRAIN TUMOR.
- Those who have weakened immune systems and long-term - An adult brain tumor is called a meningeal tumor.
health problems are at risk of this disease. Can be deadly if not - The tumor is formed in the meninges that cover the brain and the
treated immediately. spinal cord.
Symptoms: Treatment: - Another type is the metastatic brain tumor: The process where the
- Stiff and painful neck - Antibiotics cells rapidly spread to the brain from another tumor is called
- Fever metastasis.
- Headache
- Not all brain tumors are cancerous. The term cancer is for a
- Vomiting
- Seizures malignant tumor, while a benign tumor is less serious.
- Trouble breathing and
- slight headache.

2. CEREBRAL PALSY
- Disorder resulting in a lack of full control of physical movement
and muscle tightness that affect almost all parts of the body.
- Some people have little or no control over their arms and legs or
other parts of their bodies.

Symptoms: Treatment:
- Seizures - Surgery
- Intellectual disability
- Slight limp, and
MODULE 4: DNA REPLICATION
MODULE 5: MUTATIONS
MODULE 6: PIECES OF EVIDENCE THAT EVOLUTION
OCCURS IN NATURE
CHARLES DARWIN
- Darwin’s theory of evolution was eventually accepted when
scientists were able to supply the proofs that Darwin himself had
been unable to provide.
THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION
- Framework in understanding evolution.
- Process where a population of organisms undergoes development
that will help them survive.

1. DIRECT EVIDENCE - Observed in places where we can directly

examine actual changes in a population of organisms within a
particular period of time.
2. INDIRECT EVIDENCE - Evidence that can be derived from
inferences. Gives an estimation of evolution.
a. Biogeography
b. Comparative Anatomy
c. Molecular Biology

FOSSILS
- Remains or pieces of evidence of living things. The most common
are:
 - Bones
- Shells ANATOMICAL EVIDENCE OF CHANGE (Ancestry of organism)
- Seeds pollen grains 1. HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURES - evolve from a common ancestor.
TYPES OF FOSSILS Have the same anatomical structure.
1. PETRIFIED FOSSILS - Formed when minerals in the mud 2. ANALOGOUS STRUCTURES - Have similar functions but different
and sand replaced the hard parts of the organisms, such anatomical structures.
as when bones were buried under layers of sediments. 3. VESTIGAL STRUCTURES - Parts of an organism with no particular
(Silicates, carbonates, iron sips in the cells) function. Remnants of organs are presumed to be present, well-
2. IMPRINTS/ IMPRESSION FOSSILS - Formed when soft, thin developed, and functional in the ancestor. Inherited but reduced
body structures such as feathers and leaves, leave in size. (
impressions in soft sediments such as mud. (No organic
material) BIOCHEMICAL PIECES OF EVIDENCE
3. MOLD AND CAST 1. DNA/NUCLEIC ACIDS - used DNA comparison to show
a. Mold - Hollow area in sediment in the shape of the relationships among many other types of organisms. Vitamin C
organism. Gene: Pseudogene, mutation)
b. Cast - a solid 3D copy of the shape of the 2. PROTEINS - Variations are formed in the protein structure of one
organism. group of organisms as it evolves into another group.
4. TRACE FOSSILS - Marks or evidence of animal activities.
Record biological activity. MODULE 7: OCCURENCE OF EVOLUTION
5. PRESERVATION OF ENTIRE ORGANISM: AMBER - Formed
EVOLUTION
as a hard substance, when the resin or sap of evergreen
- A change in a population of organisms over time.
trees hardens
- Not a final event on humans
6. FOSSIL RECORDS - Exploration of layers of sedimentary
- Will continue to happen as long as there is an environment to be
rocks from recent layers to the oldest layers has enabled
adjusted to.
geologists to develop a timetable of the Earth’s geologic
BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
past known as the GEOLOGIC TIMESCALE.
- A powerful and important process.
- Selection process of better-adapted organisms to their
environment to continuously changes life and makes all living
organisms as how they are currently observed.
OCCURENCE OF EVOLUTION
- Biologists were already familiar with the evolution of written
works and observations.
- Many read The Essay on the Principles of Population by
Mid-19th
Thomas Malthus
century - Thomas Malthus concluded that the population growth of
organisms is dependent on the availability of food through
competition.
- The idea of evolution was reinforced by Carolus Linnaeus,
Systema Naturae
1753 - He grouped plants and animals based on their similar
characteristics. (Human > Cat > Whale > Bat)
- Common ancestors
7. EMBRYOLOGICAL EVIDENCE OF CHANGE - organism in A major obstacle in the acceptance of the idea that organisms change over
early stages of development. time was the belief of the general public in the doctrine of Creationism.
 Fossils revealed a progression of change from simple to complex forms over of surviving and reproducing.
millions of years that showed concrete evidence that organisms might have - New species can be formed due to many changes.
changed in the past. 5 Parts of Natural Selection:
EARLY NINETEENTH-CENTURY a. Overpopulation - No. of offspring is greater than the available
I. Jeane Baptiste de Lamarck was one of the first to believe that resources necessary for survival. Which can cause; disease,
organisms change over time. starvation, or predation. (Loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta)
- He has developed three theories about evolution: b. Struggle For Existence - Every organism must struggle to
a. Theory of Need: Organisms change in response to environment. survive. All organisms must compete for the limited resources for
The ability of organisms to survive has helped them to adapt to the environment.
the environment in which they live. c. Presence of Variation - There is a variation within species.
b. Theory of Use and Disuse (Lamarckism): The organs of the body (Variations in the spots on Cheetah, run horses) If organisms are,
that are not used will be lost and the organs that are always all the same, no trait is better or worse, and no selection will
used will be developed. (Believed that giraffes stretched their occur.
necks) d. Survival of the Fittest - SOme variations allow members of a
c. Acquired Characteristics: The offspring inherited the acquired species to survive and reproduce better than others.
characteristics of having a long neck giraffes, and it is e. Variations can be transmitted - Organisms that survive and
propagated to the next generation of giraffes. reproduce pass their traits to offspring and the helpful traits
gradually appear in more and more of the population
II. Charles Darwin, the naturalist, made a significant contribution to
the field of evolution.
- He believed that organisms change over time, but his
MODULE 8A: ADAPTATION AND SURVIVAL IN
ideas were different from Lamarck’s. CHANGING ENVIRONMENT
- On December 27, 1831; Left England abroad on a sailing FLOW OF ENERGY IN AN ECOSYSTEM
ship HMS Beagle for a scientific investigation. - All organisms are dependent on one
- 1858, prompted to publish his work after reading On the another and to the environment
Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely from the where it belongs to survive.
Original Type- Alred Russell Wallace - Established the balance and flow of
- November 24, 1859, On the Origin of Species by Means energy in an ecosystem.
of Natural Selection - Food Chain
a. Within any population of organisms, there were always - Trophic Levels - Levels within the
individuals with different traits. food chain. (1st to 4th)
- The giraffe species originally had different neck lengths - Producer > Herbivore > Carnivore
but due to natural selection, only giraffes with long necks ABIOTIC FACTORS
survived because they could only reach tall trees for food. - Non-living physical and chemical
Meanwhile, giraffes with short necks have disappeared elements in the ecosystem.
due to a lack of accessible food supply. - Obtained from Lithosphere, Atmosphere, and Hydrosphere.
b. Developed the Theory of Natural Selection. a. Amount of water in an ecosystem - All living organisms
- is a process through which populations of living need some water intake. Earth is 70% H2O.
organisms adapt and change. Individuals in the b. Soil - in plants
population are naturally variable, meaning that they are
c. Temperature & Sunlight - affects the survival of an
all different in some ways. This variation means that
some individuals have traits better suited to the organism that’s why some organisms hibernate during
environment than others. This is also known as “survival winter.
of the fittest” which states that organisms best adjusted
to their environment are than most successful in
 d. Amount of light - Main source of energy on Earth. Affects g. The number of fingers helps the animals to feed
the production of food through photosynthesis. themselves.
e. Atmospheric pressure - affects the amount of O2 in a
certain area. For example, the high-altitude area has low
atmospheric pressure.
f. Chemical Components - essential factors for an organism
to live like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen which
are present in plants and from other food sources.
ADAPTATION
- Characteristic of an organism that makes it fit for its environment
or its particular way of life.
- Key for survival and reproduction.
- These adaptations are the key for them to survive and continue
their species.
- A key factor for organism to survive and this will happen if an
organism accidentally mutates.

MODULE 8B: STABILITY AND BIODIVERSITY

TWO TYPES OF ADAPTATION BIODIVERSITY
1. Behavioral Adaptation - What does an organism do just to survive - Variety of different organisms interact with one another.
in a particular change in its environment. TYPES OF BIODIVERSITY
Examples: 1. Genetic Diversity
- Variation of genetic materials within a specific species.
a. Mimosa pudica - folds its leave to protect from physical
damages. Ex. Different varieties of plants, fungi, rice.
b. Bear - Hibernation to conserve energy during the time 2. Species Diversity
when foods are less. - Variation of species that live in a community. Ex. Human,
c. Migratory Birds - Migration of birds in Candaba, dogs, fish, cats
Pampanga due to cold weather and availability of foods. 3. Ecosystem Diversity
2. Structural Adaptation - Features of an organism that helps them - Variation in biomes or types of ecosystem. Ex. Marine,
to survive, including terrestrial habitat. Tropical rainforest, Grassland, Desert.
Examples:
a. Bird - The longer the beak the higher the chance it will get STABILITY
- State of balance in an ecosystem where it maintains the flow of
more food. Beaks also tell what type of food birds eats.
nutrients (abiotic factor) and the flow of energy in a form of food.
b. Colorful plants - attract bees for pollination.
c. leaves of a maple tree - ripen and fell out during winter RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BIODIVERSITY AND STABILITY
just to conserve the water inside of its body. High Biodiversity = High Stability
d. Snake & Frog - Long tongue due to high food competition Low Biodiversity = Low stability
for food.
e. Giraffe - the long neck due to high food competition.
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM STABILITY
f. Penguins have thick fat that keeps their body warm when
a. Resistance
in a cold sea.
 - Ability to remain steady and stable during the time of - Addition of specie through birth.
disturbance. 2. Mortality
b. Resilience - Dying of an organism.
- Ability to recover from disturbance or damage or its ability
3. Emigration
to go back to its steady-state.
- Species move out, demands are not met for the popu.
The higher the biodiversity the higher the resistance and resilience of the 4. Immigration
ecosystem. - Transfer of species into another ecosystem.

An ecosystem must contain both biotic (living things) and abiotic (non- Increase in population: birth rate > mortality rate
living) factors to sustain its stability or mode of balance where different Decrease in population: birth rate < mortality rate
organisms have a shelter and enough source of food to ensure the survival
Unlimited resources: exponential growth
of every species.

Size of a population affects the quality of living.

Overpopulation: Shelter and pollution is a problem.

MODULE 9: POPULATION GROWTH AND CARRYING

CAPACITY
CARRYING CAPACITY
- Limit of size of population that an ecosystem can hold.
- “Species average population size in a particular habitat.” NG
- Total no. of organisms that can occupy a certain area.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE CARRYING CAPACITY OF AN ECOSYSTEM
1. Availability of Necessities
- Food, Shelter, Water, Energy Resources
2. Environmental Condition
- If the population increase in a certain area, it might cause
changes in the condition of the environment.

POPULATION GROWTH
- An increase in organisms’ population can lead to overpopulation
that can compromise the carrying capacity.
Problems related to overpopulation
- Starvation
- Pollution
- Deforestation
- High mortality rate
LIMITING FACTORS THAT AFFECT POPULATION GROWTH
1. Natality