PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL A LEVEL

PURE MATHEMATICS 4

PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL A LEVEL PURE MATHEMATICS 4 STUDENT BOOK

STUDENT BOOK
Pearson Edexcel International A Level Pure Mathematics 4 Student Book provides comprehensive coverage of the Pure
Mathematics 4 unit. This book is designed to provide students with the best preparation possible for the examination:
MATHEMATICS
• Content is fully mapped to the specification to provide comprehensive coverage and easy reference
• Engaging and relevant international content in a real-world context
• Exam-style questions at the end of each chapter, and an exam practice paper at the end of the book, provide practice
for exam writing technique
eBook
• Signposted transferable skills prepare for further education and employment included
• Reviewed by a language specialist to ensure the book is written in a clear and accessible style
• Glossary of key Mathematics terminology, and full answers, included at the back of the book
• Interactive practice activities also included

An Online Teacher Resource Pack (9781292245133) provides further planning, teaching and assessment support.

This Student Book supports the following qualifications: PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL A LEVEL

PURE MATHEMATICS 4
Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Level in Mathematics (YMA01)
Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Level in Pure Mathematics (YPM01)
For first teaching September 2018

STUDENT BOOK

IAL PURE MATHS 1 IAL PURE MATHS 2 IAL PURE MATHS 3

Student Book Student Book Student Book
ISBN: 9781292244792 ISBN: 9781292244853 ISBN: 9781292244921

www.pearsonglobalschools.com
PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL A LEVEL

PURE MATHEMATICS 4
Student Book

Series Editors: Joe Skrakowski and Harry Smith

Authors: Greg Attwood, Jack Barraclough, Ian Bettison, Lee Cope,
Charles Garnet Cox, Keith Gallick, Daniel Goldberg, Alistair Macpherson,
Anne McAteer, Lee McKelvey, Bronwen Moran, Su Nicholson, Diane Oliver,
Laurence Pateman, Joe Petran, Keith Pledger, Cong San, Joe Skrakowski,
Harry Smith, Geoff Staley, Robert Ward-Penny, Dave Wilkins
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 CONTENTS iii

COURSE STRUCTURE iv
ABOUT THIS BOOK vi
QUALIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT OVERVIEW viii
EXTRA ONLINE CONTENT x
1 PROOF 1
2 PARTIAL FRACTIONS 6
3 COORDINATE GEOMETRY IN THE (x, y) PLANE 16
4 BINOMIAL EXPANSION 30
REVIEW EXERCISE 1 46
5 DIFFERENTIATION 50
6 INTEGRATION 66
7 VECTORS 97
REVIEW EXERCISE 2 148
EXAM PRACTICE 153
GLOSSARY 155
ANSWERS 159
INDEX 179
iv COURSE STRUCTURE

CHAPTER 1 PROOF 1 CHAPTER 4 BINOMIAL

1.1 PROOF BY CONTRADICTION 2 EXPANSION 30
CHAPTER REVIEW 1 5 n
4.1 EXPANDING (1 + x) 31
4.2 EXPANDING (a + bx)n 36
CHAPTER 2 PARTIAL 4.3 USING PARTIAL FRACTIONS 40
CHAPTER REVIEW 4 43
FRACTIONS 6
2.1 PARTIAL FRACTIONS 7
2.2 REPEATED FACTORS 10 REVIEW EXERCISE 1 46
2.3 IMPROPER FRACTIONS 12
CHAPTER REVIEW 2 14
CHAPTER 5 DIFFERENTIATION 50
5.1 PARAMETRIC DIFFERENTIATION 51
CHAPTER 3 COORDINATE 5.2 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION 54
GEOMETRY IN THE (x, y) 5.3 RATES OF CHANGE 57
PLANE 16 CHAPTER REVIEW 5 61
3.1 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS 17
3.2 USING TRIGONOMETRIC CHAPTER 6 INTEGRATION 66
IDENTITIES 21 6.1 FINDING THE AREA UNDER A CURVE
3.3 CURVE SKETCHING 25 DEFINED PARAMETRICALLY 67
CHAPTER REVIEW 3 28 6.2 VOLUMES OF REVOLUTION AROUND
THE x-AXIS 68
6.3 INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION 74
6.4 INTEGRATION BY PARTS 78
6.5 PARTIAL FRACTIONS 81
6.6 SOLVING DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS 84
6.7 MODELLING WITH DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS 88
CHAPTER REVIEW 6 92
 COURSE STRUCTURE v

CHAPTER 7 VECTORS 97 REVIEW EXERCISE 2 148

7.1 VECTORS 98
7.2 REPRESENTING VECTORS 102
EXAM PRACTICE 153
7.3 MAGNITUDE AND DIRECTION 106
7.4 VECTORS IN 3D 109
7.5 SOLVING GEOMETRIC PROBLEMS GLOSSARY 155
IN TWO DIMENSIONS 114
7.6 SOLVING GEOMETRIC PROBLEMS ANSWERS 159
IN THREE DIMENSIONS 117
7.7 POSITION VECTORS 121
7.8 3D COORDINATES 123 INDEX 179
7.9 EQUATION OF A LINE IN
THREE DIMENSIONS 125
7.10 POINTS OF INTERSECTION 131
7.11 SCALAR PRODUCT 133
CHAPTER REVIEW 7 140
vi ABOUT THIS BOOK

ABOUT THIS BOOK

The following three themes have been fully integrated throughout the Pearson Edexcel International
Advanced Level in Mathematics series, so they can be applied alongside your learning.

1. Mathematical argument, language and proof

• Rigorous and consistent approach throughout
• Notation boxes explain key mathematical language and symbols

2. Mathematical problem-solving The Mathematical Problem-Solving Cycle

• Hundreds of problem-solving questions, fully integrated specify the problem

into the main exercises

• Problem-solving boxes provide tips and strategies interpret results
collect information
• Challenge questions provide extra stretch
process and
3. Transferable skills represent information

• Transferable skills are embedded throughout this book, in the exercises and in some examples
• These skills are signposted to show students which skills they are using and developing

Finding your way around the book

Each chapter is mapped to the

specification content for easy
reference

Each chapter starts with a

list of Learning objectives

The Prior knowledge

check helps make sure
you are ready to start the
chapter The real world applications of
the maths you are about to learn
are highlighted at the start of the
chapter

Glossary terms will

be identified by bold
blue text on their first
appearance
 ABOUT THIS BOOK vii

Exercise questions
are carefully graded
to increase in difficulty
and gradually bring
you up to exam
standard

Transferable skills are

signposted where
they naturally occur
in the exercises and
examples

Exercises are packed

with exam-style
questions to ensure you
are ready for the exams

Step-by-step worked Each section begins Challenge boxes Problem-solving boxes

examples focus on the with an explanation give you a chance provide hints, tips and
key types of questions and key learning points to tackle some more strategies, and Watch
Exam-style questions you’ll need to tackle difficult questions out boxes highlight
are flagged with E areas where students
often lose marks in
Problem-solving their exams
Each chapter ends with a Chapter review
questions are flagged and a Summary of key points
with P
After every few chapters, a Review exercise
helps you consolidate your learning with
lots of exam-style questions

A full practice paper at the back of

the book helps you prepare for the
real thing
viii QUALIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT OVERVIEW

QUALIFICATION AND
ASSESSMENT OVERVIEW
Qualification and content overview
Pure Mathematics 4 (P4) is a compulsory unit in the following qualifications:
International Advanced Level in Mathematics
International Advanced Level in Pure Mathematics

Assessment overview
The following table gives an overview of the assessment for this unit.
We recommend that you study this information closely to help ensure that you are fully prepared for
this course and know exactly what to expect in the assessment.

Unit Percentage Mark Time Availability

P4: Pure Mathematics 4 _2 75 1 hour 30 mins January, June and October
16 3 % of IAL
Paper code WMA14/01 First assessment June 2020

IAL: International Advanced A Level.

Assessment objectives and weightings Minimum

weighting in
IAS and IAL
Recall, select and use their knowledge of mathematical facts, concepts and techniques in a
AO1 30%
variety of contexts.
Construct rigorous mathematical arguments and proofs through use of precise statements,
logical deduction and inference and by the manipulation of mathematical expressions,
AO2 30%
including the construction of extended arguments for handling substantial problems
presented in unstructured form.
Recall, select and use their knowledge of standard mathematical models to represent
situations in the real world; recognise and understand given representations involving
AO3 10%
standard models; present and interpret results from such models in terms of the original
situation, including discussion of the assumptions made and refinement of such models.
Comprehend translations of common realistic contexts into mathematics; use the results of
AO4 calculations to make predictions, or comment on the context; and, where appropriate, read 5%
critically and comprehend longer mathematical arguments or examples of applications.
Use contemporary calculator technology and other permitted resources (such as formulae
AO5 booklets or statistical tables) accurately and efficiently; understand when not to use such 5%
technology, and its limitations. Give answers to appropriate accuracy.
 QUALIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT OVERVIEW ix

Relationship of assessment objectives to units

Assessment objective
P4 AO1 AO2 AO3 AO4 AO5
Marks out of 75 25–30 25–30 5–10 5–10 5–10
_1 _1 _2 _1 _2 _1
6_3 –13_3
2 1
% 333 –40 333 –40 63 –133 63 –133

Calculators
Students may use a calculator in assessments for these qualifications. Centres are responsible for
making sure that calculators used by their students meet the requirements given in the table below.
Students are expected to have available a calculator with at least the following keys: +, –, ×, ÷, π, x2,
__ 1
√ x , __, xy, ln x, ex, x!, sine, cosine and tangent and their inverses in degrees and decimals of a degree,
x
and in radians; memory.

Prohibitions
Calculators with any of the following facilities are prohibited in all examinations:
• databanks
• retrieval of text or formulae
• built-in symbolic algebra manipulations
• symbolic differentiation and/or integration
• language translators
• communication with other machines or the internet
x EXTRA ONLINE CONTENT

Extra online content

Whenever you see an Online box, it means that there is extra online content available to support you.

SolutionBank
SolutionBank provides worked solutions for questions in the book. Download the
solutions as a PDF or quickly find the solution you need online.

Use of technology y

Explore topics in more detail, visualise Online Find the point of intersection
problems and consolidate your understanding. graphically using technology.
Use pre-made GeoGebra activities or Casio
resources for a graphic calculator.

GeoGebra-powered interactives Graphic calculator interactives

Interact with the maths

you are learning using
GeoGebra's easy-to-use
tools

Interact with the maths you are learning Explore the maths you are learning and gain
using GeoGebra's easy-to-use tools confidence in using a graphic calculator

Calculator tutorials
Our helpful video tutorials will
guide you through how to use
your calculator in the exams.
They cover both Casio's scientific
and colour graphic calculators.

Online Work out each coefficient quickly using Step-by-step guide with audio instructions
the nCr and power functions on your calculator. on exactly which buttons to press and what
should appear on your calculator's screen
PROOF CHAPTER 1 1

1 PROOF 1.1

Learning objectives
A!er completing this chapter you should be able to:
● Use proof by contradiction to prove true statements → pages 2–5

Prior knowledge check

1 Factorise:
a x2 − 6x + 5 b x2 − 16
c 9x2 − 25 ← Pure 1 Section 1.3
You can use proof by
2 For any integers n and m, decide whether the following
contradiction to prove that
will always be odd, always be even, or could be either:
there is an infinite number of
a 8n b n–m prime numbers. Very large prime
c 3m d 2n – 5 numbers are used to encode chip
← International GCSE Mathematics and pin transactions.
2 CHAPTER 1 PROOF

1.1 Proof by contradiction

A contradiction is a disagreement between two statements, which means that both cannot be true.
Proof by contradiction is a powerful technique.

■ To prove a statement by contradiction you start by assuming Notation A statement

it is not true. You then use logical steps to show that this that asserts the falsehood
assumption leads to something impossible (either a of another statement is
contradiction of the assumption, or a contradiction of a called the negation of
fact you know to be true). You can conclude that your that statement.
assumption was incorrect, and the original statement was true.

Example 1 SKILLS REASONING

Prove by contradiction that there is no greatest odd integer.

Assumption: there is a greatest odd Begin by assuming the original statement is false.
This is the negation of the original statement.
integer, n.
n + 2 is also an integer and n + 2 > n
You need to use logical steps to reach a
n + 2 = odd + even = odd
contradiction. Show all of your working.
So there exists an odd integer greater than n.
This contradicts the assumption that the The existence of an odd integer greater than n
greatest odd integer is n. contradicts your initial assumption.
Therefore, there is no greatest odd integer.
Finish your proof by concluding that the original
statement must be true.

Example 2 SKILLS REASONING

Prove by contradiction that if n2 is even, then n must be even.

Assumption: there exists a number n such This is the negation of the original statement.
that n2 is even but n is odd.
n is odd so write n = 2k + 1 You can write any odd number in the form 2k + 1
n2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k2 + 4k + 1 where k is an integer.
= 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1
So n2 is odd. All multiples of 2 are even numbers, so 1 more
This contradicts the assumption that n2 is than a multiple of 2 is an odd number.
even.
Finish your proof by concluding that the original
Therefore, if n2 is even then n must be even.
statement must be true.

■ A rational number can be written as __a , where a and b are integers. Notation ℚ is the
b
set of all rational
■ An irrational number cannot be expressed in the form __a , where a numbers.
and b are integers.
b
PROOF CHAPTER 1 3

Example 3
__
Prove by contradiction that √2 is an irrational number.
__
Assumption: √2 is a rational number. Begin by assuming the original statement is false.
__
a
Then √2 = __ for some integers, a and b.
b This is the definition of a rational number.
Also assume that this fraction cannot be
reduced further: there are no common factors If a and b did have a common factor you could just
between a and b. cancel until this fraction was in its simplest form.
a2
So 2 = ___2 or a2 = 2b 2
b Square both sides and make a2 the subject.
This means that a2 must be even, so a is also
even. We proved this result in Example 2.
If a is even, then it can be expressed in the
form a = 2n, where n is an integer.
So a2 = 2b2 becomes (2n)2 = 2b2 which
means 4n2 = 2b2 or 2n2 = b2
This means that b2 must be even, so b is also Again using the result from Example 2.
even.
If a and b are both even, they will have a com-
mon factor of 2. All even numbers are divisible by 2.
This contradicts the statement that a and b
have no common
__
factors.
Finish your proof by concluding that the original
Therefore √2 is an irrational number.
statement must be true.

Example 4 SKILLS ADAPTIVE LEARNING

Prove by contradiction that there are infinitely many prime numbers.

Assumption: there is a finite number of prime Begin by assuming the original statement is false.
numbers.
List all the prime numbers that exist:
This is a list of all possible prime numbers.
p1, p2, p3, …, pn
Consider the number
This new number is one more than the product
N = p1 × p2 × p3 × … × pn + 1
of the existing prime numbers.
When you divide N by any of the prime num-
bers p1, p2, p3, …, pn you get a remainder of 1.
So none of the prime numbers p1, p2, p3, …, pn
is a factor of N.
So N must either be prime or have a prime
This contradicts the assumption that the list
factor which is not in the list of all possible
p1, p2, p3, …, pn contains all the prime numbers.
prime numbers.
This is a contradiction.
Conclude your proof by stating that the original
Therefore, there is an infinite number of prime
statement must be true.
numbers.
 4 CHAPTER 1 PROOF

Exercise 1A SKILLS REASONING

P 1 Select the statement that is the negation of ‘All multiples of three are even’.
A All multiples of three are odd.
B At least one multiple of three is odd.
C No multiples of three are even.

P 2 Write down the negation of each statement.

a All rich people are happy.
b There are no prime numbers between 10 million and 11 million.
c If p and q are prime numbers then ( pq + 1) is a prime number.
d All numbers of the form 2n − 1 are either prime numbers or multiples of 3.
e At least one of the above four statements is true.

P 3 Statement: If n2 is odd then n is odd.

a Write down the negation of this statement.
b Prove the original statement by contradiction.

P 4 Prove the following statements by contradiction.

a There is no greatest even integer.
b If n3 is even then n is even.
c If pq is even then at least one of p and q is even.
d If p + q is odd then at least one of p and q is odd.

E/P 5 a Prove that if ab is an irrational number then at least one of a and b is an irrational number.
(3 marks)
b Prove that if a + b is an irrational number then at least one of a and b is an irrational
number. (3 marks)
c A student makes the following statement:
If a + b is a rational number then at least one of a and b is a rational number.
Show by means of a counterexample that this statement is not true. (1 mark)

P 6 Use proof by contradiction to show that there exist Hint Assume the opposite is true,
no integers a and b for which 21a + 14b = 1 and then divide both sides by the
highest common factor of 21 and 14.

E/P 7 a Prove by contradiction that if n2 is a multiple of 3, Hint Consider numbers in the form
n is a multiple of 3. (3 marks) 3k + 1 and 3k + 2
__
b Hence prove by contradiction that √3 is an
irrational number. (3 marks)

P 8 Use proof by contradiction to prove the statement: Hint You can assume that x and
‘There are no integer solutions to the equation
y are positive, since (−x)2 = x2
x 2 − y 2 = 2’
PROOF CHAPTER 1 5

3
__
E/P 9 Prove by contradiction that √2 is irrational. (5 marks)
P 10 This student has attempted to use proof by contradiction to show that there is no least positive
rational number:
Assumption: There is a least positive rational number. Problem-solving
Let this least positive rational number be n. You might have to
a analyse student
As n is rational, n = __ where a and b are integers.
b working like this
a a−b in your exam. The
n − 1 = __ − 1 = _____
b b question says, ‘the
a−b error’, so there should
Since a and b are integers, _____ is a rational number that is less than n.
b only be one error in
This contradicts the statement that n is the least positive rational number. the proof.
Therefore, there is no least positive rational number.

a Identify the error in the student’s proof. (1 mark)

b Prove by contradiction that there is no least positive rational number. (5 marks)

Chapter review 1

1 Write down the negation of each statement.

a At least two of the above statements are false.
b People in cold countries are unhappy.
c One quarter of the people who entered the competition won a prize.

2 Prove that if ab is rational, then no single number a or b can be irrational.

3 Select the statement that is the negation of ‘All multiples of five are odd’.
A At least one multiple of five is even.
B No multiples of five are even.
C All multiples of five are odd.

4 Prove by contradiction, that if a − 2b is irrational, then at least one of a and b is an irrational number.
5 Use proof by contradiction to show that there are no integers x and y that can satisfy the
equation 3x + 18y = 1

6 Prove by contradiction that if n4 is odd then n must be odd.

Summary of key points

1 To prove a statement by contradiction you start by assuming it is not true. You then
use logical steps to show that this assumption leads to something impossible (either a
contradiction of the assumption or a contradiction of a fact you know to be true). You can
conclude that your assumption was incorrect, and the original statement was true.
a
2 A rational number can be written as __, where a and b are integers.
b
a
An irrational number cannot be expressed in the form __, where a and b are integers.
b
2 PARTIAL
FRACTIONS 2.1

Learning objectives
A"er completing this chapter you should be able to:
● Convert an expression with linear factors in the
denominator into partial fractions → pages 7–9
● Convert an expression with repeated linear factors in
the denominator into partial fractions → pages 10–11
● Convert an improper fraction into partial fraction form
→ pages 12–13

Prior knowledge check

1 Fully factorise:
a x2 + 5x + 6
b x2 − 5x − 14 ← Pure 1 Section 1.3
2 Simplify:
x2 − 9
a ___________
x2 + 9x + 18 You can use partial fractions to
x2 − x − 30
b ____________ ← Pure 2 Section 1.1 simplify expressions and break
−x2 + 3x + 18
them into smaller parts. This is
3 Use the factor theorem to determine very useful for analysing linear
the factors of: differential systems, such as
a x3 + 3x2 − x − 3 resonant circuits in electrical
b x3 − 3x2 + 4 ← Pure 2 Section 1.3 systems.
PARTIAL FRACTIONS CHAPTER 2 7

2.1 Partial fractions

■ A single fraction with two distinct linear factors in the denominator can be split into two
separate fractions with linear denominators. This is called splitting it into partial fractions.
A and B are constants to be found.
5
____________ A B
≡ _____ + _____ The expression is
(x + 1)(x − 4) x + 1 x − 4 Links Partial fractions are used
rewritten as the sum of for binomial expansions and
The denominator contains two two partial fractions. integration.
linear factors: (x + 1) and (x − 4)
There are two methods to find the constants A and B: by substitution and by equating coefficients.

Example 1 SKILLS INTERPRETATION

6x − 2
Split ____________ into partial fractions by a substitution b equating coefficients.
(x − 3)(x + 1)

6x − 2 A B 6x − 2 A B
a ____________ ≡ ______ + _____ Set ____________ identical to _____ + _____
(x − 3)(x + 1) x−3 x+1 (x − 3)(x + 1) x − 3 x +1

A(x + 1) + B(x − 3)
≡ __________________ Add the two fractions.
(x − 3)(x + 1)
6x − 2 ≡ A(x + 1) + B(x − 3)
6 × 3 − 2 = A(3 + 1) + B(3 − 3) To find A substitute x = 3
16 = 4A This value of x eliminates B from the equation.
A=4
6 × (−1) − 2 = A(−1 + 1) + B(−1 − 3)
To find B substitute x = −1
−8 = −4B
This value of x eliminates A from the equation.
B=2
6x − 2 4 2
∴ ____________ ≡ ______ + _____
(x − 3)(x + 1) x − 3 x + 1
6x − 2 A B
b ____________ ≡ ______ + _____
(x − 3)(x + 1) x−3 x+1
A(x + 1) + B(x − 3)
≡ __________________
(x − 3)(x + 1)
6x − 2 ≡ A(x + 1) + B(x − 3)
≡ Ax + A + Bx − 3B Expand the brackets.
≡ (A + B)x + (A − 3B)
Equate coefficients of x: Collect like terms.
6=A+B (1)
Equate constant terms:
You want (A + B)x + A − 3B ≡ 6x − 2
−2 = A − 3B (2)
Hence coefficient of x is 6, and constant term is −2
(1) − (2):
8 = 4B
⇒ B=2
Solve simultaneously.
Substitute B = 2 in (1) ⇒ 6 = A + 2
A=4
8 CHAPTER 2 PARTIAL FRACTIONS

■ The method of partial fractions can also be Watch out This method cannot be used for
used when there are more than two distinct
a repeated linear factor in the denominator.
linear factors in the denominator. 9
7 For example, the expression ____________2
For example, the expression _________________ (x + 4)(x − 1)
(x − 2)(x + 6)(x + 3) A B C
cannot be rewritten as _____ + _____ + _____
A B C x+4 x−1 x−1
can be split into _____ + _____ + _____
x−2 x+6 x+3 B
_____ C
_____ D
since + is equivalent to _____
The constants A, B and C can again be found x–1 x−1 x−1
either by substitution or by equating coefficients. which would leave you with the expression
A
_____ D
+ _____
x+4 x−1
This is all due to the repeated factor (x – 1)
There is more on this in the next section.

Example 2 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

6x 2 + 5x − 2 A B C
Given that ______________ ≡ __ + ____ + _____ , find the values of the constants A, B and C.
x(x − 1)(2x + 1) x x − 1 2x + 1

6x2 + 5x − 2 A B C
Let ______________ ≡ __ + _____ + ______ The denominators must be x, (x − 1) and (2x + 1)
x(x − 1)(2x + 1) x x − 1 2x +1

A(x − 1)(2x + 1) + Bx(2x + 1) + Cx(x − 1)

≡ _____________________________________ Add the fractions.
x(x − 1)(2x + 1)
∴ 6x2 + 5x − 2 ≡ A(x − 1)(2x + 1)
+ Bx(2x + 1) + Cx(x − 1) The numerators are equal.
Let x = 1:
6+5−2=0+B×1×3+0
9 = 3B
B=3
Let x = 0:
0 + 0 − 2 = A × (−1) × 1 + 0 + 0 Proceed by substitution OR by equating
−2 = −A coefficients.
A=2 Here we used the method of substitution.
1
Let x = − __ :
2
− − 2 = 0 + 0 + C × (− __) × (− __)
6 __
__ 5 1 3
4 2 2 2
3
−3 = __ C
4
C = −4

6x2 + 5x − 2 2 3 4
So ______________ ≡ __ + _____ − ______
x(x − 1)(2x + 1) x x − 1 2x +1
So A = 2, B = 3 and C = −4 Finish the question by listing the coefficients.
PARTIAL FRACTIONS CHAPTER 2 9

Exercise 2A SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

1 Express as partial fractions

6x − 2 2x + 11 −7x − 12
a ____________ b ____________ c ________
(x − 2)(x + 3) (x + 1)(x + 4) 2x(x − 4)
2x − 13 6x + 6
d _____________ e ______ Hint First factorise the denominator.
(2x + 1)(x − 3) x2 − 9
7 − 3x 8−x 2x − 14
f __________ g _______ h ___________
x − 3x − 4
2 x2 + 4x x + 2x − 15
2

−2x − 5 A B
E 2 Show that ____________ can be written in the form _____ + _____ where A and B are
(4 + x)(2 − x) 4+x 2−x
constants to be found. (3 marks)

A 2 B
P 3 The expression __________ can be written in partial fractions as ____ + ____
(x − 4)(x + 8) x−4 x+8
Find the values of the constants A and B.

2x 2 − 12x − 26
E 4 h(x) = _______________ , x > 2
(x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 5)
A B C
Given that h(x) can be expressed in the form ____ + ____ + ____ , find the values of
x+1 x−2 x+5
A, B and C. (4 marks)

−10x 2 − 8x + 2 D E F
E 5 Given that, for x < −1, _______________ ≡ __ + _____ + _____ , where D, E and F are
x(2x + 1)(3x − 2) x 2x + 1 3x − 2
constants. Find the values of D, E and F. (4 marks)

6 Express as partial fractions

2x2 − 12x − 26 −10x2 − 8x + 2 −5x2 − 19x − 32
a __________________ b _______________ c __________________
(x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 5) x(2x + 1)(3x − 2) (x + 1)(x + 2)(x − 5)

P 7 Express as partial fractions

6x2 + 7x − 3 8x + 9
a ___________ b ____________ Hint First factorise the denominator.
x3 − x 10x2 + 3x − 4

Challenge
5x2 − 15x − 8
Express ______________ as a sum of fractions with linear denominators.
x3 − 4x2 + x + 6
10 CHAPTER 2 PARTIAL FRACTIONS

2.2 Repeated factors

■ A single fraction with a repeated linear factor in the denominator can be split into two or more
separate fractions.
In this case, there is a special method for dealing with the repeated linear factor.
A and B and C are
constants to be found.
2x + 9
_____________ A B C
≡ _____ + _____ + _______2
(x − 5)(x + 3)2 x − 5 x + 3 (x + 3)
The denominator contains three linear
factors: (x − 5), (x + 3) and (x + 3). The expression is rewritten
(x + 3) is a repeated linear factor. as the sum of three partial
fractions. Notice that
(x − 5), (x + 3) and (x + 3)2
Example 3 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING
are the denominators.
11x 2 + 14x + 5 A B C
Show that ____________ can be written in the form ____ + ______2 + _____ , where A, B and C
(x + 1) (2x + 1)
2 x+1 x+1( ) 2x + 1
are constants to be found.

Let
11x2 + 14x + 5 ______
______________ A B C You need denominators of
≡ + _______ + ________
(x + 1) (2x + 1)
2 (x + 1) (x + 1)2 (2x + 1) (x + 1), (x + 1)2 and (2x + 1)

A(x + 1)(2x + 1) + B(2x + 1) + C(x + 1)2

≡ ____________________________________ Add the three fractions.
(x + 1)2(2x + 1)
Hence 11x2 + 14x + 5
≡ A(x + 1)(2x + 1) + B(2x + 1) + C(x + 1)2 (1) The numerators are equal.

Let x = −1:
11 − 14 + 5 = A × 0 + B × −1 + C × 0 To find B substitute x = −1
2 = −1B
B = −2
1
__
Let x = − :
2
__
11 1
__ 1
4 − 7 + 5 = A × 0 + B × 0 + C × 4 To find C substitute x = − __
2
3 __
__ 1
= C
4 4
C=3 Equate terms in x2 in (1). Terms in x2 are
11 = 2A + C A × 2x2 + C × x2
11 = 2A + 3
Substitute C = 3
2A = 8
A=4
Finish the question by listing the coefficients.
11x2 + 14x + 5
______________
Hence
(x + 1)2(2x + 1)
Online Check your answer using the
4 2 3
≡ ______ − _______ + ________ simultaneous equations function on your
(x + 1) (x + 1)2 (2x + 1)
calculator.
So A = 4, B = −2 and C = 3
PARTIAL FRACTIONS CHAPTER 2 11

Exercise 2B SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

3x 2 + x + 1
E 1 f(x) = _________ , x ≠ 0, x ≠ −1
x 2(x + 1)
A B C
Given that f(x) can be expressed in the form __ + __2 + ____ , find the values of
x x x+1
A, B and C. (4 marks)

−x 2 − 10x − 5
E 2 g(x) = _____________ , x ≠ − 1, x ≠ 1
(x + 1) 2(x − 1)
D E F
Find the values of the constants D, E and F such that g(x) = ____ + ______2 + ____ (4 marks)
x+1 x+1( ) x−1

2x 2 + 2x − 18 P Q R
E 3 Given that, for x < 0, __________ ≡ __ + ____ + ______2 , where P, Q and R are constants,
x(x − 3) 2 x x − 3 (x − 3)
find the values of P, Q and R. (4 marks)

5x 2 − 2x − 1 C D E
E 4 Show that _________ can be written in the form __ + __2 + ____ where C, D and E
x3 − x2 x x x−1
are constants to be found. (4 marks)

2x
E 5 p(x) = ______2 , x ≠ −2
(x + 2)
A B
Find the values of the constants A and B such that p(x) = ____ + ______2 (4 marks)
x + 2 (x + 2)

10x 2 − 10x + 17 A B C
E 6 ______________2 ≡ _____ + ____ + ______2 , x > 3
(2x + 1)(x − 3) 2x + 1 x − 3 (x − 3)
Find the values of the constants A, B and C. (4 marks)

39x 2 + 2x + 59 A B C
E 7 Show that ______________2 can be written in the form ____ + _____ + _______2
(x + 5)(3x − 1) x + 5 3x − 1 (3x − 1)
where A, B and C are constants to be found. (4 marks)

P 8 Express as partial fractions:

4x + 1 6x2 − x + 2
a ____________ b ____________
x + 10x + 25
2 4x3 − 4x2 + x
12 CHAPTER 2 PARTIAL FRACTIONS

2.3 Improper fractions

■ An improper fraction is one that is top heavy, where the power of the denominator is equal to or
greater than the power of the numerator. An improper fraction can be split into partial fractions.
x2
Some fractions can be given as _____________. Since the top and bottom are both quadratics in this
(x + 1)(x − 1)
B C
case, dividing one by the other should produce a constant, so the form would be A + ______ + ______.
x+1 x−1
x3
____________
It is similar if the expression is split into partial fractions. Then, by first noting the
(x + 1)(x − 1)
difference in powers between numerator and denominator, this can be written in the form
C D
Ax + B + ______ + ______. This is because a cubic over a quadratic produces a linear function.
x+1 x−1

Example 4

2x
Express ______ as partial fractions.
x+1

2x B
2x
______ B
= A + ______ Set ______ identical to A + ______ since linear over
x+1 x+1 x+1 (x + 1)
linear must be a constant.
A(x + 1) + B
= ____________
x+1
2x = A(x + 1) + B Add the fractions.
2 × (−1) = A(−1 + 1) + B
To find B, substitute in x = −1
B = −2
This value eliminates A from the equation.
2 × 0 = A(0 + 1) − 2
A=2
To find A use any value except −2.
2x
______ 2
= 2 − ______
x+1 x+1

Example 5

3x3
Express ____________ as partial fractions.
(x − 1)(x − 2)

3x3
3x3
____________ C D
= Ax + B + _____ + ______ Set ____________ identical to
(x − 1)(x − 2) x−1 x−2 (x − 1)(x − 2)
C D
Ax + B + _____ + _____ since cubic
x−1 x−2
over quadratic must be linear.

Add the fractions.

PARTIAL FRACTIONS CHAPTER 2 13

(Ax + B)(x − 1)(x − 2) + C(x − 2) + D(x − 1) 3x3

= _______________________________________ To determine A, note that _______
(x − 1)(x − 2) x2 + …
must be 3x + B
(3x + B)(x − 1)(x − 2) + C(x − 2) + D(x − 1)
= _______________________________________
(x − 1)(x − 2) To find C, substitute in x = 1, this
value eliminates B and D from the
3x3 = (3x + B)(x − 1)(x − 2) + C(x − 2) + D(x − 1)
equation.
3 × 13 = (3 × 1 + B)(1 − 1)(1 − 2) + C(1 − 2) + D(1 − 1)
3 = −C To find D, substitute in x = 2, this
C = −3 value eliminates B and C from the
3 × 23 = (3 × 2 + B)(2 − 1)(2 − 2) − 3(2 − 2) + D(2 − 1) equation.
24 = D
3 × 03 = (3 × 0 + B)(0 − 1)(0 − 2) − 3(0 − 2) + 24(0 − 1) To find B, substitute in x = 0
0 = 2B + 6 − 24
B=9

Exercise 2C

1 Express as partial fractions

x+1 4−x x2 + 1 2x2
a _____ b _____ c ______ d _____
x+2 x+1 x−1 x+3
x2 B C
2 Show that ____________ can be written in the form A + _____ + _____ , where A, B and C are
(x − 2)(x + 3) x − 2 x +3
constants to be found.
Ax2 + Bx 5 C
3 Given that ____________ can be expressed in the form 2 + ________ + _______ , find the values of
(x − 1)(x + 1) 2(x − 1) 2(x + 1)
A, B and C.

4 Express as partial fractions

x2 − 1 2x2 − 2 2 − 3x2
a ______ b ________ c _____________
x+3 x(x + 3) (2x − 1)(x + 1)
x3 C D
5 Given that ____________ can be expressed in the form Ax + B + _____ + _____ , find the values of
(x + 2)(x − 1) x + 2 x−1
A, B, C and D.

6 Express as partial fractions

1 + x3 x3 − x
a ________ b ____________
x(x + 2) (x + 2)(x − 2)
x2 B C
7 Given that _______2 can be expressed in the form A + _____ + _______2 , find the values of A, B and C.
(x + 1) x + 1 (x + 1)

8 Express as partial fractions

x2 + 1 2x3 − 1
a _______2 b _______2
(x − 2) (x + 2)
14 CHAPTER 2 PARTIAL FRACTIONS

Challenge
3x 3
Express _______3 as partial fractions.
(x − 1)

Chapter review 2
4 A B
1 Given that ____________ can be written in the form _____ + _____ , find the values of A and B.
(x + 1)(x − 4) x + 1 x−4
2 Express as partial fractions
8x + 13 3−x
a ____________ b ____________
(x + 2)(x + 1) (x − 1)(x + 3)
x A B C
3 Show that __________________ can be written in form _____ + _____ + _____ , giving the
(x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 5) x + 1 x−2 x + 5
values of A,B and C.

4 Express as partial fractions

3x2 + 7x − 2 6x2 − 7x − 18 x2
a _____________ b ____________ c __________________
x(x + 1)(x − 1) (x2 − 4)(x − 3) (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)
3x − 2
5 By first using the factor theorem to simplify the denominator, write ________________ as
x3 + x2 − 14x − 24
partial fractions.

6 Express as partial fractions

2 3x + 1
a ______________ b ____________
x − 2x − x + 2
3 2 x + 5x2 + 6x
3

7 Express as partial fractions

x 3
a _____________ b ________
(x − 3)2(x + 1) x2(x + 1)
2x A B
8 Given that _______2 can be written in the form _____ + _______2 determine the values of A and B.
(x + 3) x + 3 (x + 3)
4
9 Express __________ as partial fractions.
x − 3x + 2
3

10 Express as partial fractions

3x − 1 x2 + 1
a ______ b ______
x+4 x+2
x2 + 2 B C
11 Show that _______2 can be written in the form A + _____ + _______2 giving the values of A, B and C.
(x − 2) x − 2 (x − 2)
12 Express as partial fractions
3 − x2 4x2
a ____________ b _____
(x + 1)(x − 2) x−4
x3 C D
13 Given that _______2 can be written as Ax + B + _____ + _______2 find the values of A,B,C and D.
(x + 3) x + 3 (x + 3)
PARTIAL FRACTIONS CHAPTER 2 15

Summary of key points

1 A single fraction with two distinct linear factors in the denominator can be split into two
separate fractions with linear denominators. This is called splitting it into partial fractions:
5
____________ A B
= ______ + ______
(x + 1)(x − 4) (x + 1) (x − 4)
2 The method of partial fractions can also be used when there are more than two distinct linear
factors in the denominator:
7
_________________ A B C
= ______ + ______ + ______
(x − 2)(x + 6)(x + 3) (x − 2) (x + 6) (x + 3)
3 A single fraction with a repeated linear factor in the denominator can be split into two or more
separate fractions:
2x + 9
_____________ A B C
= ______ + ______ + _______
(x − 5) (x + 3)2 (x − 5) (x + 3) (x + 3)2
4 An improper algebraic fraction is one whose numerator has a degree equal to or larger than
the denominator. An improper fraction must be converted to a mixed fraction before you can
express it in partial fractions.
To convert an improper fraction into a mixed fraction you can use:
• algebraic division
• or the relationship F(x) = Q(x) × divisor + remainder
3 COORDINATE
GEOMETRY IN THE
(x, y) PLANE 3.1

Learning objectives
A"er completing this chapter you should be able to:
● Convert parametric equations into Cartesian form by substitution → pages 17–18

● Convert parametric equations into Cartesian form using trigonometric

identities → pages 21–23

● Understand and use parametric equations of curves and sketch

parametric curves → pages 25–26

● Solve coordinate geometry problems involving parametric equations → pages 17–26

Prior knowledge check

1 Rearrange to make t the subject:

a x = 4t − kt b y = 3t2 c y = 2 − 4 ln t d x = 1 + 2e−3t
← Pure 3 Sections 4.2, 4.4
2 Write in terms of powers of cos x:
a 4 + 3 sin2 x b sin 2x c cot x d 2 cos x + cos 2x
← Pure 2 Section 6.3
← Pure 3 Sections 3.1, 3.3, 3.4
3 State the ranges of the following functions: Parametric equations
a y = ln (x + 1), x > 0 b y = 2 sin x, 0 < x < π are an alternative
1 coordinate system to
c y = x2 + 4x − 2, −4 < x < 1 d y = ______ , x > −2
2x + 5 Cartesian equations.
← Pure 1 Sections 2.4, 4.2 They can be used
← Pure 2 Section 6.1 to represent an
← Pure 3 Section 4.4 otherwise complicated
4 A circle has centre (0, 4) and radius 5. Find the coordinates of the points of Cartesian equation in
intersection of the circle and the line with equation 2y – x – 10 = 0 a simpler, and more
← Pure 2 Section 2.3 accessible, form.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY IN THE (x, y) PLANE CHAPTER 3 17

3.1 Parametric equations

You can write the x- and y-coordinates of each point on a curve as functions of a third variable.
This variable is called a parameter and is o"en represented by the letter t.
■ A curve can be defined using parametric equations x = p(t) and y = q(t). Each value of the
parameter, t, defines a point on the curve with coordinates (p(t), q(t)).
y
x = t + 1 , y = 2t, t > 0
2
These are the parametric equations of the curve.
6 t
The domain of the parameter tells you the values
5 of t you would need to substitute to find the
4 coordinates of the points on the curve.
3
2 22 + 1
When t = 2, x = _____ = 2.5 and y = 2 × 2 = 4
1 2
This corresponds to the point (2.5, 4)
–1 O 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
–1
0.52 + 1
Watch out The value of the parameter t is When t = 0.5, x = _______ = 2.5 and y = 2 × 0.5 = 1
0.5
generally not equal to either the x- or the This corresponds to the point (2.5, 1)
y-coordinate, and more than one point on
the curve can have the same x-coordinate.

■ You can convert between parametric Notation A Cartesian equation in two

equations and Cartesian equations by using dimensions involves the variables x and y only.
substitution to eliminate the parameter.
You can use the domain and range of the parametric functions to find the domain and range of the
resulting Cartesian function.
■ For parametric equations x = p(t) and y = q(t) with Cartesian equation y = f(x):
● the domain of f(x) is the range of p(t)
● the range of f(x) is the range of q(t)

Example 1 SKILLS ANALYSIS

A curve has parametric equations

x = 2t, y = t2, −3 < t < 3
a Find a Cartesian equation of the curve in the form y = f(x)
b State the domain and range of f(x)
c Sketch the curve within the given domain for t.

x A Cartesian equation only involves the variables x

a x = 2t so t = __ (1)
2 and y, so you need to eliminate t.
y = t2 (2)
Substitute (1) into (2): Rearrange one equation into the form t =… then
substitute into the other equation.
y = (__) = ___
x 2 x2
2 4
This is a quadratic curve.
18 CHAPTER 3 COORDINATE GEOMETRY IN THE (x, y) PLANE

b x = 2t, −3 , t , 3 The domain of f is the range of the parametric

So the domain of f(x) is −6 , x , 6 function for x. The range of x = 2t over the
y = t2, −3 , t , 3 domain −3 < t < 3 is −6 < x < 6
So the range of f(x) is 0 < y , 9
The range of f is the range of the parametric
c y function for y. Choose your inequalities carefully.
y = t2 can equal 0 in the interval −3 < t < 3 so use <
x = 2t but it cannot equal 9, so use <
9 y = t2
1
The curve is a graph of y = __ x2
4
Use your answers to part b to help with your sketch.

Watch out Pay careful attention to the domain

–6 O 6 x
when sketching parametric curves. The curve is
only defined for −3 < t < 3, or for −6 < x < 6
You should not draw any points on the curve
outside that range.
Example 2 SKILLS CRITICAL THINKING

A curve has parametric equations

1
x = ln (t + 3),y = _____ , t > −2
t+5
a Find a Cartesian equation of the curve of the form y = f(x), x > k where k is a constant to be found.
b Write down the range of f(x). y

Online
x

Sketch this parametric

a x = ln (t + 3)
curve using technology.
ex = t + 3
So ex − 3 = t
ex is the inverse function of ln x.
Substitute t = ex − 3 into
1 1 1
y = _____ = __________ = ______ Rearrange the equation for x into the form t = …
t + 5 ex − 3 + 5 ex + 2
then substitute into the equation for y.
When t = −2: x = ln (t + 3) = ln 1 = 0
As t increases ln (t + 3) increases, so the To find the domain for f(x), consider the range of
range of the parametric function for x is values x can take for values of t > −2
x>0
The Cartesian equation is
You need to consider what value x takes when
1
______ t = −2 and what happens when t increases.
y= ,x>0
ex + 2
1 1 The range of f is the range of values y can take
b When t = −2: y = _____ = __
t+5 3 within the given range of the parameter.
As t increases y decreases, but is always
positive, so the range of the parametric You could also find the range of f(x) by
1 1
function for y is 0 < y < __ considering the domain of f(x). f(0) = __ and f(x)
3 __
1 3
1
The range of f(x) is 0 < y <
3 decreases as x increases, so y < __
3
← Pure 1 Section 2.3
COORDINATE GEOMETRY IN THE (x, y) PLANE CHAPTER 3 19

Exercise 3A SKILLS CRITICAL THINKING

1 Find a Cartesian equation for each of these parametric equations, giving your answer in the form
y = f(x). In each case find the domain and range of f(x).
a x = t − 2, y = t2 + 1, −4 < t < 4 b x = 5 − t, y = t2 − 1, t ∈ ℝ
1
c x = __t , y = 3 − t, t≠0 Notation If the domain of t is given as t ≠ 0, this
implies that t can take any value in ℝ other than 0.

1 1
d x = 2t + 1, y = __t , t>0 e x = _____ , y = t2, t>2
t−2
1 1
f x = _____ , y = _____ , t>2
t+1 t−2

2 For each of these parametric curves

i find a Cartesian equation for the curve in the form y = f(x) giving the domain on which the
curve is defined
ii find the range of f(x).
1
a x = 2 ln (5 − t), y = t2 − 5, t < 4 b x = ln (t + 3), y = _____ , t > −2
t+5
c x = et, y = e3t, t∈ℝ

_
P 3 A curve C is defined by the parametric equations x = √ t , y = t(9 − t), 0<t<5
a Find a Cartesian equation of the curve in the form y = f(x) and determine the domain and
range of f(x).
b Sketch C showing clearly the Problem-solving
coordinates of any turning
y = t(9 − t) is a quadratic with a negative t2 term and roots
points, endpoints and intersections
at t = 0 and t = 9. It will take its maximum value when t = 4.5
with the coordinate axes.

4 For each of the following parametric curves:

i find a Cartesian equation for the curve in the form y = f(x)
ii find the domain and range of f(x)
iii sketch the curve within the given domain of t.
a x = 2t2 − 3, y = 9 − t2, t>0 b x = 3t − 1, y = (t − 1)(t + 2), −4 < t < 4
1 _ _
c x = t + 1, y = _____ , t ∈ ℝ, t≠1 d x = √ t − 1, y = 3√ t , t>0
t−1
e x = ln (4 − t), y = t − 2, t < 3
20 CHAPTER 3 COORDINATE GEOMETRY IN THE (x, y) PLANE

P 5 The curves C1 and C2 are defined by the following parametric equations.

1 t
C1: x = 1 + 2t, y = 2 + 3t 2 < t < 5 C2: x = ______ , y = ______ 2<t<3
2t − 3 2t − 3

a Show that both curves are segments of the Notation Straight lines and line segments can
same straight line.
be referred to as ‘curves’ in coordinate geometry.
b Find the length of each line segment.

E/P 6 A curve C has parametric equations

3
x = __t + 2, y = 2t − 3 − t2, t ∈ ℝ, t≠0

a Determine the ranges of x and y in the given domain of t. (3 marks)

b Show that the Cartesian equation of C can be written in the form
A(x2 + bx + c)
y = _____________
(x − 2)2
where A, b and c are integers to be determined. (3 marks)

7 A curve has parametric equations

1
x = ln (t + 3), y = _____ , t > −2
t+5
a Show that a Cartesian equation of this curve is y = f(x), x > k where k is a constant to be
found.
b Write down the range of f(x).

E/P 8 A diagram shows a curve C with parametric equations y

_ 5
x = 3√ t , y = t3 − 2t, 0<t<2 C
a Find a Cartesian equation of the curve in the form
y = f(x), and state the domain of f(x). (3 marks)
__

√
dy
___ 2
b Show that = 0 when t = __ (3 marks)
dt 3 O 5 x

c Hence determine the range of f(x). (2 marks)

E/P 9 A curve C has parametric equations

x = t3 − t, y = 4 − t2, t∈ℝ

a Show that the Cartesian equation of C can be written in the form

x2 = (a − y)(b − y)2
where a and b are integers to be determined. (3 marks)
b Write down the maximum value of the y-coordinate for any point on this curve. (2 marks)
COORDINATE GEOMETRY IN THE (x, y) PLANE CHAPTER 3 21

Challenge
A curve C has parametric equations
1 − t2 2t
x = _____2 , y = _____2 , t ∈ ℝ
1+t 1+t
a Show that a Cartesian equation for this curve is x2 + y2 = 1
b Hence describe C.

3.2 Using trigonometric identities

You can use trigonometric identities to convert trigonometric parametric equations into Cartesian
form. In this chapter you will always consider angles measured in radians.

Example 3 SKILLS ADAPTIVE INNOVATION

A curve has parametric equations x = sin t + 2, y = cos t − 3, t∈ℝ

a Show that a Cartesian equation of the curve is (x – 2)2 + ( y + 3)2 = 1
b Hence sketch the curve.

a x = sin t + 2 Problem-solving
So sin t = x − 2 (1) If you can write expressions for sin t and cos t in
y = cos t − 3 terms of x and y then you can use the identity
cos t = y + 3 (2) sin2 t + cos2 t ≡ 1 to eliminate the parameter, t.
← Pure 2 Section 6.3
Substitute (1) and (2) into
sin2 t + cos2 t ≡ 1 Your equations in (1) and (2) are in terms of
(x − 2)2 + ( y + 3)2 = 1 sin t and cos t so you need to square them when
you substitute. Make sure you square the whole
b y
expression.

O x

(x – a)2 + ( y – b)2 = r2 is the equation of a circle

with centre (a, b) and radius r.
So the curve is a circle with centre (2, −3) and
(2, –3)
radius 1. ← Pure 2 Section 2.2
1
22 CHAPTER 3 COORDINATE GEOMETRY IN THE (x, y) PLANE

Example 4 SKILLS CREATIVITY

A curve is defined by the parametric equations Online

x

You can graph the

π π
x = sin t, y = sin 2t, − __ < t < __ parametric equations using
2 2 technology.
a Find a Cartesian equation of the curve in the form
y = f(x), –k < x < k
stating the value of the constant k.
b Write down the range of f(x).

a y = sin 2t Use the identity sin 2t ≡ 2 sin t cos t, then

= 2 sin t cos t substitute x = sin t
= 2x cos t (1)
Use the identity sin2 t + cos2 t ≡ 1 together with
sin2 t + cos2 t ≡1
x = sin t to find an expression for cos t in terms
cos2 t ≡ 1 − sin2 t of x.
= 1______
− x2
cos t = √ 1 − x2 (2) Watch out
______ Be careful when taking square
Substitute (2) into (1): y = 2x√ 1 − x2 roots. In this case you don’t need to consider the
π π negative square root because cos t is positive for
When t = − __ , x = sin (− __) = −1
2 2 all values in the domain of the parameter.
π π
When t = __ , x = sin ( __) = 1
2 2
______ To find the domain of f(x), consider the range of
The Cartesian equation is y = 2x√ 1 − x2 , x = sin t for the values of the parameter given.
−1 < x < 1 so k = 1
π π
Within − __ < t < __ , y = sin 2t takes a minimum
b −1 < y < 1 2 2
value of −1 and a maximum value of 1.

Example 5 SKILLS CREATIVITY

A curve C has parametric equations

x = cot t + 2 y = cosec2 t − 2, 0 < t < π
a Find the equation of the curve in the form y = f(x) and state the domain of x for which the curve
is defined.
b Hence, sketch the curve.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY IN THE (x, y) PLANE CHAPTER 3 23

a x = cot t + 2 Problem-solving
cot t = x − 2 (1) The parametric equations involve cot t and
y = cosec2 t − 2 cosec2 t so you can use the identity
cosec2 t = y + 2 (2) 1 + cot2 t ≡ cosec2 t ← Pure 3 Section 3.4

Substitute (1) and (2) into

Rearrange to find expressions for cot t and
1 + cot2 t ≡ cosec2 t
cosec2 t in terms of x and y.
1 + (x − 2)2 = y + 2
1 + x2 − 4x + 4 = y + 2
Expand and rearrange to make y the subject.
y = x2 − 4x + 3
You could also write the equation as:
The range of x = cot t + 2 over the domain y = (x − 2)2 − 1
0 < t < π is all of the real numbers, so the
This is the completed square form which is useful
domain of f(x) is x ∈ ℝ when sketching the curve.
b y = x2 − 4x + 3 = (x − 3)(x − 1) is a
quadratic with roots at x = 3 and x = 1 and
Consider the range of values taken by x over the
y-intercept 3. The minimum point is (2, −1) domain of the parameter. The curve is defined
y on all of the real numbers, so it is the whole
quadratic curve
C

Online
x

3 Explore this curve

(2, –1) graphically using technology.

O 1 3 x

Exercise 3B SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

1 Find the Cartesian equation of the curves given by the following parametric equations.
a x = 2 sin t − 1, y = 5 cos t + 4, 0 < t < 2π b x = cos t, y = sin 2t, 0 < t < 2π
π
c x = cos t, y = 2 cos 2t, 0 < t < 2π d x = sin t, y = tan 2t, 0 < t < __
2
π
e x = cos t + 2, y = 4 sec t, 0 < t < __ f x = 3 cot t, y = cosec t, 0 < t < π
2

2 A circle has parametric equations x = sin t − 5, y = cos t + 2

a Find a Cartesian equation of the circle.
b Write down the radius and the coordinates of the centre of Problem-solving
the circle.
Think about how x and y
c Write down a suitable domain of t which defines one full change as t varies.
revolution around the circle.

3 A circle has parametric equations x = 4 sin t + 3, y = 4 cos t − 1

Find the radius and the coordinates of the centre of the circle.
24 CHAPTER 3 COORDINATE GEOMETRY IN THE (x, y) PLANE

4 A curve is given by the parametric equation x = cos t − 2, y = sin t + 3, −π < t < π

Sketch the curve.

P 5 Find the Cartesian equation of the curves given by the following parametric equations.
π π π
a x = sin t, y = sin (t + __) , − __ < t < __
4 2 2
π π
b x = 3 cos t, y = 2 cos (t + ) , 0 < t < __
__
Hint Use the addition formulae
6 3
and exact values.
c x = sin t, y = 3 sin (t + π), 0 < t < 2π

E 6 The curve C has parametric equations

1 π π
x = 8 cos t, y = __ sec2 t, − __ < t < __
4 2 2
a Find a Cartesian equation of C. (4 marks)
b Sketch the curve C on the appropriate domain. (3 marks)

E 7 A curve has parametric equations

π
0 , t < __
x = 3 cot2 2t, y = 3 sin2 2t,
4
Find a Cartesian equation of the curve in the form y = f(x)
State the domain on which f(x) is defined. (6 marks)

E/P 8 A curve C has parametric equations

1 π
x = __ sin t, y = sin 3t, 0 < t < __
3 2
a Show that the Cartesian equation of the curve is given by
y = ax(1 − bx2)
where a and b are integers to be found. (5 marks)
b State the domain and range of y = f(x) in the given domain of t. (2 marks)

E/P 9 Show that the curve with parametric equations

π
x = 2 cos t, y = sin (t − __) , 0 < t < π
6
can be written in the form
1 ________
y = __ (√ 12 − 3x2 − x) , −2 < x < 2 (6 marks)
4

E/P 10 A curve has parametric equations

π
x = tan2 t + 5, 0 < t < __
y = 5 sin t,
2
a Find the Cartesian equation of the curve in the form y 2 = f(x). (4 marks)
b Determine the possible values of x and y in the given domain of t.
(2 marks)
COORDINATE GEOMETRY IN THE (x, y) PLANE CHAPTER 3 25

E/P 11 A curve C has parametric equations

π
y = 3 sin (t − π), 0 < t < __
x = tan t,
2
Find a Cartesian equation of C. (4 marks)

Challenge
The curve C is given by the parametric equations:
π
x = __ cos 2t, y = sin (t + __) , 0 < t < 2π
1
2 6
Show that a Cartesian equation for C is (4y2 − 2 + 2x)2 + 12x2 − 3 = 0

3.3 Curve sketching

Most parametric curves do not result in curves you will recognise and can sketch easily. You can plot
any parametric curve by substituting values of the parameter into each equation.

Example 6 SKILLS INTERPRETATION

Draw the curve given by parametric equations

x = 3 cos t + 4, y = 2 sin t, 0 < t < 2π

π
__ π
__ 3π
___ 5π
___ 3π
___ 7π
___ This parametric curve has
t 0 π 2π
4 2 4 4 2 4 Cartesian equation
x = 3 cos t + 4 7 6.12 4 1.88 1 1.88 4 6.12 7
( 3 ) + (2) = 1
x − 4 2 __
_____ y 2
y = 2 sin t 0 1.41 2 1.41 0 −1.41 −2 −1.41 0

y This isn’t a form of curve

3 that you need to be able to
3π
π
2 recognise, but you can plot
2
π
4 4
the curve using a table of
1
π 2π values.
–1 O 2 4 6 0x
–1
–2 5π 7π Choose values for t covering
4 3π 4 the domain of t. For each
–3 2 value of t, substitute to find
corresponding values for
x and y which will be the
coordinates of points on the
curve.

Plot the points and draw the

curve through the points.
The curve is an ellipse.
26 CHAPTER 3 COORDINATE GEOMETRY IN THE (x, y) PLANE

Example 7 SKILLS INTERPRETATION

Draw the curve given by the parametric equations x = 2t, y = t2, −1 < t < 5
y

Online
x

t −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 Use technology to graph

x = 2t −2 0 2 4 6 8 10 the parametric equations.
y= t2 1 0 1 4 9 16 25
Only calculate values of x and y for values of t in
y the given domain.
25 5
20 4 This is a ‘partial’ graph of the quadratic equation
15
3 x2
10 y = __
2 4
–1 5 1 You could also plot this curve by converting to
0
–2 O 2 4 6 8 10 x Cartesian form and considering the domain of
and range of the Cartesian function.
The domain is −2 < x < 10 and the range is
0 < y < 25
Exercise 3C SKILLS INTERPRETATION

1 A curve is given by the parametric equations

5
x = 2t, y = __t , t ≠ 0

Copy and complete the table and draw a graph of the curve for −5 < t < 5
t −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 −0.5 0.5 1 2 3 4 5
x = 2t −10 −8 −1
5
y = __t −1 −1.25 10

2 A curve is given by the parametric equations

t3
x = t2, y = __
5
Copy and complete the table and draw a graph of the curve for −4 < t < 4
t −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
x= t2 16
t3
y = __ −12.8
5

3 A curve is given by parametric equations

π π
x = tan t + 1, y = sin t, − __ < t < __
4 3
Copy and complete the table and draw a graph of the curve for the given domain of t.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY IN THE (x, y) PLANE CHAPTER 3 27

π π π π π π π
t − __ − __ − ___ 0 ___ __ __ __
4 6 12 12 6 4 3
x = tan t + 1 0 1
y = sin t 0

4 Draw the curves given by these parametric equations:

a x = t − 2, y = t2 + 1, −4 < t < 4
_
b x = 3√ t , y= t3 − 2t, 0<t<2
c x = t2, y = (2 − t)(t + 3), −5 < t < 5
π π
d x = 2 sin t − 1, y = 5 cos t + 1, − __ < t < __
4 4
π π
e x = sec2 t − 3, y = 2 sin t + 1, − __ < t < __
4 2
f x = t − 3 cos t, y = 1 + 2 sin t, 0 < t < 2π

E 5 The curve C has parametric equations

x = 3 − t, y = t2 − 2, −2 < t < 3
a Find a Cartesian equation of C in the form y = f(x) (4 marks)
b Draw the curve C on the appropriate domain. (3 marks)

E/P 6 The curve C has parametric equations

π π
x = 9 cos t − 2, y = 9 sin t + 1, − __ < t < __
6 2
a Show that the Cartesian equation of C can be written as
(x + a)2 + ( y + b)2 = c
where a, b and c are integers to be determined. (4 marks)
b Draw the curve C on the given domain of t. (3 marks)
c Find the length of C. (2 marks)

Challenge
Sketch the curve given by the parametric equations on the given
domain of t:
9t 9t2
x = _____3 , y = _____3 , t ≠ −1
1+t 1+t
Comment on the behaviour of the curve as t approaches −1 from the
positive direction and from the negative direction.
28 CHAPTER 3 COORDINATE GEOMETRY IN THE (x, y) PLANE

Chapter review 3

1 The diagram shows a sketch of the curve with y

parametric equations B
C
x = 4 cos t, y = 3 sin t, 0 < t , 2π
a Find the coordinates of the points A and B. O A x
π
b The point C has parameter t = __
6
Find the exact coordinates of C.
c Find the Cartesian equation of the curve.

2 The diagram shows a sketch of the curve with y

parametric equations
1
x = cos t, y = , __ sin 2t, 0 < t , 2π
2 x
O
The curve is symmetrical about both axes.
Copy the diagram and label the points having
π 3π
parameters t = 0, t = __ , t = π and t = ___
2 2
P 3 A curve has parametric equations
x = e2t + 1 + 1, y = t + ln 2, t>1
a Find a Cartesian equation of this curve in the form y = f(x), x > k where k is a constant to be
found in exact form.
b Write down the range of f(x), leaving your answer in exact form.

4 A curve has parametric equations

y = 2 ln (t + __),
1 1 1
x = ______ , t > __
2t + 1 2 2
Find a Cartesian equation of the curve in the form y = f(x), and state the domain and range
of f(x).

5 A circle has parametric equations x = 4 sin t − 3, y = 4 cos t + 5, 0 < t < 2π

a Find a Cartesian equation of the circle.
b Draw a sketch of the circle.
c Find the exact coordinates of the points of intersection of the circle with the y-axis.

E/P 6 The curve C has parametric equations

2 − 3t 3 + 2t
x = ______ , y = ______ , 0 < t < 4
1+t 1+t
a Show that the curve C is part of a straight line. (3 marks)
b Find the length of this line segment. (2 marks)
COORDINATE GEOMETRY IN THE (x, y) PLANE CHAPTER 3 29

E 7 A curve C has parametric equations

x = t2 − 2, y = 2t, 0<t<2
a Find the Cartesian equation of C in the form y = f(x) (3 marks)
b State the domain and range of y = f(x) in the given domain of t. (3 marks)
c Sketch the curve in the given domain of t. (2 marks)

E/P 8 A curve C has parametric equations

x = 2 cos t, y = 2 sin t − 5, 0 < t < π
a Show that the curve C forms part of a circle. (3 marks)
b Sketch the curve in the given domain of t. (3 marks)
c Find the length of the curve in the given domain of t. (3 marks)

E/P 9 The curve C has parametric equations

x = t − 2, y = t3 − 2t2, t∈ℝ
a Find a Cartesian equation of C in the form y = f(x) (3 marks)
b Sketch the curve C. (3 marks)

Summary of key points

1 A curve can be defined using parametric equations x = p(t) and y = q(t)
Each value of the parameter t, defines a point on the curve with coordinates (p(t), q(t))

2 You can convert between parametric equations and Cartesian equations by using substitution
to eliminate the parameter.

3 For parametric equations x = p(t) and y = q(t) with Cartesian equation y = f(x)
• the domain of f(x) is the range of p(t)
• the range of f(x) is the range of q(t)
4 BINOMIAL
EXPANSION 4.1

Learning objectives
A!er completing this chapter you should be able to:
● Expand (1 + x)n for any rational constant n and
determine the range of values of x for which the
expansion is valid → pages 31–34

● Expand (a + bx)n for any rational constant n and

determine the range of values of x for which the
expansion is valid → pages 36–38

● Use partial fractions to expand fractional

expressions → pages 40–41

Prior knowledge check

1 Expand the following expressions in ascending

powers of x up to and including the term in x3:
a (1 + 5x)7 b (5 − 2x)10 c (1 − x)(2 + x)6
← Pure 2 Section 4.3 The binomial expansion can
be used to find polynomial
2 Write each of the following using partial approximations for expressions
fractions: involving fractional and
−14x + 7 24x − 1 negative indices. Medical
a ______________ b ________2
(1 + 2x)(1
)(1 − 5x)) (1 + 2x) physicists use these
24x2 + 48x + 24 approximations to analyse
c ______________ magnetic fields in an MRI
(1 + x)(4 − 3x)2
← Pure 4 Sections 2.1, 2.2 scanner.

30
BINOMIAL EXPANSION CHAPTER 4 31

4.1 Expanding (1 + x)n

If n is a natural number you can find the binomial expansion for (a + bx)n using the formula:
Hint There are n + 1
(a + b)n = an + ( ) an−1b + ( ) an−2b2 + … + ( ) an−rbr + … + bn, (n ∈ ℕ)
n n n
1 2 r terms, so this formula
produces a finite
If n is a fraction or a negative number you need to use a different number of terms.
version of the binomial expansion.
■ This form of the binomial expansion can be applied to negative or fractional values of n to
obtain an infinite series.

(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + ________x2 + _____________x3 + … + (__________________ )xr + …

n(n − 1) n(n − 1)(n − 2) n(n − 1)…(n − r + 1)
2! 3! r!
■ The expansion is valid when |x| < 1, n ∈ ℝ
When n is not a natural number, none of the Watch out This expansion is valid for any real
factors in the expression n(n − 1) … (n − r + 1) value of n, but is only valid for values of x that
are equal to zero. This means that this version satisfy |x| < 1, or in other words, when −1 < x < 1
of the binomial expansion produces an infinite
number of terms.

Example 1 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

1
Find the first four terms in the binomial expansion of _____
1+x

1
_____
= (1 + x)−1 Write in index form.
1+x
(−1)(−2)x2
= 1 + (−1)x + _________
2! Replace n by −1 in the expansion.
(−1)(−2)(−3)x3
+ _____________ + …
3! As n is not a positive integer, no coefficient will
= 1 − 1x + 1x2 − 1x3 + … ever be equal to zero. Therefore, the expansion is
= 1 − x + x2 − x3 + … infinite.

For the series to be convergent, |x| < 1

1
■ The expansion of (1 + bx)n, where n is negative or a fraction, is valid for |bx| < 1, or |x| < ___
|b|
32 CHAPTER 4 BINOMIAL EXPANSION

Example 2 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

Find the binomial expansions of

_1
a (1 − x) 3
1
b ________2
(1 + 4x)
up to and including the term in x3. State the range of values of x for which each expansion is valid.

__1
a (1 − x) 3 1
Replace n by __ and x by (−x).
= 1 + (__)(−x)
1 3
3

( 3 )( 3 − 1)(−x)
1 __
__ 1 2 Simplify brackets.
_______________
+
2!
Watch out
( 3 )( 3 − 1)( 3 − 2) (−x)
1 __
__ 1 1
__ 3 Be careful working out whether each
______________________ term should be positive or negative:
+ +…
3! • even number of negative signs means term is

( ) (− __)(−x)2
1
__ 2 positive
= 1 + (__)(−x) + _____________
1 3 3 • odd number of negative signs means term is
3 2 negative
(1/3)(− __)(− __)(−x)3
2 5 The x 3 term here has 5 negative signs in total, so
3 3
_________________ it is negative.
+ +…
6
1 1 5
= 1 − __ x − __ x2 − ___x3 + …
3 9 81
Expansion is valid as long as |−x| < 1 Simplify coefficients.
⇒ |x| < 1
1 Terms in expansion are (−x), (−x)2, (−x)3
b ________ = (1 + 4x)−2
(1 + 4x)2
Write in index form.
= 1 + (−2)(4x)
(−2)(−2 − 1)(4x)2
+ ________________ Replace n by −2, x by 4x
2!
(−2)(−2 − 1)(−2 − 2)(4x)3
+ _______________________ + …
3! Simplify brackets.
= 1 + (−2)(4x)
(−2)(−3)16x2 Simplify coefficients.
+ ____________
2
(−2)(−3)(−4)64x3
+ ________________ + …
6 Terms in expansion are (4x), (4x)2, (4x)3
= 1 − 8x + 48x2 − 256x3 + …

Expansion is valid as long as |4x| < 1 y

Online
x

1
⇒ |x| < __ Use technology to explore
4 why the expansions are only valid
for certain values of x.
BINOMIAL EXPANSION CHAPTER 4 33

Example 3 SKILLS ANALYSIS

______
a Find the expansion of √ 1 − 2x up to and including the term in x3.
__
b By substituting in x = 0.01, find a decimal approximation to √ 2 .

________
__1
a √1 − 2x = (1 − 2x) 2 Write in index form.

= 1 + (__)(−2x)
1
2 1
Replace n by __ and x by (−2x)
( 2 )( 2 − 1)(−2x)
1 __
__ 1 2
2
________________
+
2!

( 2 )( 2 − 1)( 2 − 2)(−2x)
1 __
__ 1 1
__ 3
_______________________
+ +…
3!
= 1 + (__)(−2x)
1
2

( 2 )(− 2 )(4x )
1
__ 1
__ 2
Simplify brackets.
_____________
+
2!

( 2 )(− 2 )(− 2 )(−8x )

1
__ 1
__ 3
__ 3
__________________
+ +…
6
Simplify coefficients.
x2
___ x3
___
=1−x− − +…
2 2
Expansion is valid if |−2x| < 1 Terms in expansion are (−2x), (−2x)2, (−2x)3
1
⇒ |x| < __
2
____________ 1
0.012
b √1 − 2 × 0.01 ≈ 1 − 0.01 − _____ x = 0.01 satisfies the validity condition |x| < __
2 2

0.013
− _____ Substitute x = 0.01 into both sides of the
2 expansion.
_____
√ 0.98 ≈ 1 − 0.01 − 0.00005
− 0.0000005 Simplify both sides.
____

√____
98 Note that the terms are getting smaller.
≈ 0.9899495
100
_______ 98
Write 0.98 as ____
√ 49 × 2
_______
100
≈ 0.9899495 100
__
7√2
____ Use rules of surds.
≈ 0.9899495
10
__
0.9899495 × 10
√2 ≈ ________________
7
__ This approximation is accurate to 7 decimal
√2 ≈ 1.414213571 places.
34 CHAPTER 4 BINOMIAL EXPANSION

Example 4 SKILLS CRITICAL THINKING

2+x
f(x) = _______
______
√ 1 + 5x

a Find the x2 term in the series expansion of f(x).

b State the range of values of x for which the expansion is valid.

__1
a f(x) = (2 + x)(1 + 5x) − 2 Write in index form.

(1 + 5x) − 2 = 1 + (− __)(5x)
__1 1
2
− __)(− __)
(__________
1 3
2 2
+ (5x)2
2!

(− 2 )(− 2 )(− 2 )
1
__ 3
__ 5
__
______________ _1
+ (5x)3 + … Find the binomial expansion of (1 + 5x) − 2
3!
5 75 625
= 1 − __ x + ___ x2 − _____ x3 + … Simplify coefficients.
2 8 16

f(x) = (2 + x)(1 − __ x + ___ x2 − _____ x3 + …)

5 75 625
2 8 16 Online Use your calculator to calculate
75 5 65 the coefficients of the binomial expansion.
2 × ___ + 1 × − __ = ___
8 2 4
65
x2 term is ___ x2 Problem-solving
4
b The expansion is valid if |5x| < 1 There are two ways to make an x2 term.
75 5
⇒ |x| < __
1 Either 2 × ___ x2 or x × __ x
5 8 2
Add these together to find the term in x2.

Example 5 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

In the expansion of (1 + kx) −4 the coefficient of x is 20.

a Find the value of k.
b Find the corresponding coefficient of the x2 term.

(−4)(−5)
a (1 + kx)−4 = 1 + (−4)(kx) + ________ (kx)2 + … Find the binomial expansion of (1 + kx)−4
2!
= 1 − 4kx + 10k2x2 + …
−4k = 20
Solve to find k.
k = −5

b Coefficient of x2 = 10k2 = 10(−5)2 = 250

BINOMIAL EXPANSION CHAPTER 4 35

Exercise 4A SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

1 For each of the following:

i find the binomial expansion up to and including the x3 term
ii state the range of values of x for which the expansion is valid.
_1
a (1 + x)−4 b (1 + x)−6 c (1 + x) 2
_5 _1 _3
d (1 + x) 3 e (1 + x) −4 f (1 + x) −2

2 For each of the following:

i find the binomial expansion up to and including the x3 term
ii state the range of values of x for which the expansion is valid.
b (1 + _2 x)
1 −5 _3
a (1 + 3x)−3 c (1 + 2x) 4
−_3
f (1 − _4 x)
5
_7 _2 3
d (1 − 5x) 3 e (1 + 6x) −3

3 For each of the following:

i find the binomial expansion up to and including the x3 term
ii state the range of values of x for which the expansion is valid.
1 1 _____
a _______2 b ________4 c √1 − x Hint In part f, write
(1 + x) (1 + 3x)
3
______ the fraction as a single
______ 1 √ 1 − 2x
e _______ _______ power of (1 − 2x)
3
d √ 1 − 3x ______ f
√1 + _21 x 1 − 2x

1+x
E/P 4 f(x) = ______
1 − 2x
a Show that the series expansion of f(x) up to and including the Hint First rewrite f(x)
x3 term is 1 + 3x + 6x2 + 12x3 (4 marks) as (1 + x)(1 − 2x)−1
b State the range of values of x for which the expansion is valid.
(1 mark)
______ 1 1
E 5 f(x) = √ 1 + 3x , −__ < x < __
3 3
a Find the series expansion of f(x), in ascending powers of x, up to and including
the x3 term. Simplify each term. (4 marks)
____
1 √ 103
b Show that, when x = ____ , the exact value of f(x) is _____ (2 marks)
100 10
c Find the percentage error made in using the series expansion in part a to estimate
the value of f(0.01). Give your answer to 2 significant figures. (3 marks)

_1
P 6 In the expansion of (1 + ax) − 2 the coefficient of x2 is 24.
a Find the possible values of a.
b Find the corresponding coefficient of the x3 term.
36 CHAPTER 4 BINOMIAL EXPANSION

_____

P
1+x
1−x√
7 Show that if x is small, the expression _____ Notation ‘x is small’ means we can assume
the expansion is valid for the x values being
1 2
__ considered because high powers become
is approximated by 1 + x + x
2 insignificant compared to the first few terms.

6 4
E/P 8 h(x) = ______ − ______
1 + 5x 1 − 3x
a Find the series expansion of h(x), in ascending powers of x, up to and including
the x2 term. Simplify each term. (6 marks)
b Find the percentage error made in using the series expansion in part a to estimate
the value of h(0.01). Give your answer to 2 significant figures. (3 marks)
c Explain why it is not valid to use the expansion to find h(0.5). (1 mark)

_3
E/P 9 a Find the binomial expansion of (1 − 3x) 2 in ascending powers of x up to and including
the x3 term, simplifying each term. (4 marks)
___
1 97√ 97
b Show that, when x = ____ , the exact value of (1 − 3x) 2 is ______
_3
(2 marks)
100 1000
1
c Substitute x = ____ into the binomial expansion in part a and hence obtain an approximation
___ 100
to √ 97 . Give your answer to 5 decimal places. (3 marks)

Challenge
− _12
h(x) = (1 + __
x ) , |x| > 1
1

a Find the binomial expansion of h(x) in ascending powers of x up to Hint 1

Replace x with __
x
and including the x2 term, simplifying each term.
___
3√ 10
b Show that, when x = 9, the exact value of h(x) is _____
10
___
c Use the expansion in part a to find an approximate value of √ 10 .
Write your answer to 2 decimal places.

4.2 Expanding (a + bx)n

The binomial expansion of (1 + x)n can be used to expand (a + bx)n for any constants a and b.
You need to take a factor of an out of the expression:

(a + bx)n = (a(1 + __
a x)) = a (1 + a x)
n n
b n b
__ Watch out Make sure you multiply a n by every
term in the expansion of (1 + __ x)
n
b
a
BINOMIAL EXPANSION CHAPTER 4 37

b a
■ The expansion of (a + bx)n, where n is negative or a fraction, is valid for __ x < 1 or |x| < __ |a | |b|
Example 6 SKILLS ADAPTIVE LEARNING

1 ______
Find the first four terms in the binomial expansion of b ________2 a √4 + x
(2 + 3x)
State the range of values of x for which each of these expansions is valid.
______
__1
a √ 4 + x = (4 + x) 2 Write in index form.
__1

= (4(1 + __))
x 2 _1
4 Take out a factor of 4 2
__1

= 4 2(1 + __)
__1 x 2
4 _1
__1
Write 4 2 as 2.
= 2(1 + __)
x 2
4

( 2 )( 2 )( 4 )
1 __ 1 x 2
= 2(1 + (__)(__) +
__ __
− 1
1 x _______________ _1

Expand (1 + __) using the binomial expansion

x 2
2 4 2! 4
1 x
( 2 )( 2 )( 2 )( 4 )
1 __ 1 1 x 3 with n = __ and x = __
+ …)
__ __ __
− 1 − 2 2 4
______________________
+
3!

= 2(1 + (__)(__) +
( 2 )(− 2 )( 16 )
1
__ 1
__ x2
___
1 x _____________
2 4 2

+ …)
( 2 )(− 2 )(− 2 )( 64 )
1
__ 1
__ 3
__ x3
___
Simplify coefficients.
__________________
+
6

= 2(1 + __ − ____ + _____ + …)

x x2 x3
8 128 1024
Multiply every term in the expansion by 2.
x
__ x2
___ x3
____
=2+ − + +…
4 64 512
The expansion is infinite, and converges when
x
Expansion is valid if __ < 1
4 | | x
||
__
4
< 1, or |x| < 4

⇒ |x| < 4
38 CHAPTER 4 BINOMIAL EXPANSION

1
b _________ = (2 + 3x)−2 Write in index form.
(2 + 3x)2

= (2(1 + ___))
−2
3x
2
Take out a factor of 2−2
= 2−2(1 + ___)
−2
3x
2
1 1
= __ (1 + ___)
1 3x
−2
Write 2−2 = __2 = __
2 4
4 2

(−2)(−2 − 1)(___)
2

= __(1 + (−2)(___) + _________________

3x
1 3x 2
Expand (1 + ___) using the binomial
3x −2
4 2 2!
2
3x
(−2)(−2 − 1)(−2 − 2)(___)
3
expansion with n = −2 and x = ___
+ …)
3x
2
2
________________________
+
3!

= __((1 + (−2)(___) + ______________

(−2)(−3)(____)
9x2
1 3x 4
4 2 2
Simplify coefficients.

+ …)
(−2)(−3)(−4)(_____)
27x3
8
___________________
+
6

= __(1 − 3x + _____ − _____ + …)

1 27x2 27x3
4 4 2 1
Multiply every term by __
4
1 3 27x2 27x3
= __ − __ x + _____ − _____ + …
4 4 16 8
The expansion is infinite, and converges
| |
3x
Expansion is valid if ___ < 1
2
2
| |
3x
when __ < 1, |x| < __
2
2
3
⇒ |x| < __
3

Exercise 4B SKILLS ANALYSIS

P 1 For each of the following:

i find the binomial expansion up to and including the x3 term
ii state the range of values of x for which the expansion is valid.
_______ 1 1 ______
a √ 4 + 2x b _____ c _______2 d √9 + x
2+x (4 − x)
Hint Write part g _____
1
_______
e ______
√2 + x
f
5
______
3 + 2x
g
1 + x
_____
2+x
1
as 1 − _____
x+2
h √_____
2+x
1−x
BINOMIAL EXPANSION CHAPTER 4 39

5
E 2 f(x) = (5 + 4x)−2, |x| < __
4
Find the binomial expansion of f(x) in ascending powers of x, up to and including the
term in x3. Give each coefficient as a simplified fraction. (5 marks)

_____
E 3 m(x) = √ 4 − x , |x| < 4
a Find the series expansion of m(x), in ascending powers of x, up to and including
the x2 term. Simplify each term. (4 marks)
___
1
__ √ 35
____
b Show that, when x = , the exact value of m(x) is (2 marks)
9 3
___
c Use your answer to part a to find an approximate value for √ 35 , and calculate the percentage
error in your approximation. (4 marks)

1 1 1
P 4 The first three terms in the binomial expansion of _______
______ are 3 + __ x + ___ x2 + …
√ a + bx 3 18
a Find the values of the constants a and b.
b Find the coefficient of the x3 term in the expansion.

3 + 2x − x2
P 5 f(x) = __________
4−x
3 11 5
Prove that if x is sufficiently small, f(x) may be approximated by __ + ___ x − ___ x2
4 16 64
1 5
E/P 6 a Expand _______
______ , where |x| < __, in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x2,
√ 5 + 2x 2
giving each coefficient in simplified surd form. (5 marks)
2x −
_______1
b Hence or otherwise, find the first 3 terms in the expansion of ______ as a series in ascending
√ 5 + 2x
powers of x. (4 marks

16
7 a Use the binomial theorem to expand (16 − 3x) 4, |x| < ___ in ascending powers of x,
_1
E/P
3
up to and including the term in x2, giving each term as a simplified fraction. (4 marks)
4
____
b Use your expansion, with a suitable value of x, to obtain an approximation to √ 15.7
Give your answer to 3 decimal places. (2 marks)

3 2 1
8 g(x) = ______ − ______ , |x| < __
4 − 2x 3 + 5x 2
a Show that the first three terms in the series expansion of g(x) can be written
1 107 719
as ___ + ____ x − ____ x2 (5 marks)
12 72 432
b Find the exact value of g(0.01). Round your answer to 7 decimal places. (2 marks)
c Find the percentage error made in using the series expansion in part a to estimate
the value of g(0.01). Give your answer to 2 significant figures. (3 marks)
40 CHAPTER 4 BINOMIAL EXPANSION

4.3 Using partial fractions

Partial fractions can be used to simplify the expansions of Links You need to be confident
more difficult expressions.
expressing algebraic fractions as
sums of partial fractions.

Example 7 SKILLS INNOVATION

4 − 5x
a Express ____________ as partial fractions.
(1 + x)(2 − x)
4 − 5x 7x 11 25
b Hence show that the cubic approximation of ____________ is 2 − ___ + ___ x2 − ___ x3
(1 + x)(2 − x) 2 4 8
c State the range of values of x for which the expansion is valid.

4 − 5x A B
a ____________ ≡ ______ + _______ The denominators must be (1 + x) and (2 − x)
(1 + x)(2 − x) 1+x 2−x
A(2 − x) + B(1 + x)
≡ __________________ Add the fractions.
(1 + x)(2 − x)
4 − 5x ≡ A(2 − x) + B(1 + x) Set the numerators equal.
Substitute x = 2:
4 − 10 = A × 0 + B × 3 Set x = 2 to find B.
−6 = 3B
B = −2
Substitute x = −1:
4+5=A×3+B×0 Set x = −1 to find A.
9 = 3A
A=3
4 − 5x 3 2
so ____________ = _____ − ______
(1 + x)(2 − x) 1 + x 2 − x
Write in index form.
4 − 5x 3 2
b ____________ = ______ − _______
(1 + x)(2 − x) 1 + x 2 − x Problem-solving
= 3(1 + x)−1 − 2(2 − x)−1 Use headings to keep track of your working.
This will help you stay organised and check your
The expansion of 3(1 + x)−1 answers.

= 3(1 + (−1)x + (−1)(−2) ___

x2
2! Expand 3(1 + x)−1 using the binomial expansion
+ (−1)(−2)(−3) ___ + …)
x 3
with n = −1
3!

= 3(1 − x + x2 − x3 + …)
= 3 − 3x + 3x2 − 3x3 + …
BINOMIAL EXPANSION CHAPTER 4 41

The expansion of 2(2 − x)−1

= 2(2(1 − __))
x −1
2

= 2 × 2−1(1 − __)
x −1 Take out a factor of 2−1
2

= 1 × (1 + (−1)(− __) + _____________

(−1)(−2)(− __)
x 2
x 2
Expand (1 − __) using the binomial expansion
x −1
2 2! 2
x

+ _________________ + …)
with n = −1 and x = __
(−1)(−2)(−3)(− __)
x 3
2
2
3!

= 1 × (1 + __ + ___ + ___ + …)
x x2 x3
2 4 8
x x2 x3
= 1 + __ + ___ + ___
2 4 8
4 − 5x
Hence ____________
(1 + x)(2 − x)
= 3(1 + x)−1 − 2(2 − x)−1 ‘Add’ both expressions.
= (3 − 3x + 3x2 − 3x3)

−(1 + __ + ___ + ___)

x x2 x3
2 4 8
7 11 25 The expansion is infinite, and converges when
= 2 − __ x + __ x2 − ___ x3
2 4 8 |x| < 1
3
c _____ is valid if |x| < 1
1+x The expansion is infinite, and converges when
x
2
______
2−x | |x
is valid if __ < 1 ⇒ |x| < 2
2
||
__
2
< 1 or |x| < 2

Watch out You need to find the range of values

–2 –1 0 1 2 of x that satisfy both inequalities.
The expansion is valid when |x| < 1

Exercise 4C SKILLS INNOVATION

8x + 4
P 1 a Express ____________ as partial fractions.
(1 − x)(2 + x)
8x + 4
b Hence or otherwise expand ____________ in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x2.
(1 − x)(2 + x)
c State the set of values of x for which the expansion is valid.
42 CHAPTER 4 BINOMIAL EXPANSION

2x
P 2 a Express − _______2 as partial fractions.
(2 + x)
2x 1
b Hence prove that − _______2 can be expressed in the form − __ x + Bx2 + Cx3 where constants B
(2 + x) 2
and C are to be determined.
c State the set of values of x for which the expansion is valid.

6 + 7x + 5x2
P 3 a Express __________________ as partial fractions.
(1 + x)(1 − x)(2 + x)
6 + 7x + 5x2
b Hence or otherwise expand __________________ in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x3.
(1 + x)(1 − x)(2 + x)
c State the set of values of x for which the expansion is valid.

12x − 1 1
E/P 4 g(x) = ______________ , |x| < __
(1 + 2x)(1 − 3x) 3
A B
Given that g(x) can be expressed in the form g(x) = ______ + ______
1 + 2x 1 − 3x
a Find the values of A and B. (3 marks)
b Hence, or otherwise, find the series expansion of g(x), in ascending powers of x,
up to and including the x2 term. Simplify each term. (6 marks)

2x 2 + 7x − 6
P 5 a Express ____________ in partial fractions. Hint First divide the numerator
(x + 5)(x − 4)
by the denominator.
2x 2 + 7x − 6
b Hence, or otherwise, expand ____________ in ascending
(x + 5)(x − 4)
powers of x as far as the term in x2.
c State the set of values of x for which the expansion is valid.

3x 2 + 4x − 5 B C
E/P 6 ____________ = A + _____ + _____
(x + 3)(x − 2) x+3 x−2
a Find the values of the constants A, B and C. (4 marks)
3x + 4x − 5
2
b Hence, or otherwise, expand ____________ in ascending powers of x, as far as the term in x2.
(x + 3)(x − 2)
Give each coefficient as a simplified fraction. (7 marks)

2x 2 + 5x + 11 1
E/P 7 f(x) = ______________ , |x| < __
(2x − 1) (x + 1)
2 2
A B C
f(x) can be expressed in the form f(x) = ______ + ________2 + _____
2x − 1 (2x − 1) x+1
a Find the values of A, B and C. (4 marks)
b Hence or otherwise, find the series expansion of f(x), in ascending powers of x,
up to and including the term in x2. Simplify each term. (6 marks)
c Find the percentage error made in using the series expansion in part b to estimate
the value of f(0.05). Give your answer to 2 significant figures. (4 marks)
BINOMIAL EXPANSION CHAPTER 4 43

Chapter review 4 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

P 1 For each of the following

i find the binomial expansion up to and including the x3 term
ii state the range of values of x for which the expansion is valid.
_______ 1 4
a (1 − 4x)3 b √ 16 + x c _______ d ______
1 − 2x 2 + 3x

g (_____)
2
4 1+x 1+x x−3
e _______
______ f ______ h _____________
√4 − x 1 + 3x 1−x (1 − x)(1 − 2x)
_1

2 Use the binomial expansion to expand (1 − x) , |x| < 2 in ascending powers of x,

1
__
2

E
2
up to and including the term in x3, simplifying each term. (5 marks)
_1
3 a Give the binomial expansion of (1 + x) 2 up to and including the term in x3.
1 __
b By substituting x = __ , find an approximation to √5 as a fraction.
4
_2
E/P 4 The binomial expansion of (1 + 9x) 3 in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in
1
x3 is 1 + 6x + cx2 + dx3, |x| < __
9
a Find the value of c and the value of d. (4 marks)
b Use this expansion with your values of c and d together with an appropriate value
_2
of x to obtain an estimate of (1.45) 3 (2 marks)
_2
c Obtain (1.45) 3 from your calculator and hence make a comment on the accuracy
of the estimate you obtained in part b. (1 mark)
_1
P 5 In the expansion of (1 + ax) 2 the coefficient of x2 is −2.
a Find the possible values of a.
b Find the corresponding coefficients of the x3 term.
1
E 6 f(x) = (1 + 3x)−1, |x| < __
3
a Expand f(x) in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x3. (5 marks)
b Hence show that, for small x:
1+x
______
≈ 1 − 2x + 6x2 − 18x3 (4 marks)
1 + 3x
c Taking a suitable value for x, which should be stated, use the series expansion in
101
part b to find an approximate value for ____ , giving your answer to 5 decimal places. (3 marks)
103
E/P 7 When (1 + ax)n is expanded as a series in ascending powers of x, the coefficients of x and x2 are
−6 and 27 respectively.
a Find the values of a and n. (4 marks)
b Find the coefficient of x .
3 (3 marks)
c State the values of x for which the expansion is valid. (1 mark)
44 CHAPTER 4 BINOMIAL EXPANSION

3 3 3 9
8 Show that if x is sufficiently small then ______
_____ can be approximated by __ − ___ x + ____ x2
√4 + x 2 16 256

1
E 9 a Expand ______
_____ , where |x| < 4, in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x2.
√4 − x
Simplify each term. (5 marks)
+ 2x
1_____
b Hence, or otherwise, find the first 3 terms in the expansion of ______ as a series in
√4 − x
ascending powers of x. (4 marks)

E 10 a Find the first four terms of the expansion, in ascending powers of x, of

2
(2 + 3x)−1, |x| < __ (4 marks)
3
b Hence or otherwise, find the first four non-zero terms of the expansion, in ascending powers
of x, of:
1+x
______ 2
, |x| < __ (3 marks)
2 + 3x 3
_1
E/P 11 a Use the binomial theorem to expand (4 + x) − 2, |x| < 4, in ascending powers of x,
up to and including the x3 term, giving each answer as a simplified fraction. (5 marks)
b Use your expansion, together with a suitable value of x, to obtain an approximation
__
√2
___
to . Give your answer to 4 decimal places. (3 marks)
2
3
E 12 q(x) = (3 + 4x)−3, |x| < __
4
Find the binomial expansion of q(x) in ascending powers of x, up to and including
the term in the x2. Give each coefficient as a simplified fraction. (5 marks)

39x + 12
E/P 13 g(x) = __________________ , |x| < 1
(x + 1)(x + 4)(x − 8)
A B C
g(x) can be expressed in the form g(x) = _____ + _____ + _____
x+1 x+4 x−8
a Find the values of A, B and C. (4 marks)
b Hence, or otherwise, find the series expansion of g(x), in ascending powers of x,
up to and including the x2 term. Simplify each term. (7 marks)

12x + 5 1
E/P 14 f(x) = ________2 , |x| < __
(1 + 4x) 4
1 12x + 5 A B
For x ≠ − __ , ________2 = ______ + ________2 , where A and B are constants.
4 (1 + 4x) 1 + 4x (1 + 4x)
a Find the values of A and B. (3 marks)
b Hence, or otherwise, find the series expansion of f(x), in ascending powers of x,
up to and including the term x2, simplifying each term. (6 marks)
BINOMIAL EXPANSION CHAPTER 4 45

9x2 + 26x + 20
E/P 15 q(x) = _____________ , |x| < 1
(1 + x)(2 + x)
a Show that the expansion of q(x) in ascending powers of x can be approximated
to 10 − 2x + Bx2 + Cx3 where B and C are constants to be found. (7 marks)
b Find the percentage error made in using the series expansion in part a to estimate
the value of q(0.1). Give your answer to 2 significant figures. (4 marks)

Challenge
Obtain the first four non-zero terms in the expansion, in ascending
1
powers of x, of the function f(x) where f(x) = _________
________ , 3x < 1
2
√ 1 + 3x2

Summary of key points

1 This form of the binomial expansion can be applied to negative or fractional values of n to
obtain an infinite series:
n(n − 1)x2 n(n − 1)(n − 2)x3 n(n − 1)…(n − r + 1)xr
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + _________ + ______________ + … + ___________________ + …
2! 3! r!
The expansion is valid when |x| < 1, n ∈ ℝ.

1
2 The expansion of (1 + bx)n, where n is negative or a fraction, is valid for |bx| < 1, or |x| < ___
|b|

3 | |
b
The expansion of (a + bx)n, where n is negative or a fraction, is valid for __
a
__
a x < 1 or |x| < b ||
f(x)
4 If an expression is of the form ____ where g(x) can be split into linear factors, then split
g(x)
f(x)
____ into partial fractions before expanding each part of the new expression.
g(x)
46 1 REVIEW EXERCISE

E/P
Review exercise
1 Prove by contradiction that there are
infinitely many prime numbers.
← Pure 4 Section 1.1
(4)
14x2 + 13x + 2
8 ______________2
(x + 1)(2x + 1)
A B C
1
; _____ + ______ + _______2
x + 1 2x + 1 (2x + 1)

E/P 2 Prove that the equation x2 − 2 = 0 has no Find the values of the constants A, B
rational solutions. and C. ← Pure 4 Section 2.2
You may assume that if n2 is an even ex + f
3 x 2 + 6x − 2
integer then n is also an even integer. (4) E 9 Given that ___________ ; d + ______
x2 + 4 x2 + 4
← Pure 4 Section 1.1
find the values of d, e and f. (4)
← Pure 4 Section 2.3
E 3 Prove by contradiction, that if n is odd,
then 3n2 + 2 is odd.
9 − 3x − 12 x 2
← Pure 4 Section 1.1 E 10 p(x) = _____________
(1 − x)(1 + 2x)
__ Show that p(x) can be written in the form
P 4 Prove by contradiction that √ 5 is irrational. B C
← Pure 4 Section 1.1
A + _____ + ______ , where A, B and C are
1 − x 1 + 2x
constants to be found. (4)
2x − 1
E 5 Show that _____________ can be written ← Pure 4 Sections 2.1, 2.3
(x − 1 ) (2x − 3)
A B
in the form _____ + ______ where A and E
4x − 1
11 Split ____________ into partial fractions.
x − 1 2x − 3 (x + 1)(x + 3)
B are constants to be found. (3) ← Pure 4 Section 2.1

← Pure 4 Section 2.1

4x3
E/P 12 Given that _____________2 can be written
(x − 3)(x − 1)
E 6 Given that
B C D
Q as A + _____ + _____ + _______2 determine
3x + 7
__________________ P
_____ _____ R
_____ x − 3 x − 1 (x − 1)
; + +
(x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3) x+1 x+2 x+3 the values of A, B, C and D.
where P, Q and R are constants, find the ← Pure 4 Sections 2.1, 2.3
values of P, Q and R. (4)
5x + 3
← Pure 4 Section 2.1 E/P 13 a Express _____________ in partial
(2x − 3)(x + 2)
2 fractions. (3)
E 7 f(x) = ____________2 , x ≠ − 1, x ≠ 2
(2 − x) (1 + x) b Hence find the exact value of

∫2 _____________
5x + 3
6
Find the values of A, B and C such that dx, giving your
(2x − 3)(x + 2)
A B C
f(x) = _____ + _____ + _______2 (4) answer as a single logarithm. (4)
2 − x 1 + x (1 + x)
← Pure 4 Section 2.2 ← Pure 4 Section 2.1
REVIEW EXERCISE 1 47

E 14 A curve C has parametric equations E/P 18 The curve shown in the figure has
4 parametric equations
x = 1 − __, y = t 2 − 3t + 1, t ∈ R, t ≠ 0 π π π
t x = sin t, y = sin (t + __), − __ < t < __
a Determine the ranges of x and y in the 6 2 2
given domain of t. (3) y

b Show that the Cartesian equation of C B

can be written in the form
ax2 + bx + c A
y = ___________ , where a, b and c are O x
(1 − x)2
integers to be found. (3)
← Pure 4 Section 3.1 a Show that a Cartesian equation of the
curve is
__
√3 1 ______
E 15 A curve has parametric equations y = x + __√(1 − x 2) , −1 < x < 1 (4)
___
2 2
3t
x = ln (t + 2), y = ____ , t > 4 b Find the coordinates of the points A
t+3
and B, where the curve intercepts the
a Find a Cartesian equation of this x- and y-axes. (3)
curve in the form y = f(x), x . k, where ← Pure 4 Section 3.2
k is an exact constant to be found. (4)
E 19 The curve C has parametric equations
b Write down the range of f(x) in the
form a , y , b, where a and b are x = 3 cos t, y = cos 2t, 0 < t < π
constants to be found. (2) a Find a Cartesian equation of C. (4)
← Pure 4 Section 3.1 b Sketch the curve C on the appropriate
domain, labelling the points where the
E 16 A curve C has parametric equations curve intercepts the x- and y-axes. (3)
1 1 ← Pure 4 Section 3.2, 3.3
x = ____ , y = ____ , −1 , t , 1
1+t 1−t E 20 a Expand (1 − 2x)10 in ascending
Show that a Cartesian equation of C is powers of x up to and including the
x term in x3. (3)
y = ______ (4)
2x − 1 b Use your answer to part a to
← Pure 4 Section 3.1
evaluate (0.98)10 correct to 3 decimal
places. (1)
E/P 17 A curve C has parametric equations
← Pure 4 Section 4.1
π
x = 2 cos t, y = cos 3t, 0 < t < __ E/P 21 If x is so small that terms of x3 and
2
a Find a Cartesian equation of the curve higher can be ignored,
in the form y = f(x), where f(x) is a (2 − x)(1 + 2x)5 ≈ a + bx + cx2
cubic function. (5) Find the values of the constants
a, b and c. (5)
b State the domain and range of f(x) for
← Pure 4 Section 4.1
the given domain of t. (2)
← Pure 4 Section 3.2 E/P 22 The coefficient of x in the binomial
expansion of (2 − 4x)q, where q is a
positive integer, is −32q. Find the value
of q. (4)
← Pure 4 Section 4.2
48 1 REVIEW EXERCISE

1 _____ 4
E 23 g(x) = ______
____ E 27 h(x) = √ 4 − 9x , |x| < __
√1 − x 9
a Show that the series expansion of g(x) a Find the series expansion of h(x),
up to and including the x3 term is in ascending powers of x, up to and
x 3 x2 5 x3 including the x2 term. Simplify each
1 + __ + ____ + ____ (5) term. (4)
2 8 16
b State the range of values of x for which 1
b Show that, when x = ____, the exact
the expansion is valid. (1) ____ 100
√ 391
_____
← Pure 4 Section 4.1 value of h(x) is (2)
10
P 24 When (1 + ax)n is expanded as a series in c Use the series expansion in part a
to estimate the value of h(____) and
ascending powers of x, the coefficients of 1
x and x2 are −6 and 45 respectively. 100
state the degree of accuracy of your
a Find the value of a and the value of n.
approximation. (3)
b Find the coefficient of x3.
← Pure 4 Section 4.2
c Find the set of values of x for which
the expansion is valid. E/P 28 Given that (a + bx) −2 has binomial
← Pure 4 Section 4.1
1 1
expansion __ + __ x + cx 2 + …
4 4
E 25 a Find the binomial expansion of a Find the values of the constants
_3
(1 + 4x) 2 in ascending powers of a, b and c. (4)
x up to and including the x3 term,
simplifying each term. (4) b Find the coefficient of the x3 term in
3 the expansion. (2)
b Show that, when x = ____, the exact
100 ← Pure 4 Section 4.2
____
112 √ 112 3 + 5x 1
value of (1 + 4x) 2 is ________ 29 g(x) = _____________ , |x| < __
_3
(2) E/P
1000 (1 + 3x)(1 − x) 3
3 Given that g(x) can be expressed in the
c Substitute x = ____ into the binomial
100 A B
form g(x ) = ______ + _____
expansion in part a and hence obtain
____
1 + 3x 1 − x
√
an approximation to 112 . Give your a find the values of A and B. (3)
answer to 5 decimal places. (3) b Hence, or otherwise, find the series
d Calculate the percentage error in your expansion of f(x), in ascending powers
estimate to 5 decimal places. (2) of x, up to and including the x2 term.
Simplify each term. (6)
← Pure 4 Section 4.1
← Pure 4 Sections 4.1, 4.3

3 3x − 1 A B 1
E 26 f(x) = (1 + x) (3 + 2x) −3, |x| < __ E/P 30 ________2 ; ______ + ________2 , |x| < __
2 (1 − 2x) 1 − 2x (1 − 2x) 2
Find the binomial expansion of f(x) a Find the values of A and B. (3)
in ascending powers of x, up to and 3x − 1
including the term in x3. Give each b Hence, or otherwise, expand ________2
(1 − 2x)
coefficient as a simplified fraction. (5) in ascending powers of x, as far as the
← Pure 4 Section 4.2 term in x3. Give each coefficient as a
simplified fraction. (6)
← Pure 4 Sections 4.1, 4.3
REVIEW EXERCISE 1 49

25
E/P 31 f(x) = ______________ , |x| < 1 Challenge
(3 + 2x) 2 (1 − x)
1 Prove by contradiction that if a, b ∈ ℤ then
f(x) can be expressed in the form a2 − 8b ≠ 2
A
______ B C
+ ________ + _____ 2x4 + 3
2 Express ______ as partial fractions.
3 + 2x (3 + 2x)2 1 − x x2 − 1
a Find the values of A, B and C. (4) 3 A curve has parametric equations
b Hence, or otherwise, find the series x = sint, y = sin 3t, 0 < t < π
expansion of f(x), in ascending powers a Find a Cartesian equation of the curve in the
of x, up to and including the term in form y = f(x)
x2. Simplify each term. (6) b Determine the domain and range of f(x), and
hence sketch the curve.
← Pure 4 Sections 4.1, 4.2, 4.3
y
4 x + 30x + 31
2
B C 1
E/P 32 _____________ = A + _____ + ______
(x + 4)(2x + 3) x + 4 2x + 3
a Find the values of the constants A, B 0.5
and C. (4)
b Hence, or otherwise, expand –1 –0.5 O 0.5 1 x
4 x 2 + 31x + 30
_____________
in ascending powers of –0.5
(x + 4 ) (2x + 3)
x, as far as the term in x2. Give each
coefficient as a simplified fraction. (7) –1

← Pure 4 Sections 4.1, 4.2, 4.3

4 Using the binomial expansion, find an ___
approximation, to 6 decimal places, for √98
Using your result, find an approximate value for
π
cos __ to 6 decimal places.
4
5 DIFFERENTIATION
5.1
5.2

Learning objectives
A"er completing this chapter you should be able to:
● Differentiate parametric equations → pages 51–52
● Differentiate functions which are defined implicitly
→ pages 54–55
● Solve problems involving connected rates of change
and construct simple differential equations
→ pages 57–59

Prior knowledge check

1 Differentiate:
a sin 2x b x2(1 − 3x)4 c e2x + 3
← Pure 3 Sections 6.1, 6.2, 6.4

Find the gradient of the function y = ln (_____) at the

2x
2
x+3
point where x = 1
← Pure 3 Sections 6.2, 6.5

3 The curve C is defined by the parametric equations You can use differentiation
x= 3t2 − 5t, y= t3 + 2, t∈ℝ to find rates of change in
Find the coordinates of any points where C intersects trigonometric and exponential
the coordinate axes. ← Pure 1 Sections 4.1, 4.3
models. The velocity of
a wrecking ball could be
4 Solve 2 cosec x − 3 sec x = 0 in the interval 0 < x < 2π estimated by modelling
giving your answers correct to 3 significant figures. its displacement then
← Pure 3 Sections 3.2, 3.4 differentiating.

50
DIFFERENTIATION CHAPTER 5 51

5.1 Parametric differentiation

When functions are defined parametrically, you can find the gradient at a given point without
converting into Cartesian form. You can use a variation of the chain rule:
dy
___ Hint You can obtain this
d y
___ dt
_____
■ If x and y are given as functions of a parameter, t: = dy dx dy
from writing ___ × ___ = ___
dx ___ dx dx dt dt
dt

Example 1 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

Find the gradient at the point P where t = 2, on the curve given parametrically by
x = t3 + t, y = t2 + 1, t ∈ 핉

dx
___ dy First differentiate x and y with respect to the
= 3t2 + 1, ___ = 2t
dt dt parameter t.
dy
___
dy ____
___ dt 2t
= = _______ dy
dx ___dx 3t + 1
2 This rule will give the gradient function ___
dx
dt in terms of the parameter, t.
dy 4
When t = 2, ___ = ___
dx 13 2t
4 Substitute t = 2 into ______
___ 3t2 + 1
So the gradient at P is
13

Example 2 SKILLS INNOVATION

π
Find the equation of the normal at the point P where θ = __ , to the curve with parametric
6
equations x = 3 sin θ, y = 5 cos θ.

dx
___ dy First differentiate x and y with respect to the
= 3 cos θ, ___ = −5 sin θ 0 < θ < 2π
dθ dθ parameter θ.
dy −5 sin θ
∴ ___ = _______
dx 3 cos θ dy dx π
Use the chain rule, ___ ÷ ___ , and substitute θ = __
π dθ dθ 6
At point P, where θ = __
6
___ −5 × __
dy _______
1
−5__
y

__ = ____
2
= Online
x

dx √3 3√ 3 Explore the graph of this

___
3× curve and the normal at this point
2
using technology.
52 CHAPTER 5 DIFFERENTIATION

__
3√ 3 The normal is perpendicular to the curve, so its
____
The gradient of the normal at P is 1
5 gradient is − __
m where m is the gradient of the
__
3 5√ 3 curve at that point.
and at P, x = __ , y = ____
2 2
The equation of the normal is You need to find the coordinates of P. Substitute
π
__ __
θ = __ into each of the parametric equations.
y − ____ = ____ (x − __)
5√ 3 3√ 3 3 6
2 5 2 ← Pure 2 Section 6.2
__ __
∴ 5y = 3√ 3 x + 8√ 3 Use the equation for a line in the form
y − y1 = m(x − x1)

Exercise 5A SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

dy
1 Find ___ for each of the following, leaving your answer in terms of the parameter t.
dx
a x = 2t, y = t2 − 3t + 2 b x = 3t2, y = 2t3 c x = t + 3t2, y = 4t
2 1 t2
d x = t2 − 2, y = 3t5 e x = __t , y = 3t2 − 2 f x = ______ , y = ______
2t − 1 2t − 1
2t 1 − t2
g x = _____2 , y = _____2 h x = t2et, y = 2t i x = 4 sin 3t, y = 3 cos 3t
1+t 1+t
j x = 2 + sin t, y = 3 − 4 cos t k x = sec t, y = tan t l x = 2t − sin 2t, y = 1 − cos 2t
m x = et − 5, y = ln t, t > 0 n x = ln t, y = t2 − 64, t > 0 o x = e2t + 1, y = 2et − 1, −1 < t < 1

P 2 a Find the equation of the tangent to the curve with parametric equations
x = 3 − 2 sin t, y = t cos t, at the point P, where t = π

b Find the equation of the tangent to the curve with parametric equations
x = 9 − t2, y = t2 + 6t, at the point P, where t = 2

P 3 a Find the equation of the normal to the curve with parametric equations
x = et, y = et + e−t, at the point P, where t = 0
b Find the equation of the normal to the curve with parametric equations
π
x = 1 − cos 2t, y = sin 2t, at the point P, where t = __
6

P 4 Find the points of zero gradient on the curve with parametric equations
t t2
x = _____ , y = _____ , t ≠ 1
1−t 1−t
You do not need to establish whether they are maximum or minimum points.

P 5 The curve C has parametric equations x = e2t, y = et − 1, t ∈ ℝ

a Find the equation of the tangent to C at the point A where t = ln 2
b Show that the curve C has no stationary points.
DIFFERENTIATION CHAPTER 5 53

E/P 6 The curve C has parametric equations

t 2 − 3t − 4
x = __________
t , y = 2t, t > 0

The line l1 is a tangent to C and is parallel to the line with equation y = x + 5

Find the equation of l1. (8 marks)

E/P 7 A curve has parametric equations

π
x = 2 sin2 t, y = 2 cot t, 0 < t < __
2
dy
a Find an expression for ___ in terms of the parameter t. (4 marks)
dx
π
b Find an equation of the tangent to the curve at the point where t = __ (4 marks)
6
E/P 8 The curve C has parametric equations
x = 4 sin t, y = 2 cosec 2t, 0<t<π
__

The point A lies on C and has coordinates (2√3 ,

3 )
__ 4 √3
____

a Find the value of t at the point A. (2 marks)

The line l is a normal to C at A.
__
b Show that an equation for l is 9x + 12y − 34√ 3 = 0 (6 marks)

E/P 9 The curve C has parametric equations

x = t2 + t, y = t2 − 10t + 5, t∈ℝ
where t is a parameter. Given that at point P, the gradient of C is 2,
a find the coordinates of P (4 marks)
b find the equation of the tangent to C at point P (3 marks)
c show that the tangent to C at point P does not intersect the curve again. (5 marks)

Problem-solving
Substitute the equations for x and y into the equation of your tangent,
and show that the resulting quadratic equation has no real roots.

E/P 10 The curve C has parametric equations

__
x = 2sin t, y = √ 2 cos 2t, 0 < t < π
dy
a Find an expression for ___ in terms of t. (2 marks)
dx
π
The point A lies on C where t = __ The line l is the normal to C at A.
3
b Find an equation for l in the form ax + by + c = 0, where a, b and c are exact constants
to be found. (5 marks)
c Prove that the line l does not intersect the curve anywhere other than at point A. (6 marks)
54 CHAPTER 5 DIFFERENTIATION

E/P 11 A curve has parametric equations

y = _2 sin 2t,
1
x = cos t, 0 < t , 2π
dy
a Find an expression for ___ in terms of t. (2 marks)
dx
π
b Find an equation of the tangent to the curve at point A where t = __ (4 marks)
6
The lines l1 and l2 are two further distinct tangents to the curve. Given that l1 and l2 are both
parallel to the tangent to the curve at point A,
c find an equation of l1 and an equation of l2 (6 marks)

5.2 Implicit differentiation

Some equations are difficult to rearrange into Notation An equation in the form y = f(x) is
the form y = f(x) or x = f( y). You can sometimes given explicitly.
differentiate these equations implicitly without
rearranging them. Equations which involve functions of both x
and y such as x2 + 2xy = 3 or cos (x + y) = 2x
In general, from the chain rule: are called implicit equations.
d dy
■ ___ (f( y)) = f9( y) ___
dx dx
The following two specific results are useful for implicit differentiation:
d n dy
■ ___ ( y ) = ny n − 1 ___
dx dx
d dy
■ ___ (xy) = x ___ + y
dx dx
When you differentiate implicit equations
dy Watch out You need to pay careful attention to
your expression for ___ will usually be given
dx the variable you are differentiating with respect to.
in terms of both x and y.

Example 3 SKILLS ADAPTIVE LEARNING

dy
Find ___ in terms of x and y where x3 + x + y3 + 3y = 6
dx
Differentiate the expression term by term with
dy dy respect to x.
3x2 + 1 + 3y2 ___ + 3 ___ = 0
dx dx
d dy
Use ___( y n) = ny n − 1 ___ with n = 3
dy dx dx
___
(3y2 + 3) = −3x2 − 1
dx
dy
Then make ___ the subject of the formula.
dy dx
___ 3x2 + 1
= − ________
dx 3(1 + y2)
Divide both sides by 3y2 + 3 and factorise.
DIFFERENTIATION CHAPTER 5 55

Example 4 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

6x2 dy
Given that 4xy2 + ___ ___
y = 10, find the value of dx at the point (1, 1).

Differentiate each term with respect to x.

(4x × 2y dx + 4y ) + ( y − y2 dx ) = 0
dy
___ 2 ____ 6x ___
12x ____ 2 dy
Use the product rule on each term, expressing
6x2
___
y as 6x y
2 −1
Substitute x = 1, y = 1 to give

(8 dx + 4) + (12 − 6 dx ) = 0
dy dy dy
___ ___ Find the value of ___ at (1, 1) by substituting
dx
x = 1, y = 1
dy
16 + 2 ___ = 0
dx Substitute before rearranging, as this simplifies
dy the working.
___
= −8
dx
dy
Solve to find the value of ___ at this point.
dx

Example 5 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

dy
Find the value of ___ at the point (1, 1) where e2x ln y = x + y − 2.
dx

dy
1 ___ dy
e2x × __ ___
y dx + ln y × 2e = 1 + dx
2x Differentiate each term with respect to x.

Substitute x = 1, y = 1 to give Use the product rule applied to the term on the
dy dy le" hand side of the equation, noting that ln y
e2 × ___ = 1 + ___ 1 dy
dx dx differentiates to give __ ___
y dx
dy
∴ (e2 − 1) ___ = 1
dx
dy
___ 1 dy
= ______ Rearrange to make ___ the subject of the formula.
dx e2 − 1 dx

Exercise 5B SKILLS INNOVATION

d dy
P 1 By writing u = y n, and using the chain rule, show that ___ ( y n) = ny n − 1 ___
dx dx

d dy
P 2 Use the product rule to show that ___ (xy) = x ___ + y
dx dx
56 CHAPTER 5 DIFFERENTIATION

dy
P 3 Find an expression in terms of x and y for ___ , given that:
dx
a x2 + y3 = 2 b x2 + 5y2 = 14 c x2 + 6x − 8y + 5y2 = 13
2y
d y3 + 3x2y − 4x = 0 e 3y2 − 2y + 2xy = x3 f x = ______
x2 − y
___
g (x − y)4 = x + y + 5 h exy = xey i √ xy + x + y2 = 0

P 4 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve with implicit equation x2 + 3xy2 − y3 = 9 at the
point (2, 1).

P 5 Find the equation of the normal to the curve with implicit equation (x + y)3 = x2 + y at the
point (1, 0).

P 6 Find the coordinates of the points of Problem-solving

zero gradient on the curve with implicit
dy
equation x2 + 4y2 − 6x − 16y + 21 = 0 Find ___ then set the numerator equal to 0 to find
dx
the x-coordinate at the points of 0 gradient. You
need to find two corresponding y-coordinates.

E/P 7 A curve C is described by the equation

2x2 + 3y2 − x + 6xy + 5 = 0
Find an equation of the tangent to C at the point (1, −2), giving your answer in the form
ax + by + c = 0, where a, b and c are integers. (7 marks)

E/P 8 A curve C has equation

3x = y − 2xy
dy
Find the exact value of ___ at the point on C with coordinates (2, −3) (7 marks)
dx
E/P 9 Find the gradient of the curve with equation
1
ln (y2) = __ x ln (x − 1), x > 1, y > 0
2
at the point on the curve where x = 4. Give your answer as an exact value. (7 marks)

E/P 10 A curve C satisfies sin x + cos y = 0.5, where −π < x < π and −π < y < π
dy
a Find an expression for ___ (2 marks)
dx
b Find the coordinates of the stationary points on C. (5 marks)

E/P 11 The curve C has the equation ye−3x − 3x = y2

dy
a Find ___ in terms of x and y. (5 marks)
dx
b Show that the equation of the tangent to C at the origin, O, is y = 3x (4 marks)
DIFFERENTIATION CHAPTER 5 57

Challenge
The curve C has implicit equation 6x + y2 + 2xy = x2
dy
a Show that there are no points on the curve such that ___ = 0
dx
dx
b Find the coordinates of the two points on C such that ___ = 0
dy

5.3 Rates of change

■ You can use the chain rule to connect rates of change in situations involving more than two
variables.

Example 6 SKILLS CRITICAL THINKING

Given that the area of a circle A cm2 is related to its radius r cm by the formula A = πr2, and that
dr dA
the rate of change of its radius in cm s−1 is given by ___ = 5, find ___ when r = 3
dt dt

A = πr2 Problem-solving
dA
___ In order to be able to apply the chain rule to
∴ = 2πr
dr dA dA
find ___ you need to know ___. You can find it by
dA dA dr dt dr
Using ___ = ___
× ___ differentiating A = πr2 with respect to r.
dt dr dt
dA
___
= 2πr × 5
dt You should use the chain rule, giving the
= 30π, when r = 3 derivative which you need to find in terms of
known derivatives.

Example 7 SKILLS INTERPRETATION

2
The volume of a hemisphere V cm3 is related to its radius r cm by the formula V = __ πr3 and the total
3
surface area S cm2 is given by the formula S = πr2 + 2πr2 = 3πr2. Given that the rate of increase
dV dS
of volume, in cm3 s−1, ___ = 6, find the rate of increase of surface area ___
dt dt

2 This is area of circular base plus area of curved

V = __ πr3 and S = 3πr2 surface.
3
dV
___ dS
= 2πr2 and ___ = 6πr
dr dr dV dS
As V and S are functions of r, find ___ and ___
dr dr
58 CHAPTER 5 DIFFERENTIATION

dS dS dr dV Use the chain rule together with the property

Now ___ = ___ × ___ × ___
dt dr dV dt dr dV
that ___ = 1 ÷ ___
1 dV dr
= 6πr × _____2 × 6
2πr
18
= ___
r

An equation that involves a rate of change is called a

Links You can use integration to solve
differential equation. You can formulate differential
differential equations. → Pure 4 Section 6.5
equations from information given in a question.

Example 8 SKILLS ADAPTIVE LEARNING

In the decay of radioactive particles, the rate at which particles decay is proportional to the number
of particles remaining. Write down a differential equation for the rate of change of the number of
particles.

Let N be the number of particles and let t be

time. The rate of change of the number of
dN
particles ___ is proportional to N.
dt
dN dN
dN
___ ∝ N so you can write ___ = kN
i.e. ___ = −kN, where k is a positive constant. dt dt
dt
where k is the constant of proportion.
The minus sign arises because the number of
particles is decreasing.

Example 9 SKILLS ADAPTIVE LEARNING

Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate of loss of temperature of a body is proportional to the
excess temperature of the body over its surroundings. Write an equation that expresses this law.

Let the temperature of the body be θ degrees

and the time be t seconds.
dθ
The rate of change of the temperature ___
dt
θ − θ0 is the difference between the temperature
is proportional to θ − θ0, where θ 0 is the
of the body and that of its surroundings.
temperature of the surroundings.
dθ
i.e. ___ = −k(θ − θ 0), where k is a positive
dt The minus sign arises because the temperature
constant. is decreasing. The question mentions loss of
temperature.
DIFFERENTIATION CHAPTER 5 59

Example 10 SKILLS CRITICAL THINKING

The head of a snowman of radius R cm loses volume by evaporation at a rate proportional to its
surface area. Assuming that the head is spherical, that the volume of a sphere is _3 πR3 cm3 and that
4

the surface is 4πR2 cm2, write down a differential equation for the rate of change of radius of the
snowman’s head.

dV
The first sentence tells you that ___ = −kA,
dt
where V cm3 is the volume, t seconds is time,
k is a positive constant and A cm2 is the
surface area of the snowman’s head.
The question asks for a differential equation in
4
Since V = __πR3 terms of R, so you need to use the expression for
3
dV V in terms of R.
___
= 4πR2
dR
dV dV dR dR The chain rule is used here because this is a
___
∴ = ___ × ___ = 4πR2 × ___ related rate of change.
dt dR dt dt
dV
But as ___ = −kA Use the expression for A in terms of R.
dt
dR
4πR2 × ___ = −k × 4πR2 Divide both sides by the common factor 4πR2.
dt
dR
___
∴ = −k This gives the rate of change of radius as required.
dt

Exercise 5C SKILLS CREATIVITY

1 dr dA
P 1 Given that A = __ πr2 and that ___ = 6, find ___ when r = 2
4 dt dt

dx dy
P 2 Given that y = xex and that ___ = 5, find ___ when x = 2
dt dt

dθ dr π
P 3 Given that r = 1 + 3 cos θ and that ___ = 3, find ___ when θ = __
dt dt 6

1 dV dr
P 4 Given that V = __ πr3 and that ___ = 8, find ___ when r = 3
3 dt dt

P 5 A population is growing at a rate which is proportional to the size of the population.

Write down a differential equation for the growth of the population.

P 6 A curve C has equation y = f(x), y > 0. At any point P on the curve, the gradient of C is
proportional to the product of the x- and the y-coordinates of P. The point A with coordinates
1
(4, 2) is on C and the gradient of C at A is __
2
dy xy
Show that ___ = ___
dx 16
60 CHAPTER 5 DIFFERENTIATION

P 7 Liquid is pouring into a container at a constant rate of 30 cm3 s−1. At time t seconds liquid is
2
leaking from the container at a rate of ___ V cm3 s−1, where V cm3 is the volume of the liquid in
15
the container at that time.
dV
Show that −15 ___ = 2V − 450
dt
P 8 An electrically-charged body loses its charge, Q coulombs, at a rate, measured in coulombs per
second, proportional to the charge Q.
Write down a differential equation in terms of Q and t where t is the time in seconds since the
body started to lose its charge.

P 9 The ice on a pond has a thickness x mm at a time t hours after the start of freezing. The rate of
increase of x is inversely proportional to the square of x.
Write down a differential equation in terms of x and t.

P 10 The radius of a circle is increasing at a constant rate of 0.4 cm per second.

dC
a Find ___, where C is the circumference of the circle, and interpret this value in the context of
dt
the model.
b Find the rate at which the area of the circle is increasing when the radius is 10 cm.
c Find the radius of the circle when its area is increasing at the rate of 20 cm2 per second.

P 11 The volume of a cube is decreasing at a constant rate of 4.5 cm3 per second. Find
a the rate at which the length of one side of the cube is decreasing when the volume is 100 cm3
b the volume of the cube when the length of one side is decreasing at the rate of 2 mm per
second.

P 12 Fluid flows out of a cylindrical tank with constant cross section. At time t minutes, t > 0,
the volume of fluid remaining in the tank is V m3. The rate at which the fluid flows in m3 min−1
is proportional to the square root of V.
dh __
Show that the depth, h metres, of fluid in the tank satisfies the differential equation ___ = −k√h
dt
where k is a positive constant.

P 13 At time, t seconds, the surface area of a cube is A cm2 and the volume is V cm3.
The surface area of the cube is expanding at a constant rate of 2 cm2 s−1.
a Write an expression for V in terms of A.
dV
b Find an expression for ___
dA
dV __
___ 1 _13
c Show that = V
dt 2

P 14 An inverted conical funnel is full of salt. The salt is allowed to leave by a small hole in the
vertex. It leaves at a constant rate of 6 cm3 s−1.
Given that the angle of the cone between the slanting edge and the vertical is 30°, show that
1
the volume of the salt is __ πh3, where h is the height of salt at time t seconds. Show that the rate
9
of change of the height of the salt in the funnel is inversely proportional to h2. Write down a
differential equation relating h and t.
DIFFERENTIATION CHAPTER 5 61

Chapter review 5 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

E/P 1 The curve C is given by the equations

8
x = 4t − 3, y = __2 , t>0
t
where t is a parameter.
At A, t = 2. The line l is the normal to C at A.
dy
a Find ___ in terms of t. (4 marks)
dx
b Hence find an equation of l. (3 marks)

E/P 2 The curve C is given by the equations x = 2t, y = t2, where t is a parameter.
Find an equation of the normal to C at the point P on C where t = 3 (7 marks)

E/P 3 The curve C has parametric equations

x = t3, y = t2, t>0
Find an equation of the tangent to C at A (1, 1). (7 marks)

E/P 4 A curve C is given by the equations

x = 2 cos t + sin 2t, y = cos t − 2 sin 2t, 0<t<π
where t is a parameter.
dx dy
a Find ___ and ___ in terms of t. (3 marks)
dt dt
dy π
b Find the value of ___ at the point P on C where t = __ (3 marks)
dx 4
c Find an equation of the normal to the curve at P. (3 marks)

E/P 5 A curve is given by x = 2t + 3, y = t3 − 4t, where t is a parameter. The point A has parameter
t = −1 and the line l is the tangent to C at A. The line l also cuts the curve at B.
a Show that an equation for l is 2y + x = 7 (6 marks)
b Find the value of t at B. (5 marks)

P 6 A car has value £V at time t years. A model for V assumes that the rate of decrease of V at time
t is proportional to V. Form an appropriate differential equation for V.

P 7 In a study of the water loss of picked leaves the mass, M grams, of a single leaf was measured
at times, t days, after the leaf was picked. It was found that the rate of loss of mass was
proportional to the mass M of the leaf.
Write down a differential equation for the rate of change of mass of the leaf.

P 8 In a pond the amount of pondweed, P, grows at a rate proportional to the amount of

pondweed already present in the pond. Pondweed is also removed by fish eating it at a constant
rate of Q per unit of time.
62 CHAPTER 5 DIFFERENTIATION

Write down a differential equation relating P to t, where t is the time which has elapsed since
the start of the observation.

P 9 A circular patch of oil on the surface of some water has radius r and the radius increases over
time at a rate inversely proportional to the radius.
Write down a differential equation relating r and t, where t is the time which has elapsed since
the start of the observation.

P 10 A metal bar is heated to a certain temperature, then allowed to cool down and it is noted
that, at time t, the rate of loss of temperature is proportional to the difference between the
temperature of the metal bar, θ, and the temperature of its surroundings θ0.
Write down a differential equation relating θ and t.

E/P 11 The curve C has parametric equations

π π
x = 4 cos 2t, y = 3 sin t, − __ < t < __
2 2

A is the point (2, __), and lies on C.

3
2
a Find the value of t at the point A. (2 marks)
dy
b Find ___ in terms of t. (3 marks)
dx
c Show that an equation of the normal to C at A is 6y − 16x + 23 = 0 (4 marks)
The normal at A cuts C again at the point B.
d Find the y-coordinate of the point B. (6 marks)

E/P 12 The diagram shows the curve C with parametric y

equations
1
x = a sin2 t, y = a cos t, 0 < t < __ π A
2
where a is a positive constant. The point P lies
C
on C and has coordinates (__ a, __ a).
3 1
4 2
dy
___ P
a Find , giving your answer in terms of t. (4 marks)
dx
b Find an equation of the tangent to C at P. (4 marks) O B x
The tangent to C at P cuts the coordinate axes
at points A and B.
c Show that the triangle AOB has area ka2 where k is a constant to be found. (2 marks)

E/P 13 This graph shows part of the curve C with y

l
parametric equations P
1
x = (t + 1)2, y = __ t3 + 3, t > −1 C
2
P is the point on the curve where t = 2
The line l is the normal to C at P.
Find the equation of l. (7 marks) O x
DIFFERENTIATION CHAPTER 5 63

E/P 14 Find the gradient of the curve with equation 5x2 + 5y2 − 6xy = 13 at the point (1, 2). (7 marks)
dy
E/P 15 Given that e2x + e2y = xy, find ___ in terms of x and y. (7 marks)
dx
E/P 16 Find the coordinates of the turning points on the curve y3 + 3xy2 − x3 = 3 (7 marks)
dy
E/P 17 a If (1 + x)(2 + y) = x2 + y2, find ___ in terms of x and y. (4 marks)
dx
b Find the gradient of the curve (1 + x)(2 + y) = x2 + y2 at each of the two points
where the curve meets the y-axis. (3 marks)
c Show also that there are two points at which the tangents to this curve are
parallel to the y-axis. (4 marks)

E/P 18 A curve has equation 7x2 + 48xy − 7y2 + 75 = 0. A and B are two distinct points on the curve
2
and at each of these points the gradient of the curve is equal to ___ . Use implicit differentiation
11
to show that the straight line passing through A and B has equation x + 2y = 0 (6 marks)

E/P 19 Given that y = xx, x > 0, y > 0, by taking logarithms show that
dy
___
= xx(1 + ln x) (6 marks)
dx
E/P 20 a Given that ax ≡ ekx, where a and k are constants, a > 0 and x ∈ 핉, prove that
k = ln a. (2 marks)
b Hence, using the derivative of prove that when y =
ekx, 2x
dy
___
= 2x ln 2 (4 marks)
dx
c Hence deduce that the gradient of the curve with equation y = 2x at the point (2, 4)
is ln 16. (3 marks)

E/P 21 A population P is growing at the rate of 9% each year and at time t years may be approximated
by the formula
P = P0(1.09)t, t > 0
where P is regarded as a continuous function of t and P0 is the population at time t = 0.
a Find an expression for t in terms of P and P0. (2 marks)
b Find the time T years when the population has doubled from its value at t = 0, giving your
answer to 3 significant figures. (4 marks)
dP
___
c Find, as a multiple of P0, the rate of change of population at time t = T (4 marks)
dt

E/P 22 A curve C has equation

y = ln (sin x), 0<x<π
a Find the stationary point of the curve C. (6 marks)
b Show that the curve C is concave at all values of x in its given domain. (3 marks)
64 CHAPTER 5 DIFFERENTIATION

E/P 23 The mass of a radioactive substance t years after first being observed is modelled by the
equation
m = 40e−0.244t
a Find the mass of the substance nine months after it was first observed. (2 marks)
dm
b Find ___ (2 marks)
dt
c With reference to the model, interpret the significance of the sign of the value of
dm
___
found in part b. (1 mark)
dt
E/P 24 The curve C with equation y = f(x) is shown in the y
diagram, where
cos 2x
f(x) = ______ ,0<x<π y = f(x)
ex
B
The curve has a local minimum at A and a local O x
maximum at B. A

a Show that the x-coordinates of A and B satisfy the

equation tan 2x = −0.5 and hence find the coordinates of A and B. (6 marks)
b Using your answer to part a, find the coordinates of the maximum and minimum
turning points on the curve with equation y = 2 + 4f(x − 4) (3 marks)
c Determine the range of values for which f(x) is concave. (5 marks)

Challenge
The curve C has parametric equations
π
y = 2 sin 2t, x = 5 cos (t + ___), 0 < t < 2π
12
dy Hint The points on C where
a Find ___ in terms of t.
dx dx
___ = 0 correspond to points
dy dy
b Find the coordinates of the points on C where ___ = 0
dx where a tangent to the curve
c Find the coordinates of any points where the curve cuts or would be a vertical line.
intersects the coordinate axes, and determine the gradient of the
curve at these points.
dx
d Find the coordinates of the points on C where ___ = 0
dy
e Hence sketch C.
DIFFERENTIATION CHAPTER 5 65

Summary of key points

dy
__
dy
____ dt
1 If x and y are given as functions of a parameter, t: = ___
dx __dx
dt

2 For implicit differentiation, the following techniques can be applied.

d dy
• ____ (f( y)) = f9( y) ____
dx dx
d dy
• ____(y n) = ny n − 1 ____
dx dx
d dy
• ____(xy) = x ____ + y
dx dx

3 You can use the chain rule to connect rates of change in situations involving more than two
variables.
6 INTEGRATION
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4

Learning objectives
A"er completing this chapter you should be able to:
● Find the area under a curve represented in parametric form
● Find the volume of revolution when a curve is rotated around the x-axis.
→ pages 67–73
● Integrate functions by making a substitution, using integration by parts
and using partial fractions → pages 74–83
● Solve simple differential equations and model real-life situations with
differential equations → pages 84–91

Prior knowledge check

1 Differentiate:
_
x
a (2x − 7) 6 b sin 5x c e3
← Pure 3 Sections 5.1, 5.2, 5.3
_1 _1
2 Given f(x) = 8x 2 − 6x −2 find:
a ∫ f(x) dx
∫4
9
b f(x) dx ← Pure 1 Section 9.1
← Pure 2 Section 8.1

3x + 22
3 Write ____________ as partial fractions. ← Pure 4 Section 2.1
(4x − 1)(x + 3)
4 Find the area of the region R bounded by the curve
y = x2 + 1, the x-axis and the lines x = −1 and x = 2
y
5
4
Integration can be used to
3
solve differential equations.
2
Archaeologists use differential
1
equations to estimate the
R age of fossilised plants and
–2 –1 O 1 2 x ← Pure 2 Section 8.2 animals.

66
INTEGRATION CHAPTER 6 67

6.1 Finding the area under a curve defined parametrically

You already know how to find the area under a curve using integration. Links ← Pure 2 Section 8.2
We are now going to extend this idea by looking at the area under a
curve that is defined by a set of parametric equations.

If we consider the curve C defined by x = f(t), y = g(t) for a ≤ t ≤ b, and start with the formula for
x2
the area under a curve, then we have A = ∫ y dx. The curve we have does not quite fit this
x1
formula. We can see that y can be replaced by g(t), but how to we replace the dx?
dx
Since we know x = f(t ), it is reasonable to state that ___ = f′(t), and so dx = f′(t)dt
dt
t=b
Now we can write A = ∫ g(t)f′(t)dt. This is the formula for the area under a parametric curve.
t=a

Example 1

A curve is represented by the parametric equations x = t, y = 3t2

Find the area under the curve from t = 1 to t = 2

Start with the formula for area.

A = ∫ ydx
dx
x = t, ∴ ___ = 1 ⇒ dx = dt Differentiate the function x, and obtain dx in
dt
2
terms of dt.
Hence A = ∫ 3t2dt
1
Re-write the area formula, now in terms of t.
Then A = [
3 ]1
2
3
__ 2
= [t3]1
t3
Integrate and simplify.
So A = 23 − 13 = 7

Enter the limits to obtain the answer.

Example 2

A curve is represented by the parametric equations x = cos t, y = − cos t

π π
Find the area under the curve from t = __ to t = __
6 4

A = ∫ ydx Start with the formula for area.

dx
___
x = cos t, ∴ = − sin t
dt Differentiate the function x.
and so dx = − sin t dt
π
__
2
Determine an expression for dx.
Hence A = ∫ (− cos t)(− sin t)dt
π
__
6
π
__
4
1 Substitute into the area formula.
= ∫ __ sin 2t dt
π
__
6
2
Use sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A
68 CHAPTER 6 INTEGRATION

π
__
So A = [− cos 2t]__π
1
__ 4
Integrate the function.
4
6
π π
Then A = − __ (cos __ − cos __)
1
Substitute in the limits.
4 2 3

Which gives A = − __(− __) = __

1 1 1
4 2 8 Evaluate the area.

Exercise 6A SKILLS ANALYSIS

1 Determine the area under the curve represented by the set of parametric equations
x = t2, y = t + 1 for −1 ≤ t ≤ 2
_ _3
2 The parametric curve C has the set of equations x = √ t , y = 4 t 2
Determine the area under the curve from t = 3 to t = 5

π
3 The parametric equations x = sin t, y = 2 cos t represent the curve C, over the interval 0 ≤ t ≤ __
3
Find the area under the curve over the given interval.

t
4 The area under the curve x = 6t2, y = __, over the interval 2 ≤ t ≤ b, is 117.
4
Determine the value of b.

_1 _1
5 Given that the curve C has parametric equations x = 2t 2, y = 4t −2, determine the area under
the curve from t = 4 to t = 16, giving your answer in the form ln b.

6 Determine the area under the curve represented by the set of parametric equations
x = e 2t, y = e 3t for ln 3 ≤ t ≤ ln 8
Give your answer in an exact form.

6.2 Volumes of revolution around the x-axis

You have used integration to find the area of a Notation This process is called
region R bounded by a curve, the x-axis and definite integration. ← Pure 2 Sections 8.1, 8.2
two vertical lines.
y
y = f(x)
The area between a positive curve, the x-axis and the
lines x = a and x = b is given by
Area = ∫ b y dx
a
where y = f(x) is the equation of the curve.
O a b x
INTEGRATION CHAPTER 6 69

You can derive this formula by considering the sum of an infinite number of small strips of width δx.
Each of these strips has a height of y, so the area of each strip is
y
δA = yδx y = f(x)

The total area is approximately the sum of these strips,

or ∑yδx
δA
The exact area is the limit of this sum as δx → 0
x x
which is written as ∫ y dx. O a
x + δx
b

You can use a similar technique to find the volume of an object created by rotating a curve around a
coordinate axis. If each of these strips is rotated through 2π radians (or 360°) about the x-axis, it will
form a shape that is approximately cylindrical. The volume of each cylinder will be πy2δx since it will
have radius y and height δx.
y
y = f(x)

O a b x

δx

So the volume of the solid will be approximately equal to the sum of the volumes of each cylinder, or
∑πy 2 δ x. The exact volume is the limit of this sum as δ x → 0, or π∫ y 2 dx
■ The volume of revolution formed when y = f(x) is rotated through 2π radians about the x-axis
between x = a and x = b is given by:
Volume = π∫ b y2 dx
a

y
Example 3 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

The diagram shows the region R which is y = 9 – x2

bounded by the x-axis, the y-axis and the curve R
with equation y = 9 – x2
The region is rotated through 2π radians about O x
the x-axis. Find the exact volume of the solid
generated.

9 − x2 = 0 First find the point where the curve intersects

the x-axis.
(3 − x)(3 + x) = 0
From the diagram, x > 0, therefore x = 3
x = 3 or x = −3
70 CHAPTER 6 INTEGRATION

Use V = π∫ b y 2 dx with a = 0, b = 3 and y = 9 – x2

a
V = π∫0 (9 −
3
x 2 2 dx )

= π∫ (81 − 18 x 2 + x 4) dx
3 Simplify the integrand.
0

= π[81x − 6 x 3 + __ x 5]
3
1 Integrate each term separately.
5 0

= π((243 − 162 + ___

5 ) − 0 − 0 + 0)
243 ( ) Substitute the limits.

648π Simplify the resulting answer and write it as an

= _____
5 exact fraction in terms of π.

If a function is given in parametric form, such as x = f(t), y = g(t) for a ≤ t ≤ b, in order to

determine the volume you must start from the standard formula.
x2
So, using V = π ∫ y2 dx, we first notice that there is no reference to our parameter, the integral
x1
is purely in terms of x.

dx
If we consider ___ = f ′(t), this can be written as dx = f ′(t) dt.
dt
b
Substituting all of this into our volume formula gives V = π ∫ (g(t))2 f ′(t)dt that is an integral purely
2
in terms of t which can now be evaluated.

Example 4 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

A curve is represented by the parametric equations x = 2t, y = t2

Find the volume generated when the curve is rotated about the x-axis, from t = 2 to t = 4

V = ʃ πy2 dx Start with the formula for volume.

dx
x = 2t, ___ = 2 ⇒ dx = 2dt Differentiate x to determine the operator dx in
dt
terms of dt.
ʃ
4
V = π (t2)2 × 2dt
2 Rewrite the volume formula, substituting in

ʃ
4
everything relating to t.
= 2π t4 dt
2

= 2π [__ t5]
4
1 Simplify the integral.
5 2

2π Integrate the function.

= ___ (1024 – 32)
5
1984
= _____ π Substitute in limits.
5

Evaluate.
INTEGRATION CHAPTER 6 71

Example 5 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

The curve C has parametric equations x = 4t2 – 1, y = t2 – t, the curve cuts the x-axis at the points
A and B. the curve is rotated about the x-axis, between the points A and B. Find the volume generated.

Determine where the curve cuts the x-axis.

y = 0, t = 0, 1

V = ʃ πy2 dx Use the formula for volume.

dx
x = 4t2 – 1, ___ = 8t ⇒ dx = 8tdt
dt Differentiate x to determine the operator dx in

ʃ
1
terms of dt.
V = π (t2 – t)2 × 8t dt
0
Rewrite the volume formula, substituting in
ʃ
1
= 8π (t4 – 2t3 + t2)t dt everything relating to t.
0

ʃ
1
= 8π (t5 – 2t4 + t3) dt Simplify the integral.
0
1
= 8π [__t6 – __t5 + __t4]
1 2 1
Integrate the function.
6 5 4 0
= 8π (__ – __ + __)
1 2 1
Substitute in limits.
6 5 4
2
= ___ π
15 Evaluate.

Exercise 6B SKILLS ANALYSIS

1 Find the exact volume of the solid generated when each curve is rotated through 360° about the
x-axis between the given limits.
a y = 10x2 between x = 0 and x = 2
b y = 5 – x between x = 3 and x = 5
__
c y = √ x between x = 2 and x = 10
1
d y = 1 + __2 between x = 1 and x = 2
x
E 2 The curve shown in the diagram has equation y = 5 + 4x − x2. The finite region R is bounded by
the curve, the x-axis and the y-axis. The region is rotated through 2π radians about the x-axis
to generate a solid of revolution. Find the exact volume of the solid generated. (5 marks)
y

y = 5 + 4x – x2

O x
72 CHAPTER 6 INTEGRATION

E 3 The diagram shows the region R __ which is bounded by the x-axis, the lines x = 1 and x = 8, and
the curve with equation y = 3 − 3√x . The region is rotated through 2π radians about the x-axis.
Find the exact volume of the solid generated. (5 marks)
y

3
y=3– x
R
O 1 8 x

_____
E 4 The diagram shows the curve C with equation y = √x + 2 . The region R is bounded by the
x-axis, the line x = 2 and C. The region is rotated through 360° about the x-axis.
Find the exact volume of the solid generated. (5 marks)
y
C

O 2 x

_3 _5
E/P 5 The diagram shows a sketch of the curve with equation y = 9 x 2 − 3x 2
The region R is bounded by the curve and the x-axis.
y
3 5
y = 9x 2 – 3x 2

O A x

a Find the coordinates of A. (2 marks)

The region is rotated through 2π radians about the x-axis.
b Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated. (5 marks)
_______
√ 3x 4 − 3
________
E/P 6 The curve with equation y = is shown in the diagram.
x3
y

C
R
O 6 x

The region bounded by the curve C, the x-axis and the line x = 6 is shown shaded in the
diagram. The region is rotated through 2π radians about the x-axis. Find the volume of the
solid generated, giving your answer correct to 3 significant figures. (6 marks)
INTEGRATION CHAPTER 6 73

P 7 The diagram shows the curve with equation 5y2 − x3 = 2x − 3. The shaded region is bounded
by the curve and the line x = 4. The region is rotated about the x-axis to generate a solid of
revolution. Find the volume of the solid generated.
y
5y2 – x3 = 2x – 3

Hint
O 1 4 x Rearrange the equation to make y2 the subject.

_____
E/P 8 The curve shown in the diagram has equation y = x√4 − x 2 . The finite region R is bounded by
the curve, the x-axis and the line x = a, where 0 < a < 2. The region is rotated through 2π
657π
radians about the x-axis to generate a solid of revolution with volume _____
160
Find the value of a. (5 marks)
y

y = x 4 – x2

O a 2 x

P 9 The diagram shows a shaded rectangular region R of length h and width r. The region R is
rotated through 360° about the x-axis. Use integration to show that the volume, V, of the
cylinder formed is V = πr2h
y
r

O h x

_3 _1
P 10 A curve is represented by the parametric equations x = t 2, y = t 2
The curve is rotated about the x-axis to form a volume from t = 1 to t = 3
Find the volume generated.

3
P 11 The parametric curve C is represented by the set of equations x = t2 + 1, y = __t
The curve is then rotated about the x-axis between the values of t = 2 and t = 3
Determine the volume generated, giving your answer in the form kπ ln (__)
a
b
74 CHAPTER 6 INTEGRATION

Challenge y
C
The diagram shows the curve C with equation
y = |x2 − 7x + 10|. The shaded region R is
bounded by the x-axis, the curve C and the
lines x = 1 and x = 6. The region is rotated 2π R
radians about the x-axis. Find the exact volume
O 1 6 x
of the solid generated.

6.3 Integration by substitution

Sometimes you can simplify an integral by changing the variable. The process is similar to using the
chain rule in differentiation and is called integration by substitution.

In your exam you will o"en be told which substitution to use.

Example 6 SKILLS ADAPTIVE LEARNING

Find ∫x√2x + 5 dx using the substitutions

______

a u = 2x + 5 b u2 = 2x + 5
You need to replace each ‘x’ term with a
∫
_______
a Let I= x√ 2x + 5 dx corresponding ‘u’ term. Start by finding the
relationship between dx and du.
Let u = 2x + 5
1
du
___ So dx = __ du
So =2 2
dx
1
So dx can be replaced by __ du Next rewrite the function in terms of u = 2x + 5
_______ __
2
__1
√ 2x + 5 = √ u = u 2
Rearrange u = 2x + 5 to get 2x = u − 5 and hence
u−5
x = ______ u−5
2 x = _____
2

So I = ∫ (______)u 2 × __ du
u − 5 __1 1
2 2 Rewrite I in terms of u and simplify.
= ∫ __(u − 5)u 2 du
1 __1

4
= ∫ (u 2 − 5u 2) du
1 __3
__ __1

4
__
5 __
3 Multiply out the brackets and integrate.
1u2
__ 5u 2
= × ___ − ______ + c ← Pure 1 Section 9.1
4 5
__ 3
__
4×
2 2
__
5 __
3
u 5u 2
= ___ − ____ + c
2
Simplify.
10 6
__
5 __
3

(2x + 5)2 5(2x + 5)2

So I = _________ − __________ + c Finally rewrite the answer in terms of x.
10 6
INTEGRATION CHAPTER 6 75

I = ∫ x√ 2x + 5 dx
_______
b Let First find the relationship between dx and du.

u2 = 2x + 5
du Using implicit differentiation, cancel 2 and
2u ___ = 2
dx rearrange to get dx = udu
So replace dx with udu.
_______
√ 2x +5 =u
u2 − 5 Rewrite the integrand in terms of u. You will need
and x = ______
2 to make x the subject of u2 = 2x + 5

I = ∫ (______) u × udu
u2 − 5
So
2

= ∫ (___ − ____) du
u4 5u2
Multiply out the brackets and integrate.
2 2
u5 5u3
= ___ − ____ + c
10 6
__
5 __
3

(2x + 5)
_________
2
5(2x + 5)
__________
2

So I= − +c Rewrite answer in terms of x.

10 6

Example 7 SKILLS CRITICAL THINKING

Use the substitution u = sin x + 1 to find

∫ cos x sin x (1 + sin x)3 dx

Let I = ∫ cos x sin x (1 + sin x)3 dx First replace the dx.

Let u = sin x + 1
du
___ cos x appears in the integrand, so you can write
= cos x
dx this as du = cos x dx and substitute.
So substitute cos x dx with du.

(sin x + 1)3 = u3 Use u = sin x + 1 to substitute for the remaining

terms, rearranging where required to get
sin x = u − 1
sin x = u − 1
So I = ∫ (u − 1)u3 du

= ∫ (u4 − u3) du
Rewrite I in terms of u.

u5 u4 Multiply out the brackets and integrate in the

= ___ − ___ + c
5 4 usual way.
(sin x + 1)5 (sin x + 1)4
So I = __________ − __________ + c
5 4 Problem-solving
Although it looks different, ∫ sin 2x(1 + sin x)3 dx
can be integrated in exactly the same way.
Remember sin 2x ≡ 2 sin x cos x, so the above
integral would just need adjusting by a factor of 2.
76 CHAPTER 6 INTEGRATION

Example 8 SKILLS CREATIVITY

Use integration by substitution to evaluate Watch out

π If you use integration by substitution
∫0 x(x + ∫0 cos x√1 + sin x dx
_ ________
2 2
a 1)3 dx b to evaluate a definite integral, you have to be
careful of whether your limits are x values or u
values. You can use a table to keep track.
∫0 x(x + 1)3 dx
2
a Let I=
Let u=x+1
du
___
=1
dx
so replace dx with du and replace (x + 1)3 Replace each term in x with a term in u in the
with u3, and x with u − 1 usual way.
x u
Change the limits.
2 3
When x = 2, u = 2 + 1 = 3 and when x = 0, u = 1
0 1

∫1 (u − 1)u3 du
3
So I = Note that the new u limits replace their
= ∫1 (u4 − u3) du
3 corresponding x limits.

= [___ − ___]
3
u5 u4 Multiply out and integrate. Remember there is no
5 4 1 need for a constant of integration with definite

= (_____ − ___) − (__ − __)

243 81 1 1 integrals.
5 4 5 4
= 48.4 − 20 = 28.4 The integral can now be evaluated using the
limits for u without having to change back into x.
∫0 cos x√1 + sin x dx
π
__ ________
2
b
du
u = 1 + sin x ⇒ ___ = cos x, so replace Use u = 1 + sin x
dx ________
cos x dx with du and replace √ 1 + sin x
__1
with u 2. Remember that limits for integrals involving
x u trigonometric functions will always be in radians.
π
π
__ x = __, means u = 1 + 1 = 2 and
2 2
2 x = 0, means u = 1 + 0 = 1
0 1

∫1
2 __1
So I = u 2 du Rewrite the integral in terms of u.

= [__
3u ]1
2
2 __32
_3 __ __
Remember that 22 = √ 8 = 2√2
=( 2)−( )
__
2
__
3
2 2
__
3 3
2 √__
__ Problem-solving
So I = (2 2 − 1)
3
You could also convert the integral back into a
function of x and use the original limits.
INTEGRATION CHAPTER 6 77

Exercise 6C SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

1 Use the substitutions given to find

∫x√1 + x dx; u = 1 + x ∫________
1 + sin x
_____
a b cos x dx; u = sin x
∫sin3 x dx; u = cosx ∫ _________
2 __
c d __ dx; u = √ x
√ x (x − 4)

∫sec2 x tan x√1 + tan x dx; u2 = 1 + tan x ∫sec4 x dx; u = tan x

________
e f

2 Use the substitutions given to find the exact values of

∫0 x√x + 4 dx; u = x + 4 ∫0 x(2 + x)3 dx; u = 2 + x
5 _____ 2
a b
π

∫0 sin x√3 cos x + 1 dx; u = cos x

_ _________
2
c
π

∫0 sec x tan x√sec x + 2 dx; u = sec x ∫1 __________

_ ________ 4 1 __
dx; u = √ x
3
d e __
√ x (4x − 1)
P 3 By choosing a suitable substitution, find ______
√ x2 + 4
a ∫x(3 + 2x)5 dx b ∫ ______ ∫
x _______
_____ dx c x dx
√1 + x

P 4 By choosing a suitable substitution, find the exact values of

π

a ∫ x√ 2 + x dx b ∫ _________ ∫0 ________
7 _____ 5 1_____ _
2sin 2θ
dx c dθ
2 2 1 + √x − 1 1 + cos θ

∫6 8x
20 _______
E 5 Using the substitution u2 = 4x + 1, or otherwise, find the exact value of ______ dx (8 marks)
√ 4x +1

Use the substitution u2 = ex − 2 to show that ∫ _____

ln4 e4x a
E/P 6 dx = __ + c ln d, where a, b, c
ln3 ex − 2 b
and d are integers to be found. (7 marks)

E/P 7 Use the substitution u = cos x to show Hint

π
Use exact trigonometric values to
∫03 sin3x cos2x dx = ____
_
47 change the limits in x to limits in u.
(7 marks)
480
__

Using a suitable trigonometric substitution for x, find ∫_1 x2√ 1 − x 2 dx

√3
__ _____
E/P 8 2
(8 marks)
2

Challenge
By using a substitution of the form x = k sin u, show that
______

∫ 1
_________ √9 − x
2
______ dx = − _______ + c
√
x 9−x
2 2 9x
78 CHAPTER 6 INTEGRATION

6.4 Integration by parts

You can rearrange the product rule for differentiation: Links u and v are both
d
___ dv du functions of x.
(uv) = u ___ + v ___
dx dx dx
dv d du
u ___ = ___ (uv) − v ___
dx dx dx
∫u ___
dv
dx
dx = ∫ ___ (uv) dx − ∫v ___ dx
d
dx
du
dx
Differentiating a function and then integrating it leaves the original function unchanged.
So, ∫ ___ (uv) dx = uv
d
dx
■ This method is called integration by parts. ∫ u___dv
dx = uv − ∫v ___ dx
du
dx dx
dv
To use integration by parts you need to write the function you are integrating in the form u ___
dx
dv
You will have to choose what to set as u and what to set as ___
dx

Example 9 SKILLS ADAPTIVE LEARNING Problem-solving

For expressions like x cos x, x2sin x and x 3ex let u
Find ∫x cos x dx equal the xn term. When the expression involves
lnx, for example x2 ln x, let u equal the ln x term.

Let I = ∫ x cos x dx dv
du Let u = x and ___ = cos x.
u=x ⇒ ___ = 1 dx
dx
du dv
dv
___ Find expressions for u, v, ___ and ___
= cos x ⇒ v = sin x dx dx
dx
dv
Using the integration by parts formula: Take care to differentiate u but integrate ___
dx
I = x sin x − ∫ sin x × 1 dx

Notice that ∫v ___ dx is a simpler integral

= x sin x + cos x + c du
dx
than ∫u ___ dx
dv
dx

Example 10 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

Find ∫x2 ln x dx

Let I = ∫x2 ln x dx dv
Since there is a ln x term, let u = ln x and ___ = x2
du 1 dx
u = ln x ⇒ ___ = __
dx x du
Find expressions for u, v, ___ and ___
dv
dv
___ x3 dx dx
= x2 ⇒ v = ___ dv
dx 3 Take care to differentiate u but integrate ___
dx
INTEGRATION CHAPTER 6 79

I = ___ ln x − ∫ ___ × __
x3 x3 1
3 3 x dx

= ___ ln x − ∫ ___ dx
x3 x2 Apply the integration by parts formula.
3 3
x 3 x 3 du
= ___ ln x − ___ + c Simplify the v ___ term.
3 9 dx

It is sometimes necessary to use integration by parts twice, as shown in the following example.

Example 11 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

dv
There is no ln x term, so let u = x2 and ___ = ex
dx
Find ∫x2ex dx du dv
Find expressions for u, v, ___ and ___
dx dx
dv
Let I = ∫ x2ex dx Take care to differentiate u but integrate ___
dx
du
u = x2 ⇒ ___ = 2x
dx
dv
___ Apply the integration by parts formula.
= ex ⇒ v = ex
dx
So I = x2ex − ∫2xexdx Notice that this integral is simpler than I but
still not one you can write down. It has a similar
du
u = 2x ⇒ ___ = 2 structure to I and so you can use integration by
dx
dv dv
___
= e x ⇒ v = ex parts again with u = 2x and ___ = ex
dx dx

So I = x2ex − (2xex − ∫ 2exdx)

Apply the integration by parts formula for a
= x2ex − 2xex + ∫ 2exdx second time.
= x2ex − 2xex + 2ex + c

Example 12 SKILLS CREATIVITY

Evaluate ∫ ln x dx, leaving your answer in terms of natural logarithms.

2
1

Write the expression to be integrated as ln x × 1

∫1 ∫1
2 2
Let I = ln x dx = ln x × 1 dx dv
then u = ln x and ___ = 1
du 1 dx
u = ln x ⇒ ___ = __ Remember if an expression involves ln x you
dx x
should always set u = ln x
dv
___
= 1 ⇒v = x
dx
∫1 1
2
I = [x ln x] 1 − x × __
2
x dx Problem-solving
Apply limits to the uv term and the ∫ v ___ dx term
du
∫1
2
= (2 ln 2) − (1 ln 1) − 1 dx dx
separately.
= 2ln 2 − [x] 21

= 2 ln 2 − (2 − 1)
Evaluate the limits on uv and remember ln 1 = 0
= 2 ln 2 − 1
80 CHAPTER 6 INTEGRATION

Example 13 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

Using integration by parts, find ∫ ex sin x dx.

ʃ
I = ex sin x dx Label the integral I.
du
u = ex, ___ = ex
dx du dv
dv
___
Find expressions for u, v, ___ and ___
= sin x,v = – cos x dx dx
dx
ʃ
I = [–ex cos x] – – ex cos x dx Apply the integration by parts formula.

= –e cos x + ʃ e cos x dx
[ x ] x Simplify.

du
u = ex, ___ = ex du dv
Find expressions for u, v, ___ and ___, taking
dx dx dx
dv
___ care not to switch the functions
= cos x, v = sin x (you are still differentiating ex).
dx
I = [– ex cos x] + ([ex sin x] – ex sin x dx) ʃ Apply the integration by parts formula again.

I = [– ex cos x + ex sin x] – I
Recognise that the original integral is now on the
2I = [ex (sin x – cos x)] right hand side.

ex
I = __ [sin x – cos x] + c Simplify the expression.
2

Exercise 6D SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

1 Find
a ∫x sin x dx b ∫xex dx c ∫x sec2 x dx
d ∫x sec x tan x dx e ∫ _____
x
sin2 x
dx

2 Find
a ∫3 ln x dx b ∫x lnx dx c ∫ ____
ln x
x3
dx

d ∫(ln x)2 dx e ∫(x2 + 1) ln x dx

3 Find
a ∫x2e−x dx b ∫x2 cos x dx c ∫12x2(3 + 2x)5 dx d ∫2x2 sin 2x dx e ∫2x2 sec2x tan x dx
4 Evaluate
π π

∫0ln2 xe2x dx ∫0 x sin x dx ∫0 x cos x dx ∫1

_ _
2 2 2 ln x
____
a b c d dx
π
x2
∫0 4x(1 + x)3 dx ∫0 x cos __41 x dx ∫0 sin x ln (sec x) dx
π _
1 3
e f g
INTEGRATION CHAPTER 6 81

E 5 a Use integration by parts to find ∫x cos 4x dx (3 marks)

b Use your answer to part a to find ∫x2 sin 4x dx (3 marks)

6 a Find ∫√ 8 − x dx
_____
E/P (2 marks)
b Using integration by parts, or otherwise, show that
∫(x − 2) √8 − x dx = − __52(8 − x)2(x + 2) + c
_____ _3
(6 marks)
c Hence find ∫ (x − 2)√ 8 − x dx
7 _____
(2 marks)
4

E/P 7 a Find ∫sec2 3x dx (3 marks)

b Using integration by parts, or otherwise, find ∫x sec2 3x dx (6 marks)
π

c Hence show that ∫ x sec2 3x dx = pπ − q ln 3, finding the exact values of the

_
9
π
__
18
constants p and q. (4 marks)

6.5 Partial fractions

Partial fractions can be used to integrate algebraic fractions.
Using partial fractions enables an expression that looks Links Make sure you are confident
hard to integrate to be transformed into two or more expressing algebraic fractions as
expressions that are easier to integrate. partial fractions ← Pure 4 Section 2

Example 14 SKILLS INNOVATION

Use partial fractions to find the following integrals.

a ∫ ____________ dx b ∫ ______________2 dx ∫ ______

x−5 8x2 − 19x + 1 2
c dx
(x + 1)(x − 2) (2x + 1)(x − 2) 1 − x2

x−5 A B Split the expression to be integrated into partial

a ____________ ≡ _____ + ______
(x + 1)(x − 2) x + 1 x − 2 fractions.
So x − 5 ≡ A(x − 2) + B(x + 1)
Let x = −1: −6 = A(−3) so A = 2
Let x = −1 and 2
Let x = 2: −3 = B(3) so B = −1

So ∫ ____________ dx
x − 5 Rewrite the integral and integrate each term as in
(x + 1)(x − 2) ← Pure 3 Section 6.4
= ∫ (_____ − ______ )dx
2 1
x+1 x−2 Remember to use the modulus when using ln in
= 2 ln|x + 1| − ln|x − 2| + c integration.

|(x + 1)2
= ln _______ + c
x−2 | The answer could be le" in this form, but
sometimes you may be asked to combine the ln
terms using the rules of logarithms.
← Pure 2 Section 3.3
82 CHAPTER 6 INTEGRATION

∫ _______________
8x − 19x + 1
2
b Let I = dx
(2x + 1)(x − 2)2
8x2 − 19x + 1
_______________ A B C
≡ ______ + ________2 + ______
(2x + 1)(x − 2)2 2x + 1 (x − 2) x−2
It is sometimes useful to label the integral as I.
8x2 − 19x + 1 ≡ A(x − 2)2 + B(2x + 1) +
C(2x + 1)(x − 2)
Remember the partial fraction form for a
Let x = 2: −5 = 0 + 5B + 0 so B = −1 repeated factor in the denominator.
1 1 25
Let x = −__ : 12__ = ___A + 0 + 0 so A = 2
2 2 4
Rewrite the intergral using the partial fractions.
Let x = 0: Then 1 = 4A + B − 2C
Note that using I saves copying the question again.
So 1 = 8 − 1 − 2C so C = 3

I= ∫ (______
2x + 1 (x − 2)2 x − 2 )
2 1 3
− ________ + ______ dx Don’t forget to divide by 2 when integrating
1
______ and remember that the integral of
__
2 1
______ 2x + 1
= 2 ln|2x + 1| + x − 2 + 3 ln|x − 2| + c
1
_______ does not involve ln.
1 (x − 2)2
= ln|2x + 1| + ______ + ln|x − 2|3 + c
x−2
1
= ln|(2x + 1)(x − 2)3| + ______ + c Simplify using the laws of logarithms.
x−2

c Let I = ∫ ______2 dx
2
1−x
2
______ 2 A B Remember that 1 − x2 can be factorised using
= ____________ = _____ + _____
1 − x2 (1 − x)(1 + x) 1 − x 1 + x the difference of two squares.
2 = A(1 + x) + B(1 − x)
Let x = −1 then 2 = 2B so B = 1
Let x = 1 then 2 = 2A so A = 1
Rewrite the integral using the partial fractions.
I = ∫(_____ + _____) dx
1 1
So
1+x 1−x
= ln|1 + x| − ln|1 − x| + c
Notice the minus sign that comes from
= ln|1 − x| + c
1+x
_____ 1
integrating _____
1−x

When the degree of the polynomial in the numerator is greater than or equal to the degree of the
denominator, it is necessary to first divide the numerator by the denominator.

Example 15 SKILLS CRITICAL THINKING

Find ∫ ___________
9x2 − 3x + 2
dx
9x2 − 4

I = ∫ _____________
9x2 − 3x + 2
Let dx
9x2 − 4 First divide the numerator by 9x2 − 4
1
_____________
9x2 − 4 )9x2 − 3x + 2 9x2 ÷ 9x2 gives 1, so put this on top and subtract
9x2 −4 1 × (9x2 − 4). This leaves a remainder of −3x + 6
−3x + 6
INTEGRATION CHAPTER 6 83

I = ∫ (1 + ________
9x2 − 4 )
6 − 3x
so dx

6 − 3x
________ A B Factorise 9x2 − 4 and then split into partial
≡ _______ + _______
9x2 − 4 3x − 2 3x + 2 fractions.
2
Let x = − __ then 8 = −4B so B = −2
3
2
Let x = __ then 4 = 4A so A = 1
3 Rewrite the integral using the partial fractions.
So I = ∫(1 + _______ − _______) dx
1 2
3x − 2 3x + 2
1 2 1
= x + __ ln|3x − 2| − __ ln|3x + 2|+ c Integrate and don’t forget the __
3 3 3
1
|3x − 2
= x + __ ln _________2 + c
3 (3x + 2) | Simplify using the laws of logarithms.

Exercise 6E SKILLS INNOVATION

1 Use partial fractions to integrate

3x + 5 3x − 1 2x − 6 3
a ____________ b _____________ c ____________ d ____________
(x + 1)(x + 2) (2x + 1)(x − 2) (x + 3)(x − 1) (2 + x)(1 − x)
2 Find
2(x2 + 3x − 1)
a ∫ _____________ dx ∫ ___________ ∫ ______ ∫ __________
x + 2x + 2
3 2 x2 x +x+2
2
b dx c dx d dx
(x + 1)(2x − 1) x(x + 1) x2 − 4 3 − 2x − x2
4 1
E/P 3 f(x) = ______________ , x ≠ ± __
(2x + 1)(1 − 2x) 2
A B
a Given that f(x) = ______ + ______ , find the value of the constants A and B. (3 marks)
2x + 1 1 − 2x
b Hence find ∫f(x) dx, writing your answer as a single logarithm. (4 marks)
c Find ∫ f(x) dx, giving your answer in the form ln k where k is a rational constant.
2
(2 marks)
1

17 − 5x 3
E/P 4 f(x) = _____________2 , − __ < x < 2
(3 + 2x)(2 − x) 2
a Express f(x) in partial fractions. (4 marks)
b Hence find the exact value of ∫ _____________2 dx, writing your answer in the form
17 −15x
0 (3 + 2x)(2 − x)

a + ln b, where a and b are constants to be found. (5 marks)

9x 2 + 4 2
E/P 5 f(x) = _______ , x ≠ ± __
9x 2 − 4 3
B C
a Given that f(x) = A + ______ + ______ , find the values of the constants A, B and C. (4 marks)
3x − 2 3x + 2
b Hence find the exact value of Problem-solving
∫−_13 9x2 − 4 dx, writing your answer in the
9x2 + 4
_1
3 _______
Simplify the integral as much as possible before
substituting your p limits.
form a + b ln c, where a, b and c are
rational numbers to be found. (5 marks)
84 CHAPTER 6 INTEGRATION

6 + 3x − x 2
E/P 6 f(x) = __________ ,x>0
x 3 + 2x 2
a Express f(x) in partial fractions. (4 marks)

∫2 __________
+ 3x −
46 x2
b Hence find the exact value of dx, writing your answer in the form a + ln b,
x 3 + 2x 2
where a and b are rational numbers to be found. (5 marks)

32x 2 + 4 B C
E/P 7 ______________ ≡ A + ______ + ______
(4x + 1)(4x − 1) 4x + 1 4x − 1
a Find the value of the constants A, B and C. (4 marks)

b Hence find the exact value of ∫ ______________ dx writing your answer in the form
2 32x + 4
2

1 (4x + 1)(4x − 1)
2 + k ln m , giving the values of the rational constants k and m. (5 marks)

6.6 Solving differential equations

Integration can be used to solve differential Notation A first order differential equation
equations. In this chapter you will solve first order contains nothing higher than a first order
differential equations by separating the variables. dy
derivative, for example ___
dy dx
■ When ___ = f(x)g( y) you can write
dx A second order differential equation would
∫ 1 dy = ∫ f(x) dx
____ have a term that contains a second order
d 2y
g( y) derivative, for example ____2
dx
The solution to a differential equation will be a function.
When you integrate to solve a differential equation you still need to include a constant of integration.
This gives the general solution to the differential equation. It represents a family of solutions, all
with different constants. Each of these solutions satisfies the original differential equation.
dy
For the first order differential equation ___ = 12x 2 − 1, the general solution is y = 4x 3 − x + c,
dx
or y = x(2x − 1)(2x + 1) + c
y c=0
c=1 c = –1 Each of these curves represents a particular
2
solution of the differential equation, for different
1 values of the constant c. Together, the curves
form a family of solutions.
–1 – 12 O 1
2
1 x y

–1 Online
x

Explore families of solutions

using technology.
–2
INTEGRATION CHAPTER 6 85

Example 16 SKILLS ADAPTIVE LEARNING

dy
Find a general solution to the differential equation (1 + x2) ___ = x tan y
dx
dy
___ x dy
= ______2 tan y Write the equation in the form ___ = f(x)g(y)
dx 1+x dx
∫ _____
1
tan y
dy = ∫ ______2 dx
1+x
x
Now separate the variables:
∫ cot y dy = ∫ 1 +x x2 dx
______ 1
____ dy = f(x) dx
g(y)
1
ln|sin y| = __ ln|1 + x2| + c
2
1
1 Use cot y = _____
or ln|sin y| = __ ln|1 + x2| + ln k tan y
2 ______
ln|sin y| = ln|k√1 + x2 |
______ ∫ cot x dx = ln|sin x| + c
so sin y = k√ 1 + x2

Don’t forget the +c which can be written as ln k.

Finally remove the ln. Sometimes you might be
asked to give your answer in the form y = f(x) Combining logs.
This question did not specify that so it is
acceptable to give the answer in this form.

Sometimes you are interested in one specific solution to a differential equation. You can find a
particular solution to a first-order differential equation if you know one point on the curve.
This is sometimes called a boundary condition.

Example 17 SKILLS CRITICAL THINKING

Find the particular solution to the differential equation Hint The boundary
___ −3(y − 2)
dy _____________ condition in this question is
=
dx (2x + 1)(x + 2) that x = 1 when y = 4
given that x = 1 when y = 4. Leave your answer in the form y = f(x)

∫______
y−2
1
dy = ∫ ______________ dx
−3
(2x + 1)(x + 2)
First separate the variables. Make sure the
function on the le"-hand side is in terms of y
−3
______________ A B
≡ ________ + _______ only, and the function on the right-hand side is in
(2x + 1)(x + 2) (2x + 1) (x + 2)
terms of x only.
−3 = A(x + 2) + B(2x + 1)

Let x = −2: −3 = −3B so B = 1 Convert the fraction on the RHS to partial

3 fractions.
1
__
Let x = − : −3 = __ A so A = −2
2 2
So
∫ ______ dy = ∫ (______ − ______) dx
1 1 2
y−2 x + 2 2x + 1 Rewrite the integral using the partial fractions.
86 CHAPTER 6 INTEGRATION

ln|y − 2| = ln|x + 2| − ln|2x + 1| + ln k Integrate and use + ln k instead of +c

|k(x + 2)
ln|y − 2| = ln ________
2x + 1 | Combine ln terms.

y − 2 = k(______)
x+2
Remove ln.
2x + 1
4 − 2 = k(_____) ⇒ k = 2
1+2
Use the condition x = 1 when y = 4 by
2+1
substituting these values into the general
y = 2 + 2(______)
x+2
So solution and solving to find k.
2x + 1
3
y = 3 + ______ Substitute k = 2 and write the answer in the form
2x + 1
y = f(x) as requested.

Exercise 6F SKILLS CRITICAL THINKING

1 Find general solutions to the following differential equations.

Give your answers in the form y = f(x)
dy dy
a ___ = (1 + y)(1 − 2x) b ___ = y tan x
dx dx
dy dy
c cos2x ___ = y2 sin2x d ___ = 2ex − y
dx dx

2 Find particular solutions to the following differential equations using the given
boundary conditions.
dy π dy π
a ___ = sin x cos2x; y = 0, x = __ b ___ = sec2x sec2y; y = 0, x = __
dx 3 dx 4
dy π dy cos y
c ___ = 2 cos2y cos2x; y = __, x = 0 d sin y cos x ___ = _____ , y = 0, x = 0
dx 4 dx cos x

3 a Find the general solution to the differential equation

dy Hint Begin by factorising
x2 ___ = y + xy, giving your answer in the form y = g(x) the right-hand side of the
dx
equation.
b Find the particular solution to the differential equation that
satisfies the boundary condition y = e4 at x = −1

E 4 Given that x = 0 when y = 0, find the particular solution to the differential equation
dy
(2y + 2yx) ___ = 1 − y 2, giving your answer in the form y = g(x) (6 marks)
dx
dy
E/P 5 Find the general solution to the differential equation e x+y ___ = 2x + xe y, giving your answer
dx
in the form ln |g(y)| = f(x) (6 marks)
dy
E 6 Find the particular solution to the differential equation (1 − x 2) ___ = xy + y, with boundary
dx
condition y = 6 at x = 0.5 Give your answer in the form y = f(x) (8 marks)
INTEGRATION CHAPTER 6 87

dy
E 7 Find the particular solution to the differential equation (1 + x 2) ___ = x − xy 2, with boundary
dx
condition y = 2 at x = 0 Give your answer in the form y = f(x) (8 marks)

dy
E 8 Find the particular solution to the differential equation ___ = xe−y, with boundary condition
dx
y = ln 2 at x = 4. Give your answer in the form y = f(x) (8 marks)

dy
E/P 9 Find the particular solution to the differential equation ___ = cos 2y + cos 2x cos 2y, with
dx
π π
boundary condition y = __ at x = __ Give your answer in the form tan y = f(x) (8 marks)
4 4
π dy
E 10 Given that y = 1 at x = __, solve the differential equation ___ = xy sin x (6 marks)
2 dx

11 a Find ∫ ______
3x + 4
E x dx, x > 0 __ __ (2 marks)
dy 3x√y + 4√y
b Given that y = 16 at x = 1, solve the differential equation ___ = __________
x
dx
giving your answer in the form y = f(x) (6 marks)

8x − 18
E 12 a Express _____________ in partial fractions. (3 marks)
(3x − 8)(x − 2)
b Given that x > 3, find the general solution to the differential equation
dy
(x − 2)(3x − 8) ___ = (8x − 18)y (5 marks)
dx
c Hence find the particular solution to this differential equation that satisfies
y = 8 at x = 3 giving your answer in the form y = f(x). (4 marks)

dy
P 13 a Find the general solution of ___ = 2x − 4
dx
b On the same axes, sketch three different particular solutions to this differential equation.

dy 1
E/P 14 a Find the general solution to the differential equation ___ = − _______2 (3 marks)
dx (x + 2)
b On the same axes, sketch three different particular solutions to this differential
equation. (3 marks)
c Write down the particular solution that passes through the point (8, 3.1) (1 mark)
dy x
E/P 15 a Show that the general solution to the differential equation ___ = − __
y can be written in
dx
the form x2 + y2 = c (3 marks)
b On the same axes, sketch three different particular solutions to this differential
equation. (3 marks)
c Write down the particular solution that passes through the point (0, 7) (1 mark)
88 CHAPTER 6 INTEGRATION

6.7 Modelling with differential equations

Differential equations can be used to model real-life situations.

Example 18 SKILLS INNOVATION

The rate of increase of a population P of microorganisms at time t, in hours, is given by

dP
___
= 3P, k > 0
dt
Initially the population was of size 8.
a Find a model for P in the form P = Ae3t stating the value of A.
b Find, to the nearest hundred, the size of the population at time t = 2
c Find the time at which the population will be 1000 times its starting value.
d State one limitation of this model for large values of t.

dP
___
a = 3P Integrate this function by separating the
dt
∫ __ dP = ∫ 3 dt
1 variables.
P
ln P = 3t + c Apply the laws of indices.
P = e 3t + c = e 3t × e c
P = Ae 3t ec is a constant so write it as A.
8 = Ae 0 ⇒ A = 8
You are told that the initial population was 8. This
P = 8e 3t
gives you the boundary condition P = 8 when t = 0
b P = 8e 3t
P = 8e 3 × 2 = 8e 6
Substitute t = 2
= 3227.4 . . . ≈ 3200
c P = 1000 × 8 = 8000
8000 = 8e 3t
Solve by taking the natural log of both sides of
1000 = e 3t the equation.
ln 1000 = 3t
1
y

t = __ ln 1000 Online
x

3 Explore the solution to this

≈ 2.3 hours = 2 h 18 mins example graphically using technology.

d The population could not increase in size in

this way forever due to limitations such as
Watch out When commenting on a model you
available food or space. should always refer to the context of the question.
INTEGRATION CHAPTER 6 89

Example 19 SKILLS INTERPRETATION

Water in a manufacturing plant is held in a large cylindrical tank of diameter 20 m.

Water flows out of the bottom of the tank through a tap at a rate proportional
to the cube root of the volume.
dh __
a Show that t minutes after the tap is opened, ___ = − k √ h for some constant k.
3
h
dt
b Show that the general solution to this differential equation may be written
_3 20 m
as h = (P − Qt) , where P and Q are constants.
2

Initially the height of the water is 27 m. 10 minutes later, the height is 8 m.

c Find the values of the constants P and Q.
d Find the time in minutes when the water is at a depth of 1 m.

Use the formula for the volume of a cylinder. The

a V = πr 2h = 100πh diameter is 20, so the radius is 10.
dV
___
= 100π
dh Problem-solving
__
dV
___ 3
You need to use the information given in the
= − c √V
dt
3
______ question to construct a mathematical model.
= − c √ 100πh Water flows out at a rate proportional to the cube
dh
___ dh dV root of the volume.
= ___ × ___
dt dV dt dV
___
______
is negative as the water is flowing out of the
dt
× (−c √ 100πh )
dh _____
___ 1 3
= tank, so the volume is decreasing.
dt 100π
_____

= (_________) √h
3 __
−c √100π 3
dh
100π Use the chain rule to find ___
_____ dt
__ 3
dh c √100π
So ___ = − k √h , where k = ________
3

dt 100π dh dV
Substitute for ___ and ___
dV dt
∫h dh = −∫k dt
__1
−3
b dh ___
___ 1 _____1
__
2 = =
__
3 3 dV ___dV 100π
2 h = −kt + c dh
__
2
3 __
2 __
2
h = − 3 kt + 3 c
__
2
3 c was the constant of proportionality and π is
h = −Qt + P 3
_____
c × √ 100π
__
3
constant so __________ = k is a constant.
h = (P − Qt)2 100π

c t = 0, h = 27 Integrate this function by separating the

__
3

27 = P ⇒ P = 9 2 variables.

t = 10, h = 8 2 2
Let Q = __ k and P = __ c
__
3 3 3
8 = (9 − 10Q)2
Use the boundary conditions to find the values
4 = 9 − 10Q
of P and Q. If there are two boundary conditions
1
Q = __ then you should consider the initial condition
2
(when t = 0) first.
90 CHAPTER 6 INTEGRATION

__
3

d h = (9 − t)
1
__
2

2
__
3

1 = (9 − t)
1
__
2

Set h = 1 and solve the resulting equation to find

2
the corresponding value of t.
1 = 9 − __
1
2t
t = 16 minutes

Exercise 6G SKILLS ANALYSIS

dP
E/P 1 The rate of increase of a population P of rabbits at time t, in years, is given by ___ = kP, k > 0
dt
Initially the population was of size 200.
a Solve the differential equations giving P in terms of k and t. (3 marks)
b Given that k = 3, find the time taken for the population to reach 4000. (4 marks)
c State a limitation of this model for large values of t. (1 mark)

E/P 2 The mass M at time t of the leaves of a certain plant varies according to the differential equation
dM
____
= M − M2
dt
a Given that at time t = 0, M = 0.5, find an expression for M in terms of t. (5 marks)
b Find a value of M when t = ln 2 (2 marks)
c Explain what happens to the value of M as t increases. (1 mark)

E/P 3 The thickness of ice x, in cm, on a pond is increasing at a rate that is inversely proportional
to the square of the existing thickness of ice. Initially, the thickness is 1 cm. After 20 days, the
thickness is 2 cm. _______
a Show that the thickness of ice can be modelled by the equation x = √ 7
3 ___

20
t+1 (7 marks)
b Find the time taken for the ice to increase in thickness from 2 cm to 3 cm. (2 marks)

E/P 4 A mug of tea, with a temperature T °C is made and left to cool in a room with a temperature of
25 °C. The rate at which the tea cools is proportional to the difference in temperature between
the tea and the room.
dT
a Show that this process can be described by the differential equation ___ = −k(T − 25)
dt
explaining why k is a positive constant. (3 marks)
Initially the tea is at a temperature of 85 °C. 10 minutes later the tea is at 55 °C.
b Find the temperature, to 1 decimal place, of the tea after 15 minutes. (7 marks)

E/P 5 The rate of change of the surface area of a drop of oil, A mm2, at time t minutes can be
_3
dA
___ A2
____
modelled by the equation =
dt 10t2
Given that the surface area of the drop is 1 mm2 at t = 1
a find an expression for A in terms of t (7 marks)
400
____
b show that the surface area of the drop cannot exceed mm2. (2 marks)
361
INTEGRATION CHAPTER 6 91

E/P 6 A bath tub is modelled as a cuboid with a base area of 6000 cm2. Water flows into the bath tub from
a tap at a rate of 12 000 cm3/min. At time t minutes, the depth of water in the bath tub is h cm.
Water leaves the bottom of the bath through an open plughole at a rate of 500h cm3/min.
dh
a Show that t minutes after the tap has been opened, 60 ___ = 120 − 5h (3 marks)
dt
When t = 0, h = 6 cm
b Find the value of t when h = 10 cm (5 marks)

1
E/P 7 a Express ____________ using partial fractions. (3 marks)
P(10 000 − P)
The deer population, P, in a reservation can be modelled by the differential equation
dP ____
___ 1
= P(10 000 − P)
dt 200
where t is the time in years since the study began.
b Given that the initial deer population is 2500, solve the differential equation giving your
a
answer in the form P = ________ (6 marks)
b + ce −50t
c Find the maximum deer population according to the model. (2 marks)

E/P 8 Liquid is pouring into a container at a constant rate of 40 cm3 s−1 and is leaking from the
1
container at a rate of __V cm 3 s −1, where V cm3 is the volume of liquid in the container.
4
dV
___
a Show that − 4 = V − 160 (2 marks)
dt
Given that V = 5000 when t = 0
_1
b find the solution to the differential equation in the form V = a + be −4t, where a and b are
constants to be found (7 marks)
c write down the limiting value of V as t → ∞ (1 mark)

E/P 9 Fossils are aged using a process called carbon dating. The amount of carbon remaining in a fossil,
R, decreases over time, t, measured in years. The rate of decrease of carbon is proportional to the
remaining carbon.
a Given that initially the amount of carbon is R0, show that R = R0e −kt (4 marks)
It is known that the half-life of carbon is 5730 years. This means that after 5730 years the
amount of carbon remaining has reduced by half.
b Find the exact value of k. (3 marks)
c A fossil is found with 10% of its expected carbon remaining. Determine the age of the
fossil to the nearest year. (3 marks)
92 CHAPTER 6 INTEGRATION

Chapter review 6 SKILLS DECISION MAKING

E 1 A curve C is represented by the parametric equations

x = 1 − t2, y = t3 + 1, −2 ≤ t ≤ 0
Determine the area under the curve for the given interval. (6 marks)

E 2 A parametric curve is represented by x = ln(t + 2), y = 4t. Find the area under the curve
from t = 3 to t = 13, giving your answer in the form a + b ln c, where a, b, c are integers.
(7 marks)
_____ y
E 3 The curve shown in the diagram has equation y = x 2 √9 − x 2
The finite region R is bounded by the curve and the x-axis.
y = x2 9 – x2
The region is rotated through 2π radians about the x-axis
to generate a solid of revolution. Find the exact value of the R
volume of the solid that is generated. (5 marks)
O 3 x
__
P 4 The diagram shows the curve with equation 2y 2 − 6√x + 3 = 0 y
The shaded region is bounded by the curve and the line x = 4 2y2 – 6 x + 3 = 0

a Find the value of x at the point where the curve cuts

the x-axis. R
The region is rotated about the x-axis to generate a solid of revolution. O 4 x

b Find the volume of the solid generated.

y
E 5 f(x) = x2 + 4x + 4, x > −2
The diagram shows the finite region R bounded by the curve
9
y = f(x), the y-axis and the lines y = 4 and y = 9 y = f(x)
R
a Show that the __
equation y = f(x) can be written as
x 2 = 4 − 4 √y + y (2 marks)
b The region R is rotated through 2π radians about the y-axis. 4
Find the exact volume of the solid generated. (5 marks)

–2 O 1 x

E 6 The diagram shows the shaded region bounded by the curve with y
y = x2 + 3
equation y = x2 + 3, the line x = 1, the x-axis and the y-axis.

Find the volume generated when the region is rotated through

2π radians about the x-axis
(5 marks) O 1 x
INTEGRATION CHAPTER 6 93

1
E/P 7 The diagram shows the curve with equation y = __ x (x + 1) 2 and the y
y = 14 x (x + 1)2
4
line with equation 3x + 4y = 24. The line and the curve intersect
at the point A. A
a Show that the coordinates of the point A are (2, 4.5) (2 marks)
The shaded region R is bounded by the curve, the line and the 3x + 4y = 24
R
x-axis. The region is rotated through 2π radians about the x-axis.
b Find the exact volume of solid generated. (6 marks) O x

_1 _1
8 The curve represented by the parametric equations x = t 2, y = 2t 2 is rotated about the x-axis
between the values t = 1 and t = 4
Determine the volume generated, giving your answer in an exact form.

9 A curve C is represented by the parametric equations x = t3, y = 3t. The curve is then rotated
about the x-axis to form a solid. Given that the curve is rotated between the values t = 0.4 and
t = 0.5 find the volume generated, to 3 significant figures.

1 _3
10 Given that the curve C, represented by the parametric equations x = 3t3, y = __ t –2, is rotated
3
about the x-axis between the values of t = 8 to t = 128, find the exact volume generated, giving
your answer in the form π ln b, where b is an integer.

11 By choosing a suitable method of integration, find

∫ x√4x − 1 dx ∫x ln x dx ∫ _________
4 sin x cos x
______
a b c dx
4 − 8 sin 2 x

12 By choosing a suitable method, evaluate the following definite integrals.

Write your answers as exact values.
π

a ∫0 x sec2 x dx
_
4 1
b ∫ ____________ c ∫ ______x dx
4 4 ln2
dx
1 16x 2 + 8x − 3 0 1+e

13 a Show that ∫ __2 ln x dx = 1 − __

e 1 2
E/P
e (5 marks)
1 x
1 4p − 2
b Given that p > 1, show that ∫ _____________ dx = __ ln ______
p 1
(5 marks)
1 (x + 1)(2x − 1) 3 p+1

14 a Using the substitution t2 = x + 1, where x > −1 find ∫______

x
E _____ dx (5 marks)
√x + 1

b Use your answer to part a to evaluate ∫0 ______

3 x
_____ dx (2 marks)
√x + 1

E 15 a Use integration by parts to find ∫x sin 8x dx (4 marks)

b Use your answer to part a to find ∫x2 cos 8x dx (4 marks)

94 CHAPTER 6 INTEGRATION

5x2 − 8x + 1
E/P 16 f(x) = ___________
2x(x − 1)2
A B C
a Given that f(x) = __ + _____ + _______2 find the values of the constants A, B and C. (4 marks)
x x − 1 (x − 1)
b Hence find ∫f(x) dx (4 marks)

c Hence show that ∫ f(x) dx = ln(___) − ___

9 32 5
(4 marks)
4 3 24

E/P 17 a Find ∫ x 2 ln 2x dx (6 marks)

b Hence show that the exact value of ∫_1 x 2 ln 2x dx is 9 ln 6 − ____
3 215
(4 marks)
2 72

E 18 a Find ∫xe−x dx (4 marks)

π
b Given that y = __ at x = 0, solve the differential equation
4
dy x
ex ___ = _____ (4 marks)
dx sin 2y

E 19 a Find ∫x sin 2x dx (5 marks)

π dy
b Given that y = 0 at x = __, solve the differential equation ___ = x sin 2x cos2y (5 marks)
4 dx

E/P 20 a Obtain the general solution to the differential equation

dy
___
= xy2, y > 0 (3 marks)
dx
b Given also that y = 1 at x = 1, show that
2 __ __
y = ______2 , −√ 3 < x < √ 3
3−x
is a particular solution to the differential equation. (3 marks)
2 __
The curve C has equation y = ______2 , x ≠ ±√ 3
3−x
c Write down the gradient of C at the point (1, 1) (1 mark)
d Hence write down an equation of the tangent to C at the points (1, 1), and find the
coordinates of the point where it again meets the curve. (4 marks)

E 21 a Using the substitution u = 1 + 2x, or otherwise, find

∫________
4x
(1 + 2x)2
1
dx, x ≠ − __
2
(5 marks)

π
b Given that y = __ when x = 0, solve the differential equation
4
dy x
(1 + 2x)2 ___ = _____ (5 marks)
dx sin2y
INTEGRATION CHAPTER 6 95

1 1
E/P 22 The diagram shows the curve with equation y = xe2x, − __ < x < __ y
y = xe2x
2 2
The finite region R1 bounded by the curve, the x-axis and the
1
line x = − __ has area A1.
2
The finite region R2 bounded by the curve, the x-axis and the
1
line x = __ has area A2.
2 R2
– 12
a Find the exact values of A1 and A2 by integration. (6 marks) O 1 x
R1 2
b Show that A1 : A2 = (e − 2) : e (4 marks)

E 23 a Find ∫x 2e −x dx (5 marks)
dy
b Use your answer to part a to find the solution to the differential equation ___ = x 2e 3 y − x
dx
given that y = 0 when x = 0. Express your answer in the form y = f(x) (7 marks)

E 24 a Given that
x2
______ B C
≡ A + _____ + _____
x −1
2 x−1 x+1
find the values of the constants A, B and C. (4 marks)
b Given that x = 2 at t = 1, solve the differential equation
dx
___ 2
= 2 − __2 , x > 1
dt x
You do not need to simplify your final answer. (7 marks)

E/P 25 The rate, in cm3 s−1, at which oil is leaking from an engine sump at any time t seconds is
proportional to the volume of oil, V cm3, in the sump at that instant. At time t = 0, V = A
a By forming and integrating a differential equation, show that V = Ae−kt
where k is a positive constant. (5 marks)
b Sketch a graph to show the relation between V and t. (2 marks)
1
c Given further that V = __ A at t = T, show that kT = ln 2 (3 marks)
2
dy x
E/P 26 a Show that the general solution to the differential equation ___ = _____ can be
dx k − y
written in the form x2 + ( y − k)2 = c (4 marks)
b Describe the family of curves that satisfy this differential equation when k = 2 (2 marks)

E 27 a Find ∫x (1 + 2x2)5 dx (3 marks)

π dy
b Given that y = __ at x = 0, solve the differential equation ___ = x(1 + 2x2)5 cos2 2y (5 marks)
8 dx

28 By using an appropriate trigonometric substitution, find ∫______2 dx

1
E/P (5 marks)
1+x
96 CHAPTER 6 INTEGRATION

dy
E/P 29 Obtain the solution to x(x + 2) ___ = y, y > 0, x > 0
dx
for which y = 2 at x = 2, giving your answer in the form y2 = f(x) (7 marks)

E/P 30 An oil spill is modelled as a circular disc with radius r km and area A km2. The rate of increase
of the area of the oil spill, in km2/day at time t days after it occurs is modelled as:

= k sin (___), 0 < t < 12

dA
___ t
dt 3π
a Show that ___ = ___ sin (___)
dr k t
(2 marks)
dt 2πr 3π
Given that the radius of the spill at time t = 0 is 1 km, and the radius of the spill
at time t = π 2 is 2 km
b find an expression for r2 in terms of t (7 marks)
c find the time, in days and hours to the nearest hour, after which the radius of
the spill is 1.5 km. (3 marks)

Challenge Hint Draw a sketch of each function.

Given f(x) = x 2 − x − 2, find
∫−3 |f(x)| dx ∫−3 f(|x|) dx
3 3
a b

Summary of key points

1 The area under a curve represented by the parametric equations x = f(t), y = g(t) is
t2
given by: area = ∫ g(t)f′(t)dt
t1

2 The volume of revolution formed when y = f(x) is rotated about the x-axis between
x = a and x = b is given by: volume = π∫a y2 dx
b

3 Sometimes you can simplify an integral by changing the variable. This process is similar to
using the chain rule in differentiation and is called integration by substitution.

4 The integration by parts formula is given by: ∫u ___ dx = uv − ∫v ___ dx

dv du
dx dx
5 Partial fractions can be used to integrate algebraic fractions.

6 When ___ = f(x)g(y) you can write: ∫____ dy = ∫f(x) dx

dy 1
dx g(y)
7 VECTORS
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
Learning objectives
7.7
A!er completing this chapter you should be able to:
● Use vectors in two dimensions → pages 98–102
● Use column vectors and carry out arithmetic operations on vectors → pages 102–105
● Calculate the magnitude and direction of a vector → pages 106–108
● Use vectors in three dimensions → pages 109–113
● Use vectors to solve geometric problems → pages 114–121
● Understand and use position vectors → pages 121–123

● Understand 3D Cartesian coordinates → pages 123–125

● Understand and use the vector form of the equation of a straight
line in three dimensions → pages 125–131
● Determine whether two lines meet and determine the point of
intersection → pages 131–134
● Calculate the scalar product for two 3D vectors → pages 134–140

Prior knowledge check

1 Write the column vector for

the translation of shape: B
a A to B A
C
b A to C D

c A to D ← International GCSE Mathematics

2 P divides the line AB in the ratio AP : PB = 7 : 2

A B You can use
P
vectors to
Find describe relative
AP PB AP
a ___ b ___ c ___ ← International GCSE Mathematics positions in three
AB AB PB
dimensions. This
3 Find x to one decimal place: allows you to
a 8 b 7
c d solve geometrical
40° 13
110° 9 problems in
7
5 30° three dimensions
x x and determine
18 x 70° x
3
properties of 3D
← Pure 1 Sections 6.1, 6.2 solids.
98 CHAPTER 7 VECTORS

7.1 Vectors
A vector has both magnitude and direction.
You can represent a vector using a directed line segment.
Q Q
⟶ ⟶
This is vector PQ . It starts This is vector QP . It starts
at P and finishes at Q. at Q and finishes at P.
P P

The direction of the arrow shows the direction of the vector. Small (lower case)
a
letters are also used to represent vectors. In print, the small letter will be in bold
type. In writing, you should underline the small letter to show it is a vector: a or ~a
⟶ ⟶ P
■ If PQ = RS then the line segments PQ and RS are equal in length R
and are parallel.
⟶ ⟶ B B
■ AB = −BA as the line segment AB is equal a
Q
in length, parallel and in the opposite –a S
direction to BA. A A

You can add two vectors together using the triangle law for vector addition.

■ Triangle law for B

Notation The resultant is the vector sum of
vector addition: a b
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ two or more vectors.
C C
AB + BC = AC A
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶ B D
c AB + BC + CD = AD
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
If AB = a, BC = b and AC = c, then a + b = c A

Example 1 SKILLS INTERPRETATION

a
The diagram shows vectors a, b and c.
b c
Draw a diagram to illustrate the vector addition
a+b+c

b
a
a+b First use the triangle law for a + b, then use it
again for (a + b) + c
a+b+c c The resultant goes from the start of a to the end
of c.

Online Explore vector addition using

GeoGebra.
VECTORS CHAPTER 7 99

■ Subtracting a vector is Hint

a a
To subtract b, you reverse
equivalent to ‘adding a –b
the direction of b then add.
negative vector’: b
a − b = a + (−b) a–b

If you travel from P to Q, then back from Q to P, you are back where you started, so your
displacement is zero.
⟶ ⟶ Q
■ Adding the vectors PQ and QP gives Hint ⟶ ⟶
⟶ ⟶ QP = −PQ
the zero vector 0: PQ + QP = 0 ⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶
So PQ + QP = PQ − PQ = 0

You can multiply a vector by a scalar (or number).

If the number is
If the number is a b negative (≠ −1)
positive (≠ 1) the the new vector
new vector has a 3a –2b has a different
different length length and
but the same 1
a – 12 b the opposite
2
direction. direction.

■ Any vector parallel to the vector a may be Notation Real numbers are examples of
written as λa, where λ is a non-zero scalar.
scalars. They have magnitude but no direction.

Example 2 SKILLS INTERPRETATION

Q
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶
In the diagram, QP = a, QR = b, QS = c and RT = d a
c b
Find in terms of a, b, c and d P S
⟶ ⟶
a PS b RP R
⟶ ⟶
c PT d TS d
T
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
a PS = PQ + QS = −a + c Add vectors using △PQS
=c−a
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
b RP = RQ + QP = −b + a Add vectors using △RQP
=a−b
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ Add vectors using △PRT
c PT = PR + RT = (b − a) + d ⟶ ⟶
Use PR = −RP = −(a − b) = b − a
=b+d−a
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶
d TS = TR + RS = −d + (RQ + QS ) Add vectors using △TRS and △RQS
= −d + (−b + c)
=c−b−d
100 CHAPTER 7 VECTORS

Example 3 SKILLS CRITICAL THINKING

⟶ ⟶ ⟶
ABCD is a parallelogram. AB = a, AD = b Find AC
D C
Notation This is called the parallelogram law
b
for vector addition.
A a B

⟶ ⟶ ⟶
AC = AB + BC Using the triangle law for addition of vectors.
⟶ ⟶
BC = AD = b
⟶ AD and BC are opposite sides of a parallelogram
So AC = a + b
so they are parallel and equal in magnitude.

Example 4 SKILLS REASONING

Show that the vectors 6a + 8b and 9a + 12b are parallel.

3
3 Here λ = __
9a + 12b = __(6a + 8b) 2
2
∴ the vectors are parallel.

Example 5 SKILLS CREATIVITY

⟶ ⟶ A
In triangle ABC, AB = a and AC = b
P is the midpoint of AB. P Q

Q divides AC in the ratio 3 : 2 C

B
Write in terms of a and b
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶
a BC b AP c AQ d PQ

⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶
a BC = BA + AC BA = −AB
⟶ ⟶
= −AB + AC
⟶ 1 ⟶ 1
BC = b − a AP = __AB so AP = __a
2 2
⟶ 1⟶ 1
b AP = __AB = __a Watch out AP is the line segment between A
2 2 ⟶
⟶ __ 3 ⟶ 3 and P, whereas AP is the vector from A to P.
c AQ = AC = __b
5 5
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ 3
Q divides AC in the ratio 3 : 2 so AQ = __AC
d PQ = PA + AQ 5
⟶ ⟶
= −AP + AQ
3 1 Going from P to Q is the same as going from P to
= __b − __a
5 2 A, then from A to Q.
VECTORS CHAPTER 7 101

Exercise 7A SKILLS INTERPRETATION

1 The diagram shows the vectors a, b, c and d.

Draw a diagram to illustrate these vectors: c
a b
a a+c b −b
c c−d d b+c+d d
e 2c + 3d f a − 2b
g a+b+c+d

2 ACGI is a square, B is the midpoint of AC, F is the midpoint C F G

of CG, H is the midpoint of GI, D is the midpoint of AI.
⟶ ⟶
AB = b and AD = d. Find, in terms of b and d
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶ B
E
H
a AC b BE c HG d DF
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶ b
e AE f DH g HB h FE
⟶ → → ⟶ A I
i AH j BI k EI l FB d D

3 OACB is a parallelogram. M, Q, N and P are A Q

C
the midpoints of OA, AC, BC and OB
respectively.
⟶ ⟶ M D
Vectors p and m are equal to OP and OM N
respectively. Express in terms of p and m. m
p
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶ O
a OA b OB c BN d DQ P B
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶
e OD f MQ g OQ h AD
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶
i CD j AP k BM l NO

⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶ Q
4 In the diagram, PQ = a, QS = b, SR = c and PT = d
Find in terms of a, b, c and d a b
⟶ ⟶ T
a QT b PR
⟶ ⟶ P d S
c TS d TR
c
5 In the triangle PQR, PQ = 2a and QR = 2b R
The midpoint of PR is M. Find, in terms of a and b
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
a PR b PM c QM

P 6 ABCD is a trapezium with AB parallel to DC and DC = 3AB Problem-solving

⟶ ⟶
M divides DC such that DM : MC = 2 : 1. AB = a and BC = b Draw a sketch to show the
Find, in terms of a and b information given in the
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶ question.
a AM b BD c MB d DA
102 CHAPTER 7 VECTORS

⟶ ⟶ A B
7 OABC is a parallelogram. OA = a and OC = b
The point P divides OB in the ratio 5:3 P
a
Find, in terms of a and b
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
a OB b OP c AP O C
b

8 State with a reason whether each of these vectors is parallel to the vector a − 3b.
1 2
a 2a − 6b b 4a − 12b c a + 3b d 3b − a e 9b − 3a f __a − __b
2 3
⟶ ⟶
P 9 In triangle ABC, AB = a and AC = b A
P is the midpoint of AB and Q is the midpoint of AC. Q
P
a Write in terms of a and b
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶
i BC ii AP iii AQ iv PQ C
B
b Show that PQ is parallel to BC.
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
P 10 OABC is a quadrilateral. OA = a, OC = 3b and OB = a + 2b A B
a Find, in terms of a and b
⟶ ⟶
i AB ii CB
O
b Show that AB is parallel to OC. C

P 11 The vectors 2a + kb and 5a + 3b are parallel. Find the value of k.

7.2 Representing vectors

A vector can be described by its change in position or displacement relative to the x- and y-axes.
a = ( ) where 3 is the change in the x-direction
3
4 Notation The top number
and 4 is the change in the y-direction. is the x-component and
a the bottom number is the
4 This is called column vector form.
y-component.

(λq)
λp
■ To multiply a column vector by a scalar, multiply each component by the scalar: λ(q) =
p

■ To add two column vectors, add the x-components and the y-components: (q) + (s) = (q + s)
p r p+r

Example 6 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

a = ( ) and b = ( )
2 3
6 −1
a _3 a
1
Find b a+b c 2a − 3b
VECTORS CHAPTER 7 103

(2)
__
2
1
a __ a = 3 Both of the components are divided by 3.
3

b a+b=( )+( )=( )

2 3 5 Add the x-components and the y-components.
6 −1 5

c 2a − 3b = 2( ) − 3( )
2 3 Multiply each of the vectors by the scalars then
6 −1 subtract the x- and y-components.
=( )−( )=(
12 + 3) ( 15 )
4 9 4−9 −5
=
12 −3

You can use unit vectors to represent vectors in two dimensions.

■ A unit vector is a vector of length 1. The unit vectors y
along the x- and y-axes are usually denoted by (0, 1)
i and j respectively.
j
• i=( ) j=( )
1 0
0 1 O i (1, 0) x

■ You can write any two-dimensional vector in the form pi + qj

By the triangle law of addition: C
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ 5i + 2j
AC = AB + BC
2j
= 5i + 2j
You can also write this as a column vector: 5i + 2j = ( )
5 A B
2 5i
■ For any two-dimensional vector: (q) = pi + qj
p

Example 7 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

a = 3i − 4j, b = 2i + 7j
1
Find a __ a b a+b c 3a − 2b
2
1 1
a __ a = __ (3i − 4j) = 1.5i − 2j Divide the i component and the j component by 2.
2 2

b a + b = 3i − 4j + 2i + 7j
= (3 + 2)i + (− 4 + 7)j = 5i + 3j Add the i components and the j components.

c 3a − 2b = 3(3i − 4j) − 2(2i + 7j)

= 9i − 12j − (4i + 14j) Multiply each of the vectors by the scalar then
= (9 − 4)i + (−12 − 14)j subtract the i and j components.
= 5i − 26j
104 CHAPTER 7 VECTORS

Example 8 SKILLS INTERPRETATION

a Draw a diagram to represent the vector −3i + j

b Write this as a column vector.

a
–3i + j
j
3 units in the direction of the unit vector −i and
1 unit in the direction of the unit vector j.
–3i

b −3i + j = ( )
−3
1

Example 9 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

Given that a = 2i + 5j, b = 12i − 10j and c = −3i + 9j, find a + b + c, using column vector notation in
your working.
Add the numbers in the top line to get 11

−10) ( 9 ) ( 4 )
a+b+c=( )+(
2 12 −3 11 (the x-component), and the bottom line to get 4
+ =
5
(the y-component). This is 11i + 4j

Example 10 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

Given a = 5i + 2j and b = 3i − 4j, Online Explore this solution as a vector

find 2a − b in terms of i and j. diagram on a coordinate grid using GeoGebra.

2a = 2( ) = ( )
5 10 To find the column vector for vector 2a multiply
2 4 the i and j components of vector a by 2.

2a − b = ( ) − ( ) = (
4 − (−4)) (8)
10 3 10 − 3 7
= To find the column vector for 2a − b subtract the
4 −4
components of vector b from those of vector 2a.
2a − b = 7i + 8j
Remember to give your answer in terms of i and j.

Exercise 7B SKILLS INTERPRETATION

1 These vectors are drawn on a grid of unit squares. v1

Express the vectors v1, v2, v3, v4, v5 and v6 in
i, j notation and column vector form.
v2

v4
v3 v6
v5
VECTORS CHAPTER 7 105

2 Given that a = 2i + 3j and b = 4i − j, find these vectors in terms of i and j.

b _2 a
1
a 4a c −b d 2b + a
e 3a − 2b f b − 3a g 4b − a h 2a − 3b

3 Given that a = ( ), b = ( ) and c = ( ) find

9 11 −8
7 −3 −1
1
a 5a b − __ c c a+b+c d 2a − b + c
2
1 1
e 2b + 2c − 3a f __ a + __ b
2 2

P 4 Given that a = 2i + 5j and b = 3i − j, find

a λ if a + λb is parallel to the vector i b µ if µa + b is parallel to the vector j

P 5 Given that c = 3i + 4j and d = i − 2j find

a λ if c + λd is parallel to i + j b µ if µc + d is parallel to i + 3j
c s if c − sd is parallel to 2i + j d t if d − tc is parallel to −2i + 3j

⟶ ⟶ B
E 6 In triangle ABC, AB = 4i + 3j and AC = 5i + 2j
⟶
Find BC . C
(2 marks)
A
P 7 OABC is a parallelogram. ⟶ ⟶ A B
P divides AC in the ratio 3 : 2. OA = 2i + 4j, OC = 7i
Find in i, j format and column vector format: P
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
a AC b AP c OP
O C

8 a = ( ), b = ( ), c = ( )
j 10 2
E/P Problem-solving
3 k 5
You can consider b – 2a = c as two linear
Given that b − 2a = c, find the values of j and k.
equations. One for the x-components
(2 marks) and one for the y-components.

9 a = (−q), b = ( p), c = ( )
p q 7
E/P
4
Given that a + 2b = c, find the values of p and q. (2 marks)

E/P 10 The resultant of the vectors a = 3i − 2j and b = pi − 2pj is parallel to the vector c = 2i − 3j
Find
a the value of p (4 marks)
b the resultant of vectors a and b. (1 mark)
106 CHAPTER 7 VECTORS

7.3 Magnitude and direction

You can use Pythagoras’ theorem to calculate the magnitude of a vector.

■ For the vector a = xi + yj = ( y)

x
Notation You use straight lines on either side of
the magnitude of the vector is given by: the vector:
|a| = |xi + yj| = (y)
x
| |
______
|a| = √ x2 + y2

You need to be able to find a unit vector Notation A unit vector is any vector with
in the direction of a given vector. magnitude 1.
a A unit vector in the direction of a is sometimes
■ A unit vector in the direction of a is ___
|a| written as ^
a.
If |a| = 5 then a unit vector in the direction
a a
of a is __
5
a
5

Example 11 SKILLS CRITICAL THINKING

Given that a = 3i + 4j and b = −2i − 4j

a find |a|
b find a unit vector in the direction of a Online Explore the magnitude of a vector
c find the exact value of |2a + b | using GeoGebra.

a a=( )
3 It is o!en quicker and easier to convert from i, j
4 form to column vector form for calculations.
________
|a| = √ 32 + 42
___
|a| = √ 25 = 5 Using Pythagoras.

a
a
____ 3i + 4j
_______
4
b a unit vector is =
|a| 5
3
= __ (3i + 4j) or ( )
1 0.6
5 0.8

Unless specified in the question it is acceptable

c 2a + b = 2( ) + ( ) = (
8 – 4) (4)
3 –2 6–2 4
= to give your answer in i, j form or column vector
4 –4
________ ___ __ form.
|2a + b| = √ 42 + 42 = √ 32 = 4√ 2

You need to give an exact answer, so leave your

answer in surd form:
___ ______ __
√ 32 = √16 × 2 = 4√2 ← Pure 1 Section 1.5
VECTORS CHAPTER 7 107

You can define a vector by giving its magnitude, and the angle between the vector and one of the
coordinate axes. This is called magnitude-direction form.

Example 12 SKILLS INTERPRETATION

Find the angle between the vector 4i + 5j

This might be referred to as the angle between
and the positive x-axis.
the vector and i.

4i + 5j
Identify the angle that you need to find.
A diagram always helps.
θ

O x
5
tan θ = __ You have a right-angled triangle with base 4
4 units and height 5 units, so use trigonometry.
θ = tan−1 (__) = 51.3° (3 s.f.)
5
4

Example 13 SKILLS ANALYSIS

y
Vector a has magnitude 10 and makes an angle of 30° with j.
Find a in i, j and column vector format. 30° a

y
10
O x
30° y
60°
x
Use trigonometry to find the lengths of the x-
and y-components for vector a.
O x

x
cos 60° = ___ x = 10 cos 60° = 5
10
y __
sin 60° = ____ y = 10 sin 60° = 5√ 3 Watch out The direction of a vector can be
10
given relative to either the positive x-axis (the i
a = 5i + 5√ 3 j or a = ( __)
__
5 direction) or the positive y-axis (or the j direction).
5√ 3

Exercise 7C SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

1 Find the magnitude of each of these vectors.

a 3i + 4j b 6i − 8j c 5i + 12j d 2i + 4j
e 3i − 5j f 4i + 7j g −3i + 5j h −4i − j
108 CHAPTER 7 VECTORS

2 a = 2i + 3j, b = 3i − 4j and c = 5i − j. Find the exact value of the magnitude of

a a+b b 2a − c c 3b − 2c

3 For each of the following vectors, find the unit vector in the same direction.
a a = 4i + 3j b b = 5i − 12j c c = −7i + 24j d d = i − 3j

4 Find the angle that each of these vectors makes with the positive x-axis.
a 3i + 4j b 6i − 8j c 5i + 12j d 2i + 4j

5 Find the angle that each of these vectors makes with j.

a 3i − 5j b 4i + 7j c −3i + 5j d −4i − j

6 Write these vectors in i, j and column vector form.

a y b y c y d y
20° 8 25°

60° 5
45° 15
20

O x O x O x O x

7 Draw a sketch for each vector and work out the exact value of its magnitude and the angle it
makes with the positive x-axis to one decimal place.
a 3i + 4j b 2i − j c −5i + 2j
___
E/P 8 Given that |2i − kj | = 2√ 10 , find the exact value of k. (3 marks)

E/P 9 Vector a = pi + qj has magnitude 10 and makes Problem-solving

an angle θ with the positive x-axis where
Make sure you consider all the possible cases.
sin θ = _5 . Find the possible values of p and q.
3

(4 marks)
⟶ ⟶
10 In triangle ABC, AB = 4i + 3j, AC = 6i − 4j B
⟶
a Find the angle between AB and i.
⟶ A
b Find the angle between AC and i.
C
c Hence find the size of ∠BAC, in degrees, to one decimal place.
⟶ ⟶
E/P 11 In triangle PQR, PQ = 4i + j, PR = 6i − 8j Q
Hint
P The area of a
a Find the size of ∠QPR, in degrees, triangle is _12 ab sin θ
to one decimal place. (5 marks) a
b Find the area of triangle PQR. (2 marks) θ
b
R ← Pure 1 Section 6.2
VECTORS CHAPTER 7 109

7.4 Vectors in 3D
You can use 3D vectors to describe position and displacement relative to the x-, y- and z-axes.
You can represent 3D vectors as column vectors or using the unit vectors i, j and k.
■ The unit vectors along the x-, y- and z-axes are denoted by i, j and k respectively.
1 0 0
(0) (0) (1)
i= 0 j= 1 k= 0
Links 3D vectors obey all the same addition and
p scalar multiplication rules as 2D vectors.

(r)
■ For any 3D vector pi + qj + r k = q ← Pure 4 Section 7.1

Example 14 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

Consider the points A(1, 5, −2) and B(0, −3, 7)

a Find the position vectors of A and B in ijk notation.
⟶
b Find the vector AB as a column vector.

⟶ ⟶ The position vector of a point is the vector from

a OA = i + 5j − 2k, OB = −3j + 7k
the origin to that point.
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶
b AB = OB − OA OB has no component in the i direction. You
0 1 −1 could write it as 0i – 3j + 7k

( 7 ) (−2) ( 9 )
= −3 − 5 = −8
When adding and subtracting vectors it is o!en
easier to write them as column vectors.

Example 15 SKILLS REASONING

2 4
(5) (0)
Online Perform calculations on
The vectors a and b are given as a = −3 and b = −2
3D vectors using your calculator.
a Find
i 4a + b ii 2a − 3b
b State with a reason whether each of these vectors is parallel to 4i − 5k

2 4 Use the rules for scalar multiplication and

(5) (0)
a i 4a + b = 4 −3 + −2 addition of vectors:
p λp p u p+u

( r ) ( λr ) ( r ) (w) (r + w)
8 4 λ q = λq and q + v = q + v
( 20 ) ( 0 )
= −12 + −2

12
( 20 )
= −14
110 CHAPTER 7 VECTORS

2 4
(5) (0)
ii 2a − 3b = 2 −3 − 3 −2

4 12
( 10 ) ( 0 )
= −6 − −6

−8
( 10 )
= 0

⎜ ⎟
⎛4⎞
12
( 20 )
___
−14
b i 4a + b = −14 = 3 3
⎝3⎠
___
20

4 Two vectors are parallel if one is a multiple of

(−5)
which is not a multiple of 0 the other. Make the x-components the same and
compare the y- and z-components with 4i – 5k
4a + b is not parallel to 4i − 5k
−8 4
( 10 ) (−5)
ii 2a − 3b = 0 = −2 0

4 Watch out
(−5)
4i – 5k = 4i + 0j – 5k
which is a multiple of 0 Make sure you include a 0 in the j-component of
the column vector.
2a − 3b is parallel to 4i − 5k

Example 16 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

Find the magnitude of a = 2i − j + 4k and hence find ˆ

a, the unit vector in the direction of a.

The magnitude of a is given by

______________
|a| = √ 2 + (−1) 2 + 4 2
2 Use Pythagoras’ theorem.
___
= √ 21
a 2 1 4
ˆ
____ 1 You could also write this as ____
___ i − ____
___ j + ____
a= = ____
___ (2i − j + 4k)
√ 21 √ 21
___ k
√ 21
|a| √ 21

z
Online Check your answer using the
vector functions on your calculator. y
a

You can find the angle between a given vector and any of the coordinate
axes by considering the appropriate right-angled triangle. O θx

■ If the vector a = xi + yj + zk makes an angle θx with the positive Hint This rule also
works with vectors
x
x-axis then cos θx = ___ and similarly for the angles θy and θz in two dimensions.
|a|
VECTORS CHAPTER 7 111

Example 17 SKILLS INTERPRETATION

Find the angles that the vector a = 2i − 3j − k makes with each of the positive coordinate axes
to 1 d.p.
_________________ _________ ___
|a| = √ 2 2 + (−3) 3 + (−1) 2 = √ 4 + 9 + 1 = √ 14 First find |a| since you will be using it three times.
x 2
cos θx = ____ = ____
___ = 0.5345…
|a| √ 14
Write down at least 4 d.p., or use the answer
θx = 57.7° (1 d.p.) button on your calculator to enter the exact value.
y −3
cos θy = ____ = ____
___ = −0.8017…
|a| √ 14
The formula also works with negative
θy = 143.3° (1 d.p.)
components. The y-component is negative, so the
z −1
cos θz = ____ = ____
___ = −0.2672… vector makes an obtuse angle with the positive
|a| √ 14 y-axis.
θz = 105.5° (1 d.p.)

Example 18 SKILLS ANALYSIS

The points A and B have position vectors 4i + 2j + 7k and 3i + 4j − k relative to a fixed origin, O.
⟶
Find AB and show that nOAB is isosceles.

4 ⟶ 3
(7) (−1)
⟶
OA = a = 2 , OB = b = 4 Write down the position vectors of A and B.

3 4 −1
(−1) (7) (−8)
⟶ ⟶
AB = b − a = 4 − 2 = 2 Use AB = b − a
⟶ _________________ ___
|AB | = √ (−1) 2 + 2 2 + (−8) 2 = √ 69 This is the length of the line segment AB.
⟶ _____________ ___
|OA | = √ 4 2 + 2 2 + 7 2 = √ 69
⟶ ______________ ___ Find the lengths of the other sides OA and OB
|OB | = √ 3 2 + 4 2 + (−1) 2 = √ 26 of nOAB
So nOAB is isosceles, with AB = OA
Online Explore the solution to this
example visually in 3D using GeoGebra.
Exercise 7D SKILLS CRITICAL THINKING
1 4
(−4) (5)
1 The vectors a and b are defined by a = 2 and b = −3
a Find
i a−b ii −a + 3b
b State with a reason whether each of these vectors is parallel to 6i − 10j + 18k

3 −3
(−1) (4)
2 The vectors a and b are defined by a = 2 and b = −2

Show that the vector 3a + 2b is parallel to 6i + 4j + 10k

112 CHAPTER 7 VECTORS

(r)
1 p
(−4)
P 3 The vectors a and b are defined by a = 2 and b = q

Given that a + 2b = 5i + 4j find the values of p, q and r.

4 Find the magnitude of

a 3i + 5j + k b 4i − 2k c i+j−k
d 5i − 9j − 8k e i + 5j − 7k

5 2 7
(2) (−3) (2)
5 Given that p = 0 , q = 1 and r = −4 , find in column vector form:

a p+q b q−r c p+q+r

d 3p − r e p − 2q + r

⟶
6 The position vector of the point A is 2i − 7j + 3k and AB = 5i + 4j − k.
Find the position vector of the point B.

P 7 Given that a = ti + 2j + 3k and that |a| = 7 find the possible values of t.

___
P 8 Given that a = 5ti + 2tj + tk and that |a| = 3√ 10 find the possible values of t.

9 The points A, B and C have coordinates (2, 1, 4), (3, −2, 4) and (−1, 2, 2).
a Find, in terms of i, j and k
i the position vectors of A, B and C
⟶
ii AC
b Find the exact value of
⟶
i |AC |
⟶
ii |OC |

10 P is the point (3, 0, 7) and Q is the point (−1, 3, −5). Find

⟶
a the vector PQ
b the distance between P and Q
⟶
c the unit vector in the direction of PQ .

⟶ ⟶
11 OA is the vector 4i − j − 2k and OB is the vector −2i + 3j + k. Find
⟶
a the vector AB
b the distance between A and B
⟶
c the unit vector in the direction of AB .
VECTORS CHAPTER 7 113

12 Find the unit vector in the direction of each of the following vectors.
⎛ √5 ⎞
__ __

⎜ ⎟
3 √2

(−2) (−√__7 )
__
a p = −4 b q= −4 c r = −2√ 2
⎝ −√ 3 ⎠
__

8 8 12
(4) (3) (3)
E/P 13 The points A, B and C have position vectors −7 , −3 and −6 respectively.
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
a Find the vectors AB , AC and BC (3 marks)
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
b Find |AB |, |AC | and |BC | giving your answers in exact form. (6 marks)
c Describe triangle ABC. (1 mark)

E 14 A is the point (3, 4, 8), B is the point (1, −2, 5) and C is the point (7, −5, 7).
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
a Find the vectors AB , AC and BC (3 marks)
b Hence find the lengths of the sides of triangle ABC. (6 marks)
c Given that angle ABC = 90° find the size of angle BAC. (2 marks)

15 For each of the given vectors,

3 2
(7) (−3)
a −i + 7j + k b 4 c 0

find the angle made by the vector with:

i the positive x-axis ii the positive y-axis iii the positive z-axis

P 16 A scalene triangle has the coordinates (2, 0, 0), (5, 0, 0) and (4, 2, 3).
Work out the area of the triangle.

E/P 17 The diagram shows the triangle PQR. R

⟶
Given that PQ = 3i − j + 2k and
⟶ P
QR = −2i + 4j + 3k, show that
∠PQR = 78.5° to 1 d.p.
Q
(5 marks)

Challenge
Find the acute angle that the vector a = −2i + 6j − 3k makes with the xy-plane.
Give your answer to 1 d.p.
114 CHAPTER 7 VECTORS

7.5 Solving geometric problems in two dimensions

You need to be able to use vectors to solve geometric problems and to find the position vector of a
point that divides a line segment in a given ratio. A
■ If the point P divides the line segment AB in the ratio λ : µ, then
⟶ ⟶ λ ⟶
OP = OA + ______AB P
λ+µ
⟶ λ ⟶ ⟶
= OA + ______(OB − OA ) B
λ+µ
O AP : PB = λ : m

Example 19 SKILLS INTERPRETATION

In the diagram the points A and B have A

position vectors a and b respectively P
(referred to the origin O). The point P divides a
AB in the ratio 1 : 2.
B
Find the position vector of P. b
O
⟶ ⟶ 1⟶
OP = OA + __ AB
3 1
⟶ __ 1 ⟶ ⟶ There are 3 parts in the ratio in total, so P is __ of
= OA + (OB − OA ) 3
3 the way along the line segment AB.
2⟶ 1 ⟶
= __ OA + __ OB ⟶
3 3 Rewrite AB in terms of the position vectors for A
2
__ 1
__ and B.
= a+ b
3 3
Give your final answer in terms of a and b.

You can solve geometric problems by comparing coefficients on both sides of an equation:
■ If a and b are two non-parallel vectors and pa + qb = ra + sb then p = r and q = s

Example 20 SKILLS REASONING

OABC is a parallelogram. P is the point where A B

the diagonals OB and AC intersect.
⟶ ⟶
The vectors a and c are equal to OA and OC P
respectively.
Prove that the diagonals bisect each other.
O C
VECTORS CHAPTER 7 115

If the diagonals bisect each other, then P

y

Online
x

must be the midpoint of OB and the midpoint Use technology to show that
of AC. diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each
other.
From the diagram,
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶
OB = OC + CB = c + a Express OB and AC in terms of a and c.
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
and AC = AO + OC
⟶ ⟶ Use the fact that P lies on both diagonals to find
= − OA + OC = −a + c
two different routes from O to P, giving two
⟶ ⟶
P lies on OB ⇒ OP = λ(c + a) different forms of OP
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
P lies on AC ⇒ OP = OA + AP ⟶
= a + µ(−a + c) The two expressions for OP must be equal.

⇒ λ(c + a) = a + µ(−a + c)
Form and solve a pair of simultaneous equations
⇒ λ=1−µ and λ=µ by equating the coefficients of a and c.
1
⇒ λ = µ = __ , so P is the midpoint of both
2
diagonals, so the diagonals bisect each other. If P is halfway along the line segment then it
must be the midpoint.

Example 21 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

⟶ ⟶
In triangle ABC, AB = 3i − 2j and AC = i − 5j Problem-solving
Work out what information you would need to
Find the exact size of ∠BAC in degrees.
find the angle. You could:
A
● find the lengths of all three sides then use the
cosine rule
⟶ ⟶
B ● convert AB and AC to magnitude-direction
form
The working here shows the first method.
C

⟶ ⟶ ⟶
BC = AC − AB = ( ) − ( ) = ( )
1 3 −2 ⟶
−5 −2 −3 Use the triangle law to find BC
⟶ __________ ___
|AB | = √ 32 + (−2)2 = √ 13
⟶ _________ ___
|AC | = √ 12 + (−5)2 = √ 26 Leave your answers in surd form.
⟶ ____________ ___
|BC | = √ (−2)2 + (−3)2 = √ 13
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
|AB |2 + |AC |2 − |BC |2
_______________________ b2 + c2 − a2
cos ∠BAC = ⟶ ⟶ cos A = __________
2 × |AB | × |AC | 2bc

26 − ___
13 +___ 26__ ___
13 ______ 1
= ______________ = = __
2 × √ 13 × √ 26 26√ 2 √ 2
Online Check your answer by entering the
( √ 2 ) = 45°
1__
∠BAC = cos−1 ___ vectors directly into your calculator.
116 CHAPTER 7 VECTORS

Exercise 7E SKILLS REASONING/ARGUMENTATION

⟶ ⟶
P 1 In the diagram, WX = a, WY = b and Z
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
WZ = c. It is given that XY = YZ Y
Prove that a + c = 2b
X b c
a

P 2 OAB is a triangle. P, Q and R are the midpoints A

of OA, AB and OB respectively.
OP and OR are equal to p and r respectively.
⟶ ⟶ Q
a Find i OB ii PQ P
b Hence prove that triangle PAQ is similar to triangle OAB.
B
O R

⟶ ⟶ A
P 3 OAB is a triangle. OA = a and OB = b
The point M divides OA in the ratio 2 : 1
M N
MN is parallel to OB.
⟶
a Express the vector ON in terms of a and b.
b Show that AN : NB = 1 : 2
O B

P 4 OABC is a square. M is the midpoint of OA, and Q divides BC A B

in the ratio 1 : 3 Q
AC and MQ meet at P. P
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ M
a If OA = a and OC = c, express OP in terms of a and c.
b Show that P divides AC in the ratio 2 : 3
O C

5 In triangle ABC the position vectors of the vertices A, B and C are ( ), ( ) and ( ). Find
5 4 7
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ 8 3 6
a |AB | b |AC | c |BC |
d the size of ∠BAC, ∠ABC and ∠ACB to the nearest degree.
VECTORS CHAPTER 7 117

P 6 OPQ is a triangle. S
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶ Problem-solving
2PR = RQ and 3OR = OS
⟶ ⟶ To show that T, P and S lie
P
OP = a and OQ = b. R
on the same straight line
⟶ you need to show that any
a Show that OS = 2a + b a ⟶ ⟶
two of the vectors TP , TS
b Point T is added to the diagram such ⟶
⟶ Q b O or PS are parallel.
that OT = −b
Prove that points T, P and S lie on a straight line.

Challenge
OPQR is a parallelogram. P N Q
a X
Y M

O
b R
⟶ ⟶
N is the midpoint of PQ and M is the midpoint of QR. OP = a and OR = b
The lines ON and OM intersect the diagonal PR at points X and Y respectively.
⟶
a Explain why PX = −j a + j b, where j is a constant.
⟶ 1
b Show that PX = (k − 1)a + __ kb, where k is a constant.
2
c Explain why the values of j and k must satisfy these simultaneous equations:
k − 1 = −j
1
__ k=j
2
d Hence find the values of j and k.
e Deduce that the lines ON and OM divide the diagonal PR into 3 equal parts.

7.6 Solving geometric problems in three dimensions

You need to be able to solve geometric problems involving vectors in three dimensions.

Example 22 SKILLS CRITICAL THINKING

A, B, C and D are the points (2, −5, −8), (1, −7, −3), (0, 15, −10) and (2, 19, −20) respectively.
⟶ ⟶
a Find AB and DC , giving your answers in the form pi + qj + rk
⟶ ⟶
b Show that the lines AB and DC are parallel and that DC = 2AB
c Hence describe the quadrilateral ABCD.
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ Watch out AB refers to the line segment
a AB = OB − OA ⟶
= (i − 7j − 3k) − (2i − 5j − 8k) between A and B (or its length), whereas AB
refers to the vector from A to B. Note that
= −i − 2j + 5k ⟶ ⟶
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ AB = BA but AB ≠ BA
DC = OC − OD
= (15j − 10k) − (2i + 19j − 20k)
= −2i − 4j + 10k
118 CHAPTER 7 VECTORS

⟶ Problem-solving C
b 2AB = 2(−i − 2j + 5k)
⟶ If you can’t work out what
= −2i − 4j + 10k = DC D
shape it is, draw a sketch
So AB is parallel to DC and half as long.
showing AB and DC. B
c There are two unequal parallel sides, so A
ABCD is a trapezium.

Online Explore the solution to this

example visually in 3D using GeoGebra.

Example 23 SKILLS CRITICAL THINKING

P, Q and R are the points (4, −9, −3), (7, −7, −7) and (8, −2, −0) respectively. Find the coordinates
of the point S so that PQRS forms a parallelogram.

S
Draw a sketch. The vertices in a 2D shape are
given in order, either clockwise or anticlockwise.
R(8, –2, 0) It doesn’t matter if the positions on the sketch
don’t correspond to the real positions in 3D – it is
P(4, –9, –3)
still a helpful way to visualise the problem.
Q(7, –7, –7)
⟶ ⟶
Since PQRS is a parallelogram, QP = RS
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶
So OS = OR + RS = OR + QP
8
(0)
⟶
OR = −2 and
4 7 −3
(−3) (−7) ( 4 )
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
QP = OP − OQ = −9 − −7 = −2

8 −3 5 You could also go from O to S via P:

(0) (4) (4)

⟶
So OS = −2 + −2 = −4 ⟶ ⟶ ⟶
OS = OP + PS
⟶ ⟶
which means that S is the point (5, −4, 4) = OP + QR

In two dimensions you saw that if a and b are two non-parallel Notation Coplanar vectors
vectors and pa + qb = ra + sb then p = r and q = s. In other words, are vectors which are in the
in two dimensions with two vectors you can compare coefficients same plane.
on both sides of an equation. In three dimensions you have to Non-coplanar vectors are
extend this rule: vectors which are not in the
■ If a, b and c are vectors in three dimensions which do not all lie same plane.
on the same plane then you can compare their coefficients on
both sides of an equation.

In particular, since the vectors i, j and k are non-coplanar, if pi + qj + rk = ui + vj + wk

then p = u, q = v and r = w
VECTORS CHAPTER 7 119

Example 24 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

Given that 3i + ( p + 2) j + 120k = pi − qj + 4pqrk, find the values of p, q and r.

Since i, j and k do not lie in the same plane you

Comparing coefficients of i gives p = 3.
can compare coefficients.
Comparing coefficients of j gives p + 2 = −q
so q = −(3 + 2) = −5.
When comparing coefficients like this just write
Comparing coefficients of k gives the coefficients. For example, write 3 = p, not
120
120 = 4pqr so r = ____________ = −2 3i = pi
4 × 3 × (−5)

Example 25 SKILLS ANALYSIS

The diagram shows a cuboid whose vertices are Hint Bisect means ‘cut into two equal
O, A, B, C, D, E, F and G. Vectors a, b and c are parts’. In this case you need to prove
the position vectors of the vertices A, B and C that both diagonals are bisected.
respectively. Prove that the diagonals OE and BG
bisect each other.
F E

Problem-solving
C G If there is a point of intersection, H, it must lie on
both diagonals. You can reach H directly from O
B
c D (travelling along OE), or by first travelling to B
b then travelling along BG. Use this to write two
⟶
O a A expressions for OH

Suppose there is a point of intersection, H, ⟶

H lies on the line OE, so OH must be some
of OE and BG. ⟶
scalar multiple of OE
⟶ ⟶
OH = rOE for some scalar r.
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶ Use the fact that H lies on both diagonals to find
But OH = OB + BH and BH = sBG ⟶
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ two different expression for OH . You can equate
for some scalar s, so OH = OB + sBG
these expressions and compare coefficients.
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
So rOE = OB + sBG (1)
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶
Now OE = OA + AD + DE = a + b + c, a, b and c are three non-coplanar vectors so you
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶ can compare coefficients.
OB = b and BG = OG − OB = a + c − b
So (1) becomes r(a + b + c) = b + s(a + c − b)
In order for the lines to intersect, the values of r
Comparing coefficients in a and b gives r = s and s must satisfy equation (1) completely:
and r = 1 − s 1
__ 1
(a + b + c) = b + __ (a + c − b)
1 2 2
Solving simultaneously gives r = s = __
2 The coefficients of a, b and c all match so both
These solutions also satisfy the coefficients ways of writing the vector OH are identical.
of c so the lines do intersect at H.
1
OH = __ OE so H bisects OE. Vector proofs such as this one o!en avoid any
2
1 coordinate geometry, which tends to be messy
BH = __ BG so H bisects BG, as required. and complicated, especially in three dimensions.
2
120 CHAPTER 7 VECTORS

Exercise 7F SKILLS ADAPTIVE LEARNING

1 4 10
( 8 ) (7) (30)
P 1 The points A, B and C have position vectors −4 , 4 and 0 relative to a fixed origin, O.

a Show that:
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶
i |OA | = |OB | ii |AC | = |BC |
b Hence describe the quadrilateral OACB.

P 2 The points A, B and C have coordinates (2, 1, 5), (4, 4, 3) and (2, 7, 5) respectively.
a Show that triangle ABC is isosceles.
b Find the area of triangle ABC.
c Find a point D such that ABCD is a parallelogram.

P 3 The points A, B, C and D have coordinates (7, 12, −1), (11, 2, −9), (14, −14, 3) and (8, 1, 15)
respectively.
a Show that AB and CD are parallel, and find the ratio AB : CD in its simplest form.
b Hence describe the quadrilateral ABCD.

P 4 Given that (3a + b)i + j + ack = 7i − bj + 4k, find the values of a, b and c.

P 5 The points A and B have position vectors 10i − 23j + 10k and pi + 14j − 22k respectively, relative
to a fixed origin O, where p is a constant.
Given that △OAB is isosceles, find three possible positions of point B.

E/P 6 The diagram shows a triangle ABC. B

⟶ ⟶
Given that AB = 7i − j + 2k and BC = −i + 5k
a find the area of triangle ABC. (7 marks) C
⟶ ⟶ A
The point D is such that AD 5 3AB ,
⟶ ⟶
and the point E is such that AE = 3AC
b Find the area of triangle ADE. (2 marks)

P 7 A parallelepiped is a three-dimensional figure G F

formed by six parallelograms. The diagram shows a
parallelepiped with vertices O, A, B, C, D, E, F, and G. C E
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
a, b and c are the vectors OA , OB and OC respectively. c B
D
Prove that the diagonals OF and AG bisect each other.
b
O a A

P 8 The diagram shows a cuboid whose vertices are O, A, B, C, D, E, F F P E

and G. a, b and c are the position vectors of the vertices A, B and C
respectively. The point M lies on OE such that OM : ME = 3 : 1. The M
C G
straight line AP passes through point M. Given that AM : MP = 3 : 1
prove that P lies on the line EF and find the ratio FP : PE B
c D
b

O a A
VECTORS CHAPTER 7 121

Challenge
1 2 −5
(4) (−3) (1)
1 a, b and c are the vectors 0 , 0 and 3 respectively. Find scalars

28
( −4 )
p, q and r such that pa + qb + rc = −12

2 The diagram shows a cuboid with vertices O, A, F M E

B, C, D, E, F and G. M is the midpoint of FE
and N is the midpoint of AG.
C G
a, b and c are the position vectors of the
vertices A, B and C respectively. B
Hint Trisect means
c D N
Prove that the lines OM and BN trisect the divide into three equal
b
diagonal AF. parts.
O a A

7.7 Position vectors

You need to be able to use vectors to describe the position of a point in two dimensions.
Position vectors are vectors giving the position of a point, relative to a fixed origin.
⟶ y
The position vector of a point A is the vector OA , where O is the origin.
⟶
If OA = ai + bj then the position vector of A is ( )
a
b A
■ In general, a point P with coordinates ( p, q) has a position vector
⟶
OP = pi + qj = (q)
p
O x

⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶ y
■ AB = OB − OA , where OA and OB are the position vectors of A
A and B respectively.
B

O x
Example 26 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

The points A and B in the diagram have coordinates (3, 4) y

6
and (11, 2) respectively.
Find, in terms of i and j A
4
a the position vector of A b the position vector of B
2 B
⟶
c the vector AB
O 2 4 6 8 10 12 x
122 CHAPTER 7 VECTORS

⟶
In column vector form this is ( )
3
a OA = 3i + 4j
4

⟶
In column vector form this is (
2)
b OB = 11i + 2j 11

⟶ ⟶ ⟶
c AB = OB − OA
In column vector form this is (
−2)
8
= (11i + 2j) − (3i + 4j) = 8i − 2j

Example 25
27 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

⟶ ⟶
OA = 5i − 2j and AB = 3i + 4j. Find
a the position vector of B
⟶
b the exact value of |OB | in simplified surd form.

y
B

O x

⟶ ⟶
a OA = ( ) and AB = ( )
5 3 It is usually quicker to use column vector form for
−2 4 calculations.

⟶ ⟶ ⟶
OB = OA + AB = ( ) + ( ) = ( )
5 3 8
In i, j form the answer is 8i + 2j
−2 4 2
⟶ ________ _______ ___ ___ ___ ______ ___
b |OB | = √ 82 + 22 = √ 64 + 4 = √ 68 = 2√ 17 √ 68 = √ 4 × 17 = 2√ 17 in simplified surd form.

Exercise 7G SKILLS CRITICAL THINKING

1 The points A, B and C have coordinates (3, −1), (4, 5) and (−2, 6) respectively, and O is the origin.
a Find, in terms of i and j
⟶ ⟶
i the position vectors of A, B and C ii AB iii AC
b Find, in surd form
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
i |OC | ii |AB | iii |AC |

⟶ ⟶
2 OP = 4i − 3j, OQ = 3i + 2j
⟶
a Find PQ
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
b Find, in surd form i |OP | ii |OQ | iii |PQ |
VECTORS CHAPTER 7 123

⟶ ⟶
3 OQ = 4i − 3j, PQ = 5i + 6j
⟶
a Find OP
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
b Find, in surd form: i |OP | ii |OQ | iii |PQ |

P 4 OABCDE is a regular hexagon. The points A and B have position vectors a and b respectively,
where O is the origin.
Find, in terms of a and b, the position vectors of
a C b D c E

P 5 The position vectors of 3 vertices of a parallelogram Problem-solving

are ( ), ( ) and ( )
4 3 8
Use a sketch to check that you
2 5 6
have considered all the possible
Find the possible position vectors of the fourth vertex.
positions for the fourth vertex.

E 6 Given that the point A has position vector 4i − 5j and the point B has position vector 6i + 3j
⟶
a find the vector AB (2 marks)
⟶
b find |AB | giving your answer as a simplified surd. (2 marks)

E/P 7 The point A lies on the circle with equation x2 + y2 = 9

⟶
Given that OA = 2ki + kj find the exact value of k. (3 marks)

Challenge
The point B lies on the line with equation 2y = 12 − 3x
___ ⟶
Given that |OB| = √ 13 find possible expressions for OB in the form pi + qj

7.8 3D coordinates
Cartesian coordinate axes in three dimensions are usually called x-, y- and z-axes, each being at right
angles to each of the others.
The coordinates of a point in three dimensions are written as (x, y, z).
z
Hint To visualise this, think of the x- and
y y-axes being drawn on a flat surface and the
z-axis sticking up from the surface.
(0, 6, 0)

O (3, 2, –1)
–1 3
x

You can use Pythagoras’ theorem in 3D to find distances on a 3D coordinate grid.

__________
■ The distance from the origin to the point (x, y, z) is √ x2 + y2 + z2
124 CHAPTER 7 VECTORS

Example 31 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

Find the distance from the origin to the point P(4, −7, −1)

________________
OP = √ 42 + (−7)2 + (−1)2 Substitute the values of x, y and z into the
___________
= √ 16 + 49 + 1 formula. You don’t need to give units with
___ distances on a coordinate grid.
= √ 66

You can also use Pythagoras’ theorem to find the distance between two points.

■ The distance between the points (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) is
_____________________________
√ (x1 − x2)2 + ( y1 − y2)2 + (z1 − z2)2

Example 32 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

Find the distance between the points A(1, 3, 4) and B(8, 6, −5), giving your answer to 1 d.p.
_____________________________
AB = √ (1 − 8) 2 + (3 − 6) 2 + (4 − (−5)) 2 Be careful with the signs – use brackets when you
_________________
= √ (−7) 2 + (−3) 2 + 9 2 substitute.
____________
= √ 49 + 9 + 81
____
= √ 139 = 11.8 (1 d.p.)

Example 33 SKILLS CRITICAL THINKING

The coordinates of A and B are (5, 0, 3) and (4, 2, k) respectively.

Given that the distance from A to B is 3 units, find the possible values of k.
___________________________ Problem-solving
AB = √ (5 − 4) 2 + (0 − 2) 2 + (3 − k) 2 = 3
____________________ Use Pythagoras’ theorem to form a quadratic
√ 1 + 4 + (9 − 6k + k 2) = 3
equation in k.
1 + 4 + 9 − 6k + k2 = 9
k2 − 6k + 5 = 0 Square both sides of the equation.
(k − 5)(k − 1) = 0
k = 1 or k = 5 Solve to find the two possible values of k.

Online Explore the solution to this

example visually in 3D using GeoGebra.
VECTORS CHAPTER 7 125

Exercise 7H SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

1 Find the distance from the origin to the point P(2, 8, −4)

2 Find the distance from the origin to the point P(7, 7, 7)

3 Find the distance between A and B when they have the following coordinates:
a A(3, 0, 5) and B(1, −1, 8)
b A(8, 11, 8) and B(−3, 1, 6)
c A(3, 5, −2) and B(3, 10, 3)
d A(−1, −2, 5) and B(4, −1, 3)

P 4 The coordinates of A and B are (7, −1, 2) and (k, 0, 4) respectively.

Given that the distance from A to B is 3 units, find the possible values of k.

P 5 The coordinates of A and B are (5, 3, −8)___

and (1, k, −3) respectively.
Given that the distance from A to B is 3√ 10 units, find the possible values of k.

Challenge

a The points A(1, 3, −2), B(1, 3, 4) and C(7, −3, 4) are three vertices of a solid cube.
Write down the coordinates of the remaining five vertices.
An ant walks from A to C along the surface of the cube.
b Determine the length of the shortest possible route the ant can take.

7.9 Equation of a line in three dimensions

You need to know how to write the equation of a straight line in vector form.
Suppose a straight line passes through a R
given point A, with position vector a, and b
is parallel to the given vector b. Only one
such line is possible. Let R be an arbitrary A You can find the position
point on the line, with position vector r. vector of any point R on
⟶ ⟶
Since AR is parallel to b, AR = λb, where r the line by using vector
λ is a scalar. a
addition (△OAR):
⟶
The vector b is called the direction vector r = a + AR
of the line.
So the position vector r can be written as
a + λb O

■ A vector equation of a straight line passing through the point A with position vector a, and
parallel to the vector b is Notation r is the position vector of a general point on
r = a + λb the line. Scalar parameters in vector equations are o!en
given Greek letters such as λ (lambda) and µ (mu).
where λ is a scalar parameter.
126 CHAPTER 7 VECTORS

By taking different values of the parameter λ, you can find the position vectors of different points
that lie on the straight line.
Online Explore the vector equation
of a line using GeoGebra.

Example 31 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

Find a vector equation of the straight line which passes through the point A, with position vector
3i − 5j + 4k and is parallel to the vector 7i − 3k

3 7
(4) (−3)
Here a = −5 and b = 0 b is the direction vector.

An equation of the line is

3 7
(4) (−3)
r = −5 + λ 0 You sometimes need to show the separate x, y, z
components in terms of λ.
or r = (3i − 5j + 4k) + λ(7i − 3k)
or r = (3 + 7λ)i + (−5)j + (4 − 3λ)k
You can represent a 3D vector using column

(z)
3 + 7λ x

(4 − 3λ)
or r= −5 notation, y , or using ijk notation, xi + yj + zk
← Pure 4 Section 7.4

Now suppose a straight line passes through two given points C and D, with position vectors c and d
respectively. Again, only one such line is possible.
R
D D

C C

c d r
c

O
O
⟶
You can use CD as a direction vector for the line: You can now use one of the two given points
⟶
CD = d − c and the direction vector to form an equation for
the straight line.

■ A vector equation of a straight line passing through the points C and D, with position vectors c
and d respectively, is
r = c + λ(d − c) Notation You can use any point on the straight line
as the initial point in the vector equation. An alternative
where λ is a scalar parameter. vector equation for this line would be r = d + λ(d − c)
VECTORS CHAPTER 7 127

Example 32 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

Find a vector equation of the straight line which passes through the points A and B, with
coordinates (4, 5, −1) and (6, 3, 2) respectively.

4 6
(−1) (2)
a= 5 b= 3 Write down the position vectors of A and B.

6 4 2
(2) (−1) ( 3 )
b − a = 3 − 5 = −2 Find a direction vector for the line.

Use one of the given points to form the equation.

4 2
(−1) (3)
r= 5 + t −2
You don’t have to use λ for the parameter. In this
example, the parameter is represented by the
or r = (4i + 5j − k) + t(2i − 2j + 3k) letter t.
or r = (4 + 2t)i + (5 − 2t)j + (−1 + 3t)k
4 + 2t You can give your answer in any of these forms.

(−1 + 3t)
or r = 5 − 2t

Example 33 SKILLS CRITICAL THINKING

The straight line l has vector equation r = (3i + 2j − 5k) + t(i − 6j − 2k)
Given that the point (a, b, 0) lies on l, find the value of a and the value of b.

3+t
(−5 − 2t)
r= 2 − 6t You can write the equation in this form.

−5 − 2t = 0
Use the z-coordinate (which is equal to zero) to
5
t = − __ find the value of t.
2
1
a = 3 + t = __
2
b = 2 − 6t = 17 Find a and b using the value of t.
1
a = __ and b = 17
2

Example 34 SKILLS CREATIVITY

The straight line l has vector equation r = (2i + 5j − 3k) + λ(6i − 2j + 4k)
Show that another vector equation of l is r = (8i + 3j + k) + µ(3i − j + 2k)
128 CHAPTER 7 VECTORS

2 6
(−3) (4)
Use the equation r = 5 + λ −2

8 To show that (8i + 3j + k) lies on l, find a value of

(1)
When λ = 1, r = 3 , so the point (8, 3, 1) lies λ that gives this point. It is o!en easier to work in
on l. column vectors.
6 3
(4) (2)
− 2 = 2 − 1 so these two vectors are If one vector is a scalar multiple of another then
the vectors are parallel.
parallel.
So an alternative form of the equation is
Watch out Using the same value of the
8 3
(1) (2 )
r = 3 + µ −1 parameter in each equation will give different
points on the line. You should use a different
letter for the parameter of the second equation.

Example 35 SKILLS CRITICAL THINKING

−2 1 2
(4) (1) (3)
The line l has equation r = 1 + λ −2 , and the point P has position vector 1

a Show that P does not lie on l.

0
(6)
Given that a circle, centre P, intersects l at points A and B, and that A has position vector − 3

b find the position vector of B.

−2 + λ Problem-solving

( 4 + λ)
a r= 1 − 2λ It is o!en useful to write the general point on
a line as a single vector. You can write each
If P(2, 1, 3) lies on the line then component in the form a + λb
2 = −2 + λ ⇒ λ = 4
1= 1 − 2λ ⇒ λ = 0 If P lies on l, there is one value of λ that satisfies
all 3 equations. You only need to show that two of
3 = 4 + λ ⇒ λ = −1
these equations are not consistent to show that
so P does not lie on l. P does not lie on l.
⟶ 2 0 2
(3) ( 6 ) (−3)
b AP = 1 − −3 = 4 The distance between the points with position
a1 b1
(b3)
⟶
(a3)
_______________ ___
|AP | = √22 + 42 + (−3)2 = √29 vectors a2 and b2 is

___________________________
√(b1 − a1) 2 + (b2 − a2) 2 + (b3 − a3) 2 . As P is the
centre of the circle and___ A lies on the circle, the
radius of the circle is √29
← Pure Year 2, Chapter 12
VECTORS CHAPTER 7 129

−2 + λ
( 4 + λ)
The position vector of B is 1 − 2λ

⟶ 2 −2 + λ 4−λ
(3) ( 4 + λ) ( −1 − λ)
BP = 1 − 1 − 2λ = 2λ

Use the general point on the line to represent the

(4 − λ)2 + 4λ2 + (−1 − λ)2 = 29 position vector of B.
16 − 8λ + λ2 + 4λ2 + 1 + 2λ + λ2 = 29
⟶
B lies on the circle so the length |BP | = √29
___
B

A 29 Solve the resulting quadratic equation to find two

29 possible values of λ. One will correspond to point
P
A, and the other will correspond to point B.

6λ2 − 6λ + 17 = 29
6λ2 − 6λ − 12 = 0
λ2 − λ − 2 = 0
(λ − 2)(λ + 1) = 0
So λ = 2 or λ = −1
0
(6)
λ = 2 gives −3
−2 + λ
( 4 + λ)
This is the position vector of point A. Substitute values of λ into 1 − 2λ

−3
(3)
Check that one of the values gives the position
λ = −1 gives 3 vector of A. The other value must give the
position vector for B.
This is the position vector of point B.

Exercise 7I SKILLS CRITICAL THINKING

1 For the following pairs of vectors, find a vector equation of the straight line which passes
through the point, with position vector a, and is parallel to the vector b.
a a = 6i + 5j − k, b = 2i − 3j − k b a = 2i + 5j, b = i + j + k
2 −3
(4) (1)
c a = −7i + 6j + 2k, b = 3i + j + 2k d a= 0 ,b= 2
6 0
( 2 ) (−2)
e a = −11 , b = 5
130 CHAPTER 7 VECTORS

2 For the points P and Q with position vectors p and q respectively, find
⟶
i the vector PQ
ii a vector equation of the straight line that passes through P and Q
a p = 3i − 4j + 2k, q = 5i + 3j − k b p = 2i + j − 3k, q = 4i − 2j + k
3 −2
(4) (1)
c p = i − 2j + 4k, q = −2i − 3j + 2k d p = −1 , q = 3
4 −2
(3) (4)
e p = −2 , q = 2

3 Find a vector equation of the line which is parallel to the z-axis and passes through
the point (4, −3, 8)

P 4 The point (1, p, q) lies on the line l. Find the values of p and q, given that the equation of l is
2 1 −4 2 16 3
(1) (−9) (−1) (−8) (−10) (1)
a r = −3 + λ −4 b r = 6 + λ −5 c r = −9 + λ 2

P 5 Show that the line l1 with equation r = (3 + 2λ)i + (2 − 3λ)j + (−1 + 4λ)k is parallel to the line l2
which passes through the points A(5, 4, −1) and B(3, 7, −5)

6 Show that the points Hint Points are said to be collinear if

A(−3, −4, 5), B(3, −1, 2) and they all lie on the same straight line.
C(9, 2, −1) are collinear.

1 3 10
(− 2) ( 8 ) (0)
7 Show that the points with position vectors 7 , − 1 and 4 do not lie on the same
straight line.

E/P 8 The points P(2, 0, 4), Q(a, 5, 1) and R(3, 10, b), where a and b are constants,
are collinear. Find the values of a and b. (5 marks)

E 9 The line l1 has equation

r = (8i − 5j + 4k) + λ(3i + j − 6k)
A is the point on l1 such that λ = −2
The line l2 passes through A and is parallel to the line with equation
r = (10i + 3j − 9k) + λ(2i − 4j + k)
Find an equation for l2. (6 marks)

E/P 10 The point A with coordinates (4, a, 0) lies on the line L with vector equation
r = (10i + 8j − 12k) + λ(i − j + bk)
where a and b are constants.
a Find the values of a and b. (3 marks)
The point X lies on L where λ = −1.
b Find the coordinates of X. (1 mark)
VECTORS CHAPTER 7 131

3 1
(9) (−2)
E 11 The line l has equation r = −5 + λ 2

A and B are the points on l with λ = 5 and λ = 2 respectively.

Find the distance AB. (4 marks)
1 2
(3) (−1)
E 12 The line l has equation r = −2 + λ 1

C and A are the points on l with λ = 4 and λ = 3 respectively.

A circle has centre C and intersects l at the points A and B.
Find the position vector of B. (3 marks)
−4 1
(5) (1)
E/P 13 The line l1 has equation r = 6 + λ −1

A and B are the points on l1 with λ = 2 and λ = 5 respectively.

a Find the position vectors of A and B. (2 marks)
0
(3)
The point P has position vector 2

The line l2 passes through the point P and is parallel to the line l1.
b Find a vector equation of the line l2. (2 marks)
The points C and D both lie on line l2 such that AB = AC = AD.
c Show that P is the midpoint of CD. (7 marks)

E/P 14 A tightrope is modelled as a line segment between points with coordinates (2, 3, 8) and
(22, 18, 8), relative to a fixed origin O, where the units of distance are metres. Two support
cables are anchored to a fixed point A on the wire. The other ends of the cables are anchored
to points with coordinates (14, 1, 0) and (6, 17, 0) respectively.
a Given that the support cables are both 12 m long, find the coordinates of A. (8 marks)
b Give one criticism of this model. (1 mark)

7.10 Points of intersection

You need to be able to determine whether two lines meet and, if so, to determine their point of
intersection.

λ and µ are the parameters in Lines do not intersect.

the vector equations of the lines. No solutions
No

Write the equations Do these

Write three Try to solve
in column notation solutions satisfy the
linear equations the first two equations
and set them equal third equation?
involving λ and µ. simultaneously.
to each other. Solutions
exist
Yes

Lines do intersect. Substitute your values for λ and µ into the equation of one of
the lines to find the point of intersection. You can use the other equation to check.
132 CHAPTER 7 VECTORS

Example 36 SKILLS REASONING

The lines l1 and l2 have vector equations

r = 3i + j + k + λ(i – 2j – k) and r = –2j + 3k + #(–5i + j + 4k) respectively.
Show that the two lines intersect, and find the position vector of the point of intersection.

3+ λ –5#

(1 – λ ) (
3 + 4# )
Use column vector notation for clarity, and to
1 – 2λ = –2 + #
help to avoid errors.

Solve the simultaneous equations

Choose two of the three equations obtained by
3 + λ = –5# (1)
equating x-, y- and z-components and solve the
and 1 – λ = 3 + 4# (2) resulting simultaneous equations.
Adding gives 4 = 3 – #
and so # = –1
Substituting back into equation (1) gives λ = 2
Check # = −1, λ = 2 also satisfy the third
If the lines intersect there is a pair of values of λ
equation.
and # that satisfy the 3 equations simultaneously.
1 – 2λ = −2 + # gives −3 = −3
So the lines do intersect.
3+ λ 5
(1 – λ ) (− 1 )
Substituting λ = 2 into 1 – 2λ gives − 3 .
Check that the point which you obtain a!er
The point where the lines meet is (5, –3, –1)
substitution lies on both straight lines.

Exercise 7J
1 In each case establish whether lines l1 and l2 meet and, if they meet, find the coordinates of
their point of intersection:
a l1 has equation r = i + 3j + λ(i – j + 5k) and l2 has equation r = –i – 3j + 2k + #(i + j + 2k)
b l1 has equation r = 3i + 2j + k + λ(i + j + 2k) and l2 has equation r = 4i + 3j + #(–i + j – k)
c l1 has equation r = i + 3j + 5k + λ(2i + 3j + k) and l2 has equation r = i + _2 j + _2 k + #(i + j – 2k)
5 5

(In each of the above cases λ and # are scalars.)

E 2 With respect to a fixed origin O, the lines l1 and l2 are given by the equations
l1: r = (−6i + 11k) + λ(i − j + k)
l2: r = (2i − 2j + 9k) + #(2i + j − 3k)
Show that l1 and l2 meet and find the coordinates of their point of intersection. (6 marks)

3 2 5 2
(− 2) ( 3) (0) (− 1)
E 3 The line l1 has equation r = 1 +λ 2 and the line l2 has equation r = 4 + µ 1 .

Show that l1 and l2 do not meet. (4 marks)

VECTORS CHAPTER 7 133

5 3
(− 1) ( 2)
E/P 4 The line with vector equation r = 4 + λ − 1 is perpendicular to the line with vector
0 −1
( 3) ( p)
equation r = 11 + µ p

a Find the value of p. (2 marks)

b Show that the two lines meet, and find the coordinates of the point of intersection. (4 marks)

5 −1
(1) (2)
E 5 The line l1 has vector equation r = 2 + λ 1 and the line l2 has vector equation

4 1
(1) (− 1)
r = 1 + # 0 where λ and µ are parameters.

Given that the lines l1 and l2 intersect at the point A, find the coordinates of A. (4 marks)

E/P 6 With respect to a fixed origin O the lines l1 and l2 are given by the equations
8 −1 −4 q

(− 12) (2) (p) (− 1)

l1: r = 2 + λ 3 l2: r = 10 + µ 2

where λ and µ are parameters and p and q are constants. Given that l1 and l2 are perpendicular,
a show that q = 4 (2 marks)
Given further that l1 and l2 intersect, find
b the value of p (6 marks)
c the coordinates of the point of intersection. (2 marks)
9
(− 14)
The point A lies on l1 and has position vector − 1 The point C lies on l2.

Given that a circle, with centre C, cuts the Problem-solving

line l1 at the points A and B,
Draw a diagram showing the lines l1 and l2 and
d find the position vector of B. (3 marks) the circle, and use circle properties.

7.11 Scalar product

You need to know the definition of the scalar product of two vectors in either two or three
dimensions, and how it can be used to find the angle between two vectors. To define the scalar
product you need to know how to find the angle between two vectors.

a
On the diagram, the angle between the vectors a and b is θ.
X
Notice that a and b are both directed away from the point X.
θ
b
134 CHAPTER 7 VECTORS

Example 37 SKILLS INTERPRETATION

a
Find the angle between the vectors a and b on the diagram.
20°
X
b
a
For the correct angle, a and b must both be
160° 20° pointing away from X, so re-draw to show this.
b X

The angle between a and b is 180° − 20° = 160°

■ The scalar product of two vectors a and b is written as a.b, and defined as
a.b = |a||b| cos θ Notation The scalar product
where θ is the angle between a and b. is o!en called the dot product.
You say ‘a dot b’.
A

You can see from this diagram

a that if a and b are the position Online Use GeoGebra
vectors of A and B, then the to consider the scalar product
angle between a and b is ∠AOB. as the component of one vector
in the direction of another.
B
θ
O
b
a.b
■ If a and b are the position vectors of the points A and B, then cos(∠AOB ) = _____
|a||b|
If two vectors a and b are perpendicular, the angle between them is 90°
Since cos 90° = 0, a.b = |a||b| cos 90° = 0
■ The non-zero vectors a and b are perpendicular if and only if a.b = 0
If a and b are parallel, the angle between them is 0°.
■ If a and b are parallel, a.b = |a||b|. In particular, a.a = |a|2

Example 38 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

Find the values of

a i.j b k.k c (4j).k + (3i).(3i)

i and j are unit vectors (magnitude 1), and are

a i.j = 1 × 1 × cos 90° = 0
perpendicular.

b k.k = 1 × 1 × cos 0° = 1
k is a unit vector (magnitude 1) and the angle
between k and itself is 0°.
c (4j).k + (3i).(3i)
= (4 × 1 × cos 90°) + (3 × 3 × cos 0°)
=0+9=9
VECTORS CHAPTER 7 135

Example 39 SKILLS REASONING

a1 b1

( ) (b )
a b
Given that a = 2 and b = 2 , prove that a.b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
a3 3

a.b = (a1i + a2 j + a3k).(b1i + b2 j + b3k)

= a1i.(b1i + b2 j + b3k)
+ a2 j.(b1i + b2 j + b3k)
+ a3k.(b1i + b2 j + b3k)
= (a1i).(b1i) + (a1i).(b2 j) + (a1i).(b3k)
+ (a2 j).(b1i) + (a2 j).(b2 j) + (a2 j).(b3k)
+ (a3k).(b1i) + (a3k).(b2 j) + (a3k).(b3k)
Use the results for parallel and perpendicular unit
= (a1b1)i.i + (a1b2)i.j + (a1b3)i.k vectors:
+ (a2b1)j.i + (a2b2)j.j + (a2b3)j.k
i.i = j.j = k.k = 1
+ (a3b1)k.i + (a3b2)k.j + (a3b3)k.k
i.j = i.k = j.i = j.k = k.i = k.j = 0
= a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3

The above example leads to a simple formula for finding the scalar product of two vectors given in
Cartesian component form:
■ If a = a1i + a2j + a3k and b = b1i + b2j + b3k,
a1 b1
(a3) ( )
a.b = a2 . b2 = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
b3
You can use this result without proof in your exam.

Example 40 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

Given that a = 8i − 5j − 4k and b = 5i + 4j − k

a find a.b
b find the angle between a and b, giving your answer in degrees to 1 decimal place.

8 5
(−4) (−1)
a a.b = −5 . 4 Write in column vector form.

= (8 × 5) + (−5 × 4) + (−4 × −1) Use a.b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3

= 40 − 20 + 4
= 24
136 CHAPTER 7 VECTORS

b a.b = |a||b| cos θ Use the scalar product definition.

_________________ ____
|a| = √ 82 + (−5)2 + (−4)2 = √ 105
______________ ___ Find the modulus of a and of b.
|b| = √ 52 + 42 + (−1)2 = √ 42
____ ___
√ 105 √ 42 cos θ = 24 Use a.b = |a||b| cos θ
24
cos θ = _________
____ ___
√ 105 √ 42
θ = 68.8° (1 d.p.)

Example 41 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

Given that a = −i + j + 3k and b = 7i − 2j + 2k, find the angle between a and b, giving your answer
in degrees to 1 decimal place.

−1 7
(3 ) ( 2 )
a.b = 1 . −2 = −7 − 2 + 6 = −3
For the scalar product formula, you need to find
______________ __
|a| = √ (−1)2 + 12 + 32 = √ 11 a.b, |a| and |b|
_______________ ___
|b| = √ 72 + (−2)2 + 22 = √ 57
__ ___ Use a.b = |a||b| cos θ
√ 11 √ 57 cos θ = −3
−3
cos θ = ________
__ ___ The cosine is negative, so the angle is obtuse.
√ 11 √ 57

θ = 96.9° (1 d.p.)

Example 42 SKILLS CRITICAL THINKING

Given that the vectors a = 2i − 6j + k and b = 5i + 2j + λk are perpendicular, find the value of λ.

2 5
( 1 ) (λ)
a.b = −6 . 2
Find the scalar product.
= 10 − 12 + λ
= −2 + λ
For perpendicular vectors, the scalar product is
−2 + λ = 0
zero.
λ=2
VECTORS CHAPTER 7 137

Example 43 SKILLS INNOVATION

Given that a = −2i + 5j − 4k and b = 4i − 8j + 5k, find a vector which is perpendicular to both
a and b.

(z) (z)
x x
a. y = 0 and b. y = 0 Both scalar products are zero.

() ()
−2 x 4 x
(−4) z (5)
5 . y = 0 and −8 . y = 0
z
−2x + 5y − 4z = 0 (1)
4x − 8y + 5z = 0 (2)

Let z = 1 Choose a (non-zero) value for z (or for x, or for y).

−2x + 5y = 4 (from 1)
Solving simutaneously gives
4x − 8y = −5 (from 2) 7 3
x = __ and y = __
4 2
So x = __
7 __
3
4 , y = 2 and z = 1
7 3
A possible vector is __i + __j + k
4 2
You can multiply by a scalar constant to find
Another possible vector is
another vector which is also perpendicular to
4(__i + __j + k) = 7i + 6j + 4k
7 3
both a and b.
4 2

Example 44 SKILLS CRITICAL THINKING

The points A, B and C have coordinates (2, −1, 1), (5, 1, 7) and (6, −3, 1) respectively.
⟶⟶
a Find AB .AC
b Hence, or otherwise, find the area of triangle ABC.

3 4
(6) (0)
⟶ ⟶
a AB = 2 and AC = −2

⟶⟶
AB .AC = 3 × 4 + 2 × (−2) + 6 × 0 = 8
⟶ ____________
b |AB | = √32 + 22 + 62 =7
⟶ _______________ __
|AC | = √42 + (−2)2 + 02 = 2√5
⟶⟶ Use the scalar product to find the angle between
AB .AC
___________ ⟶ ⟶ 1
cos(∠BAC) = ⟶ ⟶ AB and AC . Then use area = __ab sin θ to find the
|AB ||AC | area of the triangle.
2
8 __
= ________
7 × 2√ 5
= 0.2555…
138 CHAPTER 7 VECTORS

∠BAC = 75.1937…°
1 ⟶ ⟶
Area = __|AB ||AC |sin (∠BAC) Problem-solving
2
1 __
You could find ∠BAC by finding the lengths AB,
= __ × 7 × 2 √5 sin (75.1937…°)
2 BC and AC and using the cosine rule, but it is
= 15.13 (2 d.p.) quicker to use a vector method.

Exercise 7K SKILLS ANALYSIS

1 The vectors a and b each have magnitude 3, and the angle between a and b is 60°. Find a.b.

2 For each pair of vectors, find a.b.

a a = 5i + 2j + 3k, b = 2i − j − 2k b a = 10i − 7j + 4k, b = 3i − 5j − 12k
c a = i + j − k, b = −i − j + 4k d a = 2i − k, b = 6i − 5j − 8k
e a = 3j + 9k, b = i − 12j + 4k

3 In each part, find the angle between a and b, giving your answer in degrees to 1 decimal place.
a a = 3i + 7j, b = 5i + j b a = 2i − 5j, b = 6i + 3j
c a = i − 7j + 8k, b = 12i +2j + k d a = −i − j + 5k, b = 11i − 3j + 4k
e a = 6i − 7j + 12k, b = −2i + j + k f a = 4i + 5k, b = 6i − 2j
g a = −5i + 2j − 3k, b = 2i − 2j − 11k h a = i + j + k, b = i − j + k

4 Find the value, or values, of λ for which these vectors are perpendicular.
a 3i + 5j and λi + 6j b 2i + 6j − k and λi − 4j − 14k
c 3i + λj − 8k and 7i − 5j + k d 9i − 3j + 5k and λi + λj + 3k
e λj + 3j − 2k and λi + λj + 5k

5 Find, to the nearest tenth of a degree, the angle that the vector 9i − 5j + 3k makes with
a the positive x-axis b the positive y-axis

6 Find, to the nearest tenth of a degree, the angle that the vector i + 11j − 4k makes with
a the positive y-axis b the positive z-axis

7 The angle between the vectors i + j + k and 2i + j + k is θ. Calculate the exact value of cos θ.
___

8 The angle between the vectors i + 3j and j + λk is 60°. Show that λ = ± ___
13
5√
9 Find a vector which is perpendicular to both a and b, where
a a = i + j − 3k, b = 5i − 2j − k b a = 2i + 3j − 4k, b = i − 6j + 3k
c a = 4i − 4j − k, b = −2i − 9j + 6k

10 The points A and B have position vectors 2i + 5j + k and 6i + j − 2k respectively, and O

is the origin. Calculate each of the angles in △OAB, giving your answers in degrees to
1 decimal place.
VECTORS CHAPTER 7 139

11 The points A, B and C have coordinates (1, 3, 1), (2, 7, −3) and (4, −5, 2) respectively.
a Find the exact lengths of AB and BC.
b Calculate, to one decimal place, the size of ∠ABC.

E/P 12 Given that the points A and B have coordinates (7, 4, 4) and (2, 2, 1) respectively,
a find the value of cos ∠AOB, where O is the origin (4 marks)
___
√ 53
b show that the area of △AOB is ____ (3 marks)
2
P 13 AB is a diameter of a circle centred at the Problem-solving
origin O, and P is a point on the
This is a vector proof of the fact that the angle in
circumference of the circle. By considering
a semi-circle is 90°.
the position vectors of A, B and P, prove
that AP is perpendicular to BP.

E/P 14 Points A, B and C have coordinates (5, −1, 0), (2, 4, 10) and (6, −1, 4) respectively.
⟶ ⟶
a Find the vectors CA and CB (2 marks)
b Find the area of the triangle ABC. (4 marks)
c Point D is such that A, B, C and D are the vertices of a parallelogram.
Find the coordinates of three possible positions of D. (3 marks)
d Write down the area of the parallelogram. (1 mark)

E/P 15 The points P, Q and R have coordinates (1, −1, 6), (−2, 5, 4) and (0, 3, −5) respectively.
a Show that PQ is perpendicular to QR. (3 marks)
b Hence find the centre and radius of the circle that passes through points P, Q and R.
(3 marks)

Challenge
1 Using the definition a.b = |a||b| cos θ, prove that a.b = b.a
2 The diagram shows arbitrary vectors a, b and c, and the vector b + c
c

M β
N

b+c
b

α θ
P R a Q

a Show that
i a.(b + c) = |a| × PQ
ii a.b = |a| × PR
iii a.c = |a| × RQ
b Hence prove that a.(b + c) = a.b + a.c
140 CHAPTER 7 VECTORS

Chapter review 7 SKILLS PROBLEM-SOLVING

E 1 Two forces F1 and F2 act on a particle.

F1 = −3i + 7j newtons
F2 = i − j newtons
The resultant force R acting on the particle is given by R = F1 + F2
a Calculate the magnitude of R in newtons. (3 marks)
b Calculate, to the nearest degree, the angle between the line of action of R and the
vector j. (2 marks)

P 2 A small boat S, drifting in the sea, is modelled as a particle moving in a straight line at constant
speed. When first sighted at 09:00, S is at a point with position vector (−2i − 4j) km relative to a
fixed origin O, where i and j are unit vectors due east and due north respectively. At 09:40, S is
at the point with position vector (4i − 6j) km.
a Calculate the bearing on which S is drifting.
b Find the speed of S.

P 3 ABCD is a trapezium with AB parallel to DC and DC = 4AB

⟶ ⟶
M divides DC such that DM : MC = 3 : 2, AB = a and BC = b
Find, in terms of a and b
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶
a AM b BD c MB d DA

E/P 4 The vectors 5a + kb and 8a + 2b are parallel. Find the value of k. (3 marks)

5 Given that a = ( ), b = ( ) and c =( ) find

7 10 −5
4 −2 −3
a a+b+c b a − 2b + c c 2a + 2b − 3c

E/P 6 The resultant of the vectors a = 4i − 3j and b = 2 pi − pj is parallel to the vector

c = 2i − 3j. Find
a the value of p (3 marks)
b the resultant of vectors a and b. (1 mark)

P 7 The vector a = pi + qj, where p and q are positive constants, is such that |a| = 15
Given that a makes an angle of 55° with i, find the values of p and q.
__
E/P 8 Given that |3i − kj | = 3√ 5 , find the value of k. (3 marks)
VECTORS CHAPTER 7 141

⟶ ⟶
E/P 9 OAB is a triangle. OA = a and OB = b. The point M divides OA in the ratio 3 : 2
MN is parallel to OB.
⟶
a Express the vector ON in terms of a and b. (4 marks) A
⟶
b Find vector MN (2 marks) M N
c Show that AN : NB = 2 : 3 (2 marks)

O B

P 10 The points A(2, 7, 3) and B(4, 3, 5) are joined to form the line segment AB. The point M is the
midpoint of AB. Find the distance from M to the point C(5, 8, 7)

P 11 The coordinates of P and Q are (2, 3, a) and (a − 2, 6, 7)

___
Given that the distance from P to Q is √14 , find the possible values of a.
⟶
P 12 AB is the vector −3i + tj + 5k, where t > 0
⟶ ⟶
Given that |AB | = 5√2 , show that AB is parallel to 6i − 8j − __tk
__ 5
2
P 13 P is the point (5, 6, −2), Q is the point (2, −2, 1) and R is the point (2, −3, 6)
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
a Find the vectors PQ , PR and QR .
b Hence, or otherwise, find the area of triangle PQR.

1 5 2
(0) (4) (8)
E/P 14 The points D, E and F have position vectors 0 , 3 and −1 respectively.

⟶ ⟶ ⟶
a Find the vectors DE , EF and FD (3 marks)
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
b Find |DE |, |EF | and |FD | giving your answers in exact form. (6 marks)
c Describe triangle DEF. (1 mark)

E 15 P is the point (−6, 2, 1), Q is the point (3, −2, 1) and R is the point (1, 3, −2)
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
a Find the vectors PQ , PR and QR (3 marks)
b Hence find the lengths of the sides of triangle PQR. (6 marks)
c Given that angle QRP = 90° find the size of angle PQR. (2 marks)

E/P 16 The diagram shows the triangle ABC. C

⟶ ⟶
Given that AB = −i + j and BC = i − 3j + k
find ∠ABC to 1 d.p. A

B (5 marks)
142 CHAPTER 7 VECTORS

E/P 17 The diagram shows the quadrilateral ABCD. C

B
6 15
( 11 ) (5)
⟶ ⟶
Given that AB = −2 and AC = 8 , find the area of the
D
A
quadrilateral. (7 marks)

P 18 A is the point (2, 3, −2), B is the point (0, −2, 1) and C is the point (4, −2, −5). When A is
reflected in the line BC it is mapped to the point D.
a Work out the coordinates of the point D.
b Give the mathematical name for the shape ABCD.
c Work out the area of ABCD.

C
P 19 The diagram shows a tetrahedron OABC. a, b and c are the S
position vectors of A, B and C respectively. B
P, Q, R, S, T and U are the midpoints of OC, AB, OA, BC,
P
OB and AC respectively. U
c
Prove that the line segments PQ, RS and TU meet at a point T Q
and bisect each other. b
O
a
R
A

P 20 A particle of mass 2 kg is acted upon by three forces:

F1 = (bi + 2j + k) N
F2 = (3i − bj + 2k) N
F3 = (−2i + 2j + (4 − b)k) N
Given that the particle accelerates at 3.5 m s−2, work out the possible values of b.

P 21 In this question i and j are the unit vectors due east and due
north respectively, and k is the unit vector acting vertically
upwards.
A BASE jumper descending with a parachute is modelled as a
particle of mass 50 kg subject to forces describing the wind, W,
and air resistance, F, where:
W = (20i + 16j) N
F = (−4i − 3j + 450k) N
a With reference to the model, suggest a reason why the k component of F is greater than the
other components.
b Taking g = 9.8 m s−2, find the resultant force acting on the BASE jumper.
c Given that the BASE jumper starts from rest and travels a distance of 180 m before landing,
find the total time of the descent.
VECTORS CHAPTER 7 143

E 22 The line l passes through the points A and B with position vectors i − j + 3k and i + 2j + 2k
respectively, relative to a fixed origin O.
a Find a vector equation of the line l. (4 marks)
b Find the position vector of the point C which lies on the line segment AB such that
AC = 2CB (3 marks)

E 23 Find a vector equation of the straight line which passes through the point A with
position vector 2i + 3j − 4k, and is parallel to the vector 2j + 3k (3 marks)

24 A straight line l has vector equation r = (i + 2j − k) + λ(3i + j − 2k)

Show that another vector equation of l is r = (7i + 4j − 5k) + λ(9i + 3j − 6k)

4 1 2
(7) (2) (6)
E/P 25 With respect to an origin O, the position vectors of the points L, M and N are 7 , 3 and 4
respectively.
⟶ ⟶
a Find the vectors ML and MN (3 marks)
9
b Prove that cos ∠LMN = ___ (3 marks)
10
E/P 26 Referred to a fixed origin O, the points A, B and C have position vectors 9i – 2j + k
6i + 2j + 6k and 3i + pj + qk respectively, where p and q are constants.
a Find, in vector form, an equation of the line l which passes through A and B. (2 marks)
Given that C lies on l,
b find the value of p and the value of q (2 marks)
c calculate, in degrees, the acute angle between OC and AB. (3 marks)
The point D lies on AB and is such that OD is perpendicular to AB.
d Find the position vector of D. (5 marks)

1 5
(–3) (–3)
E 27 Referred to a fixed origin O, the points A and B have position vectors 2 and 0 respectively.

a Find, in vector form, an equation of the line l1 which passes through A and B. (3 marks)
4 1
(3) (2)
The line l2 has equation r = –4 + # –2 , where # is a scalar parameter.

b Show that A lies on l2. (2 marks)

c Find, in degrees, the acute angle between the lines l1 and l2. (4 marks)
0
(–5)
The point C with position vector 4 lies on l2.

d Find the shortest distance from C to the line l1. (4 marks)

144 CHAPTER 7 VECTORS

E 28 Two submarines are travelling in straight lines through the ocean. Relative to a fixed origin, the
vector equations of the two lines, l1 and l2, along which they travel are
l1: r = 3i + 4j – 5k + λ(i – 2j + 2k)
l2: r = 9i + j – 2k + #(4i + j – k)
where λ and # are scalars.
a Show that the submarines are moving in perpendicular directions. (2 marks)
b Given that l1 and l2 intersect at the point A, find the position vector of A. (4 marks)
The point B has position vector 10j – 11k
c Show that only one of the submarines passes through the point B. (3 marks)
d Given that 1 unit on each coordinate axis represents 100 m, find, in km, the
distance AB. (2 marks)

E/P 29 With respect to a fixed origin O, the straight lines l1 and l2 are given by
1 2
(0) (–2)
l1: r = 1 + λ 1

1 –3
(−4) (1)
l2: r = 4 + # 0

where λ and # are scalar parameters.

a Show that the lines intersect. (3 marks)
b Find the position vector of their point of intersection. (1 mark)
c Find the cosine of the acute angle between the lines. (4 marks)
E/P 30 The line l1 has vector equation r = 6i + 8j + 5k + λ(i − j + k) where λ is a scalar parameter.
The point A has coordinates (3, a, 2), where a is a constant. The point B has coordinates
(8, 6, b), where b is a constant. Points A and B lie on the line l1.
a Find the values of a and b. (3 marks)
Given that the point O is the origin, and that the point P lies on l1 such that OP is
perpendicular to l1,
b find the coordinates of P. (5 marks)
c Hence find the distance OP, giving your answer in surd form. (2 marks)
E/P 31 Relative to a fixed origin O, the point A has position vector 6i + 3j + 4k and the point B has
position vector 5i + 2j + 6k. The line l passes through the points A and B.
⟶
a Find the vector AB . (2 marks)
b Find a vector equation for the line l. (2 marks)
The point C has position vector 4i + 10j + 2k
⟶
The point P lies on l. Given that the vector CP is perpendicular to l,
c find the position vector of the point P. (6 marks)
VECTORS CHAPTER 7 145

E/P 32 With respect to a fixed origin O, the lines l1 and l2 are given by the equations
3 2 1 1
( 4) (− 1) ( 8) (− 1)
l1 : r = −2 + λ 1 l 2 : r = 12 + µ − 2

where λ and µ are scalar parameters.

a Show that l1 and l2 meet and find the position vector of their point of
intersection, A. (6 marks)
b Find, to the nearest 0.1°, the acute angle between l1 and l2. (3 marks)
5
( 3)
The point B has position vector − 1

c Show that B lies on l1. (1 mark)

d Find the shortest distance from B to the line l2, giving your answer to
3 significant figures. (4 marks)

E/P 33 Two aeroplanes are modelled as travelling in straight lines. Aeroplane A travels from a point
120 200
( 13 ) ( 5 )
with position vector − 80 km to a point with position vector 20 km, relative to a fixed

− 20
( 5 )
origin O. Aeroplane B starts at a point with position vector 35 km relative to O, and flies in
10
(0.1)
the direction of − 2

a Show that the flight paths of the two aeroplanes will intersect, and determine the position
vector of the point of intersection. (7 marks)
An air traffic controller states that this means that the planes will collide.
b Explain why this conclusion is not necessarily correct. (2 marks)

Summary of key points

⟶ ⟶
1 If PQ = RS then the line segments PQ and RS are equal in length and are parallel.
⟶ ⟶
2 AB = −BA as the line segment AB is equal in length, parallel and in the opposite direction
to BA.
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
3 Triangle law for vector addition: AB + BC = AC
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
If AB = a, BC = b and AC = c, then a + b = c

4 Subtracting a vector is equivalent to ‘adding a negative vector’: a − b = a + (−b)

⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶
5 Adding the vectors PQ and QP gives the zero vector 0: PQ + QP = 0

6 Any vector parallel to the vector a may be written as λa, where λ is a non-zero scalar.
146 CHAPTER 7 VECTORS

(λq)
λp
7 To multiply a column vector by a scalar, multiply each component by the scalar: λ(q) =
p

8 To add two column vectors, add the x-components and the y-components (q) + (s) = (q + s)
p r p+r

9 A unit vector is a vector of length 1. The unit vectors along the x- and y-axes are usually
denoted by i and j respectively. i = ( ) j = ( )
1 0
0 1

10 For any two-dimensional vector: (q) = pi + qj

p

11 For the vector a = xi + yj = ( y), the magnitude of the vector is given by: |a| = √x2 + y2
x ______

a
12 A unit vector in the direction of a is ___
|a|
⟶
13 In general, a point P with coordinates ( p, q) has position vector: OP = pi + qj = (q)
p

⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶
14 AB = OB − OA , where OA and OB are the position vectors of A and B respectively.

15 If the point P divides the line segment AB in the ratio λ : µ, then A

⟶ ⟶ λ ⟶
OP = OA + _____ AB
λ+µ P

⟶ λ ⟶ ⟶
= OA + _____ (OB − OA ) B
λ+µ
O AP : PB = λ : m

16 If a and b are two non-parallel vectors and pa + qb = ra + sb then p = r and q = s

__________
17 The distance from the origin to the point (x, y, z) is √x 2 + y 2 + z 2
___________________________
18 The distance between the points (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) is √(x1 − x2) 2 + (y1 − y2) 2 + (z1 − z2) 2

19 The unit vectors along the x-, y- and z-axes are denoted by i, j and k respectively.
1 0 0
(0) (0) ( 1)
i= 0 j= 1 k= 0

( r)
p
Any 3D vector can be written in column form as pi + qj + rk = q

x
20 If the vector a = xi + yj + zk makes an angle θx with the positive x-axis then cos θx = ___ and
|a|
similarly for the angles θy and θz.

21 If a, b and c are vectors in three dimensions which do not all lie in the same plane then you
can compare their coefficients on both sides of an equation.
VECTORS CHAPTER 7 147

22 A vector equation of a straight line passing through the point A with position vector a, and
parallel to the vector b, is
r = a + λb where λ is a scalar parameter.

23 A vector equation of a straight line passing through the points C and D, with position vectors
c and d respectively, is
r = c + λ(d − c) where λ is a scalar parameter.

24 The scalar product of two vectors a and b is written A

as a.b (say ‘a dot b’), and defined as

a.b = |a||b|cos θ a

where θ is the angle between a and b.

B
θ
O
b a.b
25 If a and b are the position vectors of the points A and B, then cos (∠AOB) = _____
|a||b|
26 The non-zero vectors a and b are perpendicular if and only if a.b = 0.

27 If a and b are parallel, a.b = |a||b| In particular, a.a = |a|2

28 If a = a1i + a2j + a3k and b = b1i + b2j + b3k

a1 b1
(a3) ( )
a.b = a2 . b2 = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
b 3

29 The acute angle θ between two intersecting straight lines is given by:

| |
a.b
cos θ = _____ where a and b are direction vectors of the lines.
|a||b|
30 Two lines are skew if they are not parallel and they do not intersect.
148 2 REVIEW EXERCISE

E
Review exercise
1 A curve has parametric equations
x = 2 cot t, y = 2 sin2 t, 0 , t <

a Find
dy
___
in terms of t.
2
π
__

(3)
E/P

a Find
dV
___
2
5 The volume of a spherical balloon of
4
radius r cm is V cm3, where V = __ πr3
3
(1)
dx dr
b Find an equation of the tangent to the The volume of the balloon increases with
π
curve at the point where t = __ (3) time t seconds according to the formula
4
c Find a Cartesian equation of the curve dV _______
___ 1000
= , t>0
in the form y = f(x). State the domain dt (2t + 1)2
on which the curve is defined. (3) b Find an expression in terms of r and t
dr
← Pure 4 Section 5.1 for ___ (3)
dt
← Pure 4 Section 5.3
E/P 2 The curve C has parametric equations
1 1 E 6 A curve is given as x3 + 3x2y = 4.
x = _____ , y = _____ , −1 < t < 1 The point P (1,1) lies on the curve.
1+t 1−t
The line l is a tangent to C at the point dy
a Find ___ in terms of x and y.
1 dx
where t = __
2 b Find the tangent to the curve at the
a Find an equation for the line l. (5)
point P.
b Show that a Cartesian equation for the ← Pure 4 Section 6.1
x
curve C is y = ______ (3)
2x − 1
← Pure 4 Section 5.1 E 7 The curve C is represented by the
parametric equations
E/P 3 A curve C is described by the equation x = ln (2t – 1), y = at – 3t3 for t > k
3x2 − 2y2 + 2x − 3y + 5 = 0 a State the minimum value of k, where k
Find an equation of the normal to C at is a rational number.
2
the point (0, 1), giving your answer in the b Given that t = __ when the gradient is 0,
3
form ax + by + c = 0, where a, b and c are determine the value of a.
integers. (7)
c Find the equation of the normal to the
← Pure 4 Section 5.2
curve when t = 1
E/P 4 A set of curves is given by the equation ← Pure 4 Section 6.1

sin x + cos y = 0.5

8 A curve is represented by the parametric
a Use implicit differentiation to find an equations x = sec2 t, y = cot t for the
dy π
expression for ___ (4) interval 0 ≤ t ≤ __
dx 4
For −π < x < π and −π < y < π dx
a Show that ___ = k sec2 t tan t, where
b find the coordinates of the points dt
k is to be determined.
dy
where ___ = 0 (3)
dx
← Pure 4 Section 5.2
REVIEW EXERCISE 2 149

b Determine the area under the curve E 13 Use the substitution u = 1 − x2 to find the
over the given interval. Give your exact value of
answer in an exact form. _1

∫0 ________
x3
2

_1
dx (6)
← Pure 4 Section 6.1 (1 − x2) 2
← Pure 4 Section 6.2
9 The curve C is represented by the
2 _3
E/P 14 f(x) = (x2 1 1) ln x
parametric equations x = __ t 2, y = 2 t 2 ∫1
_5 e
3 Find the exact value of f(x) dx (7)
Given that the area under the curve from ← Pure 4 Section 6.3
t = a to t = 3 is 40, determine the exact
5x + 3
value of a, where a > 0 E/P 15 a Express _____________ in partial
(2x − 3)(x + 2)
← Pure 4 Section 6.1
fractions. (3)
E 10 The curve shown in the diagram is
______
b Hence find the exact value of
y = x√ 1 − x 2 ∫2 _____________
6
5x + 3
dx, giving your
y (2x − 3)(x + 2)
answer as a single logarithm. (4)
← Pure 4 Section 6.4
y=x 1– x2
E/P 16 Integrate ʃ e–x cos 2x dx.
← Pure 4 Section 6.4

2x − 1
E/P 17 a Express _____________ in partial
(x − 1)(2x − 3)
fractions. (4)
O a x
b Given that x > 2, find the general
a Write down the value of a. (1) solution of the differential equation
The finite shaded region bounded by dy
the curve and the x-axis is rotated (2x − 3)(x − 1) ___ = (2x − 1)y (4)
dx
through 2π radians about the x-axis. c Hence find the particular solution of
b Find the exact volume of the solid this differential equation that satisfies
generated. (5) y = 10 at x = 2 giving your answer in
← Pure 4 Section 6.1 the form y = f(x) (2)
← Pure 4 Sections 6.4, 6.5
E 11 A curve is represented by the parametric
equations x = tan t, y = cos2 t E/P 18 A spherical balloon is being inflated in
This curve is then rotated about the such a way that the rate of increase of its
x-axis to generate a volume between volume, V cm3, with respect to time
π dV k
the values t = 0 and t = __ t seconds is given by ___ = __ where k is a
4 dt V
Determine the exact volume generated. positive constant.
← Pure 4 Section 6.1 Given that the radius of the balloon is
4
r cm, and that V = __ πr3
E 12 Using the substitution u2 = 2x − 1 or 3
otherwise, find the exact value of a prove that r satisfies the differential
equation
∫1 _______
3x
5
______ dx (6) dr __
___ B
√ 2x − 1 =
← Pure 4 Section 6.2 dt r5
where B is a constant. (4)
150 2 REVIEW EXERCISE

b Find a general solution of the After 4 hours, the concentration of the

differential equation obtained in part a. medicine in the bloodstream is reduced to
(5) 10% of its starting value C0
← Pure 4 Sections 5.3, 6.5, 6.6 c Find the exact value of k. (3)
← Pure 4 Sections 6.5, 6.6
E/P 19 Liquid is pouring into a container at a
constant rate of 20 cm3 s−1 and is leaking E 21 The vector 9i + qj is parallel to the vector
out at a rate proportional to the volume 2i − j. Find the value of the constant q.
of the liquid already in the container. (2)
a Explain why, at time t seconds, the ← Pure 4 Sections 7.2
volume, V cm3, of liquid in the container
satisfies the differential equation E/P 22 Given that |5i − kj| = |2ki + 2j|, find the
dV
___
exact value of the positive constant k. (4)
= 20 − kV ← Pure 4 Sections 7.3
dt
where k is a positive constant. (2)
E/P 23 The vectors a, b and c are given as
The container is initially empty.
a =( ), b = (−15x ) and c = ( 2 ), where x
8 −13
b By solving the differential equation, 23
show that is an integer. Given that a + b is parallel
V = A + Be−kt to b − c, find the value of x. (4)
giving the values of A and B in terms ← Pure 4 Sections 7.2
of k. (5)
dV E/P 24 The diagram shows the triangle ABC.
Given also that ___ = 10 when t = 5
dt B
c find the volume of liquid in the
container at 10 s after the start. (3)
← Pure 4 Sections 6.5, 6.6

E/P 20 The rate of decrease of the concentration A

of some medicine in the blood stream is C
proportional to the concentration C of ⟶
the medicine which is present at that time. Given that AB = −i + 6j + 4k and
⟶
The time t is measured in hours from AC = 5i − 2j − 3k find the size of ∠BAC
the administration of the medicine (i.e. to one decimal place. (5)
when it was given) and C is measured in ← Pure 4 Sections 7.4
micrograms per litre.
a Show that this process is described by E 25 P is the point (−6, 3, 2) and Q is the point
dC (4, −2, 0). Find
the differential equation ___ = −kC ⟶
dt
a the vector PQ (1)
explaining why k is a positive constant.
(2) b the unit vector in the direction
⟶
b Find the general solution of the of PQ (2)
⟶
differential equation, in the form c the angle PQ makes with the
C = f(t) (4) positive z-axis. (2)
REVIEW EXERCISE 2 151

⟶
The vector AB = 30i − 15j + 6k Given that θ is the acute angle between l1
d Explain, with a reason, whether the and l2,
⟶ ⟶ c find the value of cos θ.__Give your
vectors AB and PQ are parallel. (2)
answer in the form k√ 3 , where k is a
← Pure 4 Sections 7.4
simplified fraction. (3)
← Pure 4 Sections 7.10, 7.11
E/P 26 The vertices of triangle MNP have
coordinates M(−2, 0, 5), N(8, −5, 1) and E/P 31 The line l1 has vector equation
P(k, −2, −6). Given that triangle MNP is
r = 8i + 12j + 14k + λ(i + j − k)
isosceles and k is a positive integer, find
The points A, with coordinates (4, 8, a)
the value of k. (4)
and B, with coordinates (b, 13, 13), lie on
← Pure 4 Sections 7.6
this line.
E/P 27 Given that a Find the values of a and b. (2)
−6i + 40j + 16k = 3pi + (8 + qr)j + 2prk Given that the point O is the origin, and
find the values of p, q and r. (3) that the point P lies on l1 such that OP is
perpendicular to l1,
← Pure 4 Sections 7.6
b find the coordinates of P. (3)
E 28 The line l has equation c Hence find the distance OP, giving
2
(3)
−1 your answer as a simplified surd. (3)
(3)
r = −1 + λ −2
← Pure 4 Sections 7.10, 7.11

A and B are the points on l with λ = 4 E/P 32 Two fish are modelled as travelling in
and λ = −1 respectively. straight lines. A shark, swims from
Find the distance AB. (4) 2
(− 1)
← Pure 4 Sections 7.9
a point with position vector 3 to a

E/P 29 The points P(1, −1, 3), Q(a, 3, 8) and −2

( 11 )
R(5, 7, b), where a and b are constants, point with position vector 11 both
are collinear. Find the values of a and
b and the vector equation of the line relative to a fixed origin O and with units
through the three points. (5) given in metres.
← Pure 4 Sections 7.9 A flounder, starts at a point with
2
(1)
E 30 The line l1 has vector equation position vector 0 relative to O, and
r = 11i + 5j + 6k + λ(4i + 2j + 4k)
−2
(3)
and the line l2 has vector equation travels in the direction of − 1 .
r = 24i + 4j + 13k + #(7i + j + 5k)
where λ and # are parameters. a Show that, no matter how fast either
a Show that the lines l1 and l2 intersect. fish swims, the shark will never catch
(3) the flounder. (7)
b Find the coordinates of their point of b Give one criticism of this model. (1)
intersection. (2) ← Pure 4 Sections 7.10
152 2 REVIEW EXERCISE

Challenge Hint For question 3, consider angle ABC.

1 A curve C is described as x 3 – xy2 = y + 5.
dy
a Find an expression for ___ in terms of x and y.
dx
d2y
b Find an expression for ____2 in terms of x, y
dx
dy
___
and
dx
dy d2y
c Hence find the values of ___ and ____2 at the
dx dx
point , giving your answers as fractions.

2 By considering a suitable substitution,

determine the value of ∫ 2 ______ dx
e3
1
e x(ln x)
Give your answer in an exact form.

3 The points A, B and C have coordinates

(−2, −3, 0), (−1, −1, 3) and (1, 1, 1) respectively.
Find the centre and radius of the circle that
passes through all three points.
 EXAM PRACTICE 153

Exam practice
Further Mathematics International
Advanced Level
Pure Mathematics 4
Time: 1 hour 30 minutes
You must have: Mathematical Formulae and Statistical Tables, Calculator

1 Prove by contradiction that if n2 + 1 is even then n must be odd. (4)

2 A curve is given as x2 + 4xy + y2 + 1 = 0

dy
a Find ___ in terms of x and y. (5)
dx
b Determine the coordinates where the curve is parallel to the x-axis. (5)

3 A curve C is given as y = xe2x

a Find the exact coordinates of the turning point. (4)
b Find the volume generated when the curve is rotated about the x-axis
through 2π radians, between the values x = 1 and x = 2 (7)

4 A curve has parametric equations

x = cos t y = cos 2t 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π
a Show that y = ax2 + b, where a, b are constants to be determined. (3)
b State the domain and range of the function. (2)
dy
c Find ___ in terms of t, giving your answer in a simplified form. (3)
dx
d Determine the equation of the tangent at the point on the curve where t = 0 (3)

5 a Use the binomial series to find the expansion of

1
_______ 1
x < __
| |
(1 – 3x)2 3
in ascending powers of x, up to and including the term in x3 (6)
1
b Hence, find an approximation for _____2 , giving your answer to 6 decimal places. (3)
0.97
154 EXAM PRACTICE

6 The height of water, H, in a storage tank is modelled by the differential equation

dH
___
= –20(H – 5)
dt
where t represents the time in hours.
a Given that H = 40 when t = 0, find H = f(t) (8)
dH dH
b By finding ___ in terms of t, determine the value of ___ when t = 0.5 (3)
dt dt
c State the eventual height of the water in the tank. (1)

7 You are given two points A (2, 1, 3) and B (5, –2, 1)

a Find the vector equation of the line l that passes through A and B. (3)
b Show that the point (–4, 7, 7) is on the line l. (2)
c Find the angle between I and the x-axis. (3)
d The point C lies on the line l such that AC = 3AB
Determine the possible coordinates of the point C. (4)

8 The curve C has the set of parametric equations

x = t2 y=1–t
The curve is rotated about the x-axis by 2π radians from t = 0 to t = 1
Find the exact volume generated. (6)
TOTAL FOR PAPER: 75 MARKS
 GLOSSARY 155

GLOSSARY
accurate a value that is precise or correct to a large condition a rule that must be met
number of decimal places conical a cone shaped object
acute angle an angle that is less than 90° constant a term that does not include a variable. In
algebraic A mathematical expression consisting of the expression 3x3 – 5x + 4, the constant term is 4
numbers, operations (add, subtract, etc.) and letters contradiction a statement that disagrees with
representing unknown values another statement
anchored fixed in position converge to approach a limiting value as, either the
anticlockwise the opposite direction in which the value of the variable increases, or in the case of a
hands of a clock move around series, the number of terms increases
1
approximation a number that is not exact for example, _x converges to 0 as x approaches ∞
ascending increasing convert change into something else
axis (plural axes) either of the two lines by which convex an outline or surface like the exterior of a
the positions of points are measured in a graph circle or sphere
base area the cross-sectional area of a three- coordinates a set of values that show an exact
dimensional shape. For example, a pyramid has a position. In a two-dimensional grid, the first number
square base area represents a point on the x-axis and the second
bearing the angle measured in a clockwise direction number represents a point on the y-axis
from the north direction coplanar points lying in the same plane
binomial an algebraic expression of the sum or corresponding an equivalent; connected with what
difference of two terms you have just mentioned
for example; (a + b)n is the general form of a binomial cube a three-dimensional object that has all edges of
expression the same length
bisect to cut in two exact halves cubic an algebraic expression in which the highest
boundary condition a condition that is required power is 3
to be satisfied at all, or part of, the boundary of a cuboid a six-sided solid whose sides are all
region in which a set of differential equations is to rectangles, placed at right angles. Can be, but not
be solved necessarily, a cube
bounded enclosed curve a function that is not linear in shape. For
Cartesian a unique point in two or three-dimensional 1
example, f (x) = _
x
space specified by numerical coordinates
cylindrical a cylinder-shaped object
circle the set of all points in a plane that are the
decrease to go down in value
same distance from a given point; the centre
deduce to reach a logical conclusion. If x – 5 = 2, we
clockwise the same direction in which the hands of
can deduce that x = 7
a clock move around
definite integral an integral that has a numerical
coefficient a numerical or constant quantity placed
solution. For example, ∫ x dx is a definite integral,
2
before and multiplying the variable in an algebraic
expression 1
whereas ʃ x dx is an indefinite integral
collinear points lying on the same line

( 3)
1 degree (of a polynomial) the highest power
column vector a vector of the form ( ) or –2
3 in an expression determines the degree of the
4 expression. For example, 7x3 + 5x2 is a polynomial of
common factor a quantity that will divide without degree 3 since this is the highest power
remainder into two or more other quantities degrees an angular measurement where 360°
concave an outline or surface that curves inwards like describes a full circle
the interior of a circle or sphere
156 GLOSSARY

a
denominator the lower part of a fraction. b in _ exponential something is said to increase or
b decrease exponentially if its rate of change is
derivative a way to represent the rate of change of expressed using exponents. Functions that are
a mathematical function exponential are of the form y = a × bx, where a, b are
determine to find out. By analysing the equation of constants, and b is the base
a curve, we can determine whether or not it is a circle expression any group of terms that represents
diagonal a line that joins two non-adjacent vertices something mathematical
in a polygon. x + 2, 3x4 and xy + y3 are expressions
differential equation an equation that contains factor a number that divides into another number
dy
a derivative. For example, __ = x + y is a first order exactly
dx
differential equation since it contains a 1st derivative factorise to rewrite an expression using brackets
term ee factorise x2 + 3x to get x(x + 3)
differentiate to determine the derivative of a finite a value that is limited; not infinite
function. To find its rate of change with respect to formula (plural formulae) a mathematical
another variable expression or equation with a particular meaning
differentiation the instantaneous rate of change of fraction a mathematical expression representing
a function with respect to one of its variables the division of one whole number by another
dimensions the size of something, usually given as general solution a solution that contains unknown
its length, width and height constants. For example, from integration ʃ 2x dx
direction a course along which something moves. produces the general solution x2 + c, where the
For example, north, east, etc. are directions. Vectors constant of integration is unknown
have direction generate produce, create
displacement change of position geometry a part of mathematics relating to points,
distinct different or unique lines, areas and solids
domain the set of values
_
that a function exists for. gradient slope
For example, f (x) = √ x only exists for x ≥ 0 hemisphere half a sphere
eliminate to remove a variable from a set of hexagon a six-sided two-dimensional shape
equations
identical exactly the same as something else
endpoints a point at the start or end of an interval,
a line segment, or part of a curve identity an equality between expressions that
is true for all values of the variables in those
equate put equal to each other, usually to determine expressions
a relationship or solution. For example, equating x2
and x yields solutions of 0 and 1 implicit a function that is not expressed directly in
terms of independent variables
equation a statement that values of two
mathematical expressions are equal improper fraction a fraction that is represented in
5
error A measure of the difference between an exact the form _ where the numerator is greater than the
2
value and an estimated value denominator. Also known as top-heavy fractions
estimate roughly calculate a value increase to go up in value
evaluate calculate the value of. If x = 2, we can index (plural indices) the power to which a quantity
evaluate 4x to 8 is raised, shown as a small number (superscript)
even number an integer that is divisible by 2 infinite a value that is unlimited, not finite
without leaving a remainder inflection point a point on a curve at which a
exact not approximated in any way, precise change in the direction of curvature occurs
expand to multiply out terms in brackets insignificant too small or unimportant to be worth
expansion a mathematical expression written in an consideration
extended form integer a whole number (1,2, etc.)
for example, the expansion of (a + b)2 is a2 + 2ab + b2 integral a function of which a given function is the
derivative
 GLOSSARY 157

integrand a function that is to be integrated obtain get, or acquire. For example, putting x = 2
integration one of the two operations of calculus, into y = 4x allows you to obtain the value for y
the other being differentiation, its inverse odd an integer that is not a multiple of 2
intersection the point at which two or more curves origin the point where the x-axis and y-axis
cross (intersect) intersect on a flat coordinate plane
inverse operations that reverse each other. For parallel two lines side-by-side, the same distance
_1
example, the inverse of f (x) = x3 is f –1(x) = x 3 apart at every point
inversely proportional when the product of two parallelepiped a solid body that has a
variables equals a constant, these variables are said parallelogram for each face
to be inversely proportional to each other. For parallelogram a four-sided shape that has two pairs
k
example, y = _ x shows that y is inversely proportional
of parallel opposite sides
to x parametric equations a set of equations that
express a set of quantities as functions of a number
irrational number a real number that cannot be
of independent variables, known as “parameters”.
expressed as a fraction or an integer
For example, x = t2, y = 2t, t ∊ ℝ are a set of
isosceles a triangle with two equal sides, hence two
equal angles parametric equations
particular solution a solution to a differential
limit a point or value that a sequence, or function,
equation that contains no unknown constants of
or sum of a series will approach, until it is as close to
integration
the point or value as desired
percentage a part of a whole expressed in
linear functions that have variables with power 1.
hundredths
For example, y = 4x – 3
perpendicular means at right angles. A line meeting
logarithm the power to which the base number
another line at 90°
must be raised in order to get a particular number.
For example, log2 32 = 5 ⇒ 25 = 32 plane a flat surface on which a straight line joining
any two points on it would lie
magnitude a numerical quantity or value, taken as
positive. For example, the magnitude of –3 is 3 plot to make a diagram, chart or curve, for example,
using certain values
midpoint a point which lies directly between two
other points polynomial an expression of two or more algebraic
terms with positive whole number indices.
model an attempt to describe, explore and solve
For example, 6x4 – 7x2 is a polynomial
real-life systems and problems using mathematical
concepts and language position vector a vector that starts from the origin.
modulus the magnitude or absolute value of an positive a value that is greater than zero
expression or constant. power if a number is increased to the power of three,
multiple a number that can be divided into another then it is multiplied by itself three times
number without a remainder. For example, 8 is a For example, x to the power of 2 is x × x, written as x2
multiple of 32 prime number a number that can only be divided by
natural logarithm a logarithm that has base e. For itself and 1
example, loge 5, which is usually written as ln 5 product the product of two numbers is the result of
negation a contradiction of something multiplying them together. For example, 3 × 4 = 12 so
negative a value that is less than zero 12 is the product of 3 and 4
non-parallel two lines or edges that are not the proportional a pair of variables that have a
same distance from each other at all points constant ratio to each other. For example, y = kx
y
non-zero a value that is not equal to zero shows that _ x is always the same amount
normal a line that is perpendicular (at right angles) quadratic an expression of the form ax2 + bx + c
to another line. For example, the normal to a curve is where a ≠ 0
perpendicular to the tangent to the curve quadrilateral a four-sided shape
a
numerator the upper part of a fraction. a in _
b
158 GLOSSARY

quotient a result obtained by dividing one quantity square (power) to raise a number or variable to the
by another power of 2. For example, x squared is written as x2
radian an angle subtended by a circular arc as the square root (of ) a number which, when multiplied
_ _1
length of the arc divided by the radius of the arc. One by itself, equals x. Can be written as √ x or x 2
radian is approximately 57.30° stationary point A point on a curve where the
radius the line segment joining the centre to the gradient is zero
circumference of a circle strip a thin rectangular area, used to approximate
rate of change the change in one variable with the area of a region, such as in integration
respect to the change in another variable substitution the replacing of a variable in an
rational any real number, including integers, that expression with a value or another representation
can be written as a fraction, even if it produces a sufficiently small a value so small that it can
repeating decimal be ignored.. For example, 0.0014 could usually be
rearrange to put terms in a different order considered small enough to ignore
_
region an area of a graph enclosed by curves or lines surds numbers that are written in the form √ a but
repeated factor an expression, or value, that cannot be resolved
_ into a rational number. For
contains the same factor more than once. For example, √ 2
example, in the expression (x + 2)(x – 1)2, x – 1 is a surface area the total area of the surface of a three-
repeated factor dimensional object
resultant a vector quantity which is equivalent to tangent a line that touches a curve at a point. The
the combined effect of two or more other vectors gradient of the tangent and the curve are equal at
acting at the same point that point
revolution one revolution is a complete turn term a separate part of a mathematical expression.
through 360° For example, the expression 2x4 – 5 has two terms
right-angle an angle between two lines where the top heavy A fraction that has a greater numerator
angle is 90°. This is also known as perpendicular 100 x2
than denominator. For example, ___ and ____ are
root a solution of a quadratic equation 52 2x – 3
both top heavy fractions
rotate turn about a specified point
trapezium a four-sided shape that has one set of
scalar a real number that is not a vector opposite sides parallel to each other.
scalene a triangle that has no equal sides or triangle a three-sided shape
equal angles
trigonometric function a function that relates
segment a smaller part of a larger object. For triangles and their sides and angles.
example, a line segment is a line of finite length For example, sin x, cos x are both
between two points trigonometric functions
series the sum of terms in a sequence trisect to cut into three equal parts
significant figures digits counted from the first unit vector a vector that has magnitude 1
(non-zero) digit on the le#
variable a quantity that is not constant
simplify to replace an expression with a simpler,
vector a value that has both magnitude
usually shorter, one
and direction
sketch a drawing that explains something without
velocity measured as the displacement covered
necessarily being accurate
divided by the time taken
skew lines two lines that are not parallel and do
vertex (plural vertices) a point where two lines, or
not intersect
edges, meet. Is also used to define the turning point
sphere a solid three-dimensional shape which has of a quadratic function
every point on its outer surface the same distance
from the centre
 ANSWERS 159

ANSWERS
CHAPTER 1 This contradicts assumption that ab is irrational.
Therefore if ab is an irrational number that at least
Prior knowledge check one of a and b is an irrational number.
1 a (x – 1)(x – 5) b (x + 4)(x – 4) c (3x – 5)(3x + 5) b Assumption: if a + b is an irrational number then
2 a even b either c either d odd neither a nor b is irrational.
c
a is rational, a = __ where c and d are integers.
Exercise 1A d
e
1 B At least one multiple of three is odd. b is rational, b = __ where e and f are integers.
f
2 a At least one rich person is not happy.
cf + de
_______
b There is at least one prime number between a+b=
10 million and 11 million. df
c If p and q are prime numbers there exists a number cf, de and df are integers.
of the form (pq + 1) that is not prime. So a + b is rational. This contradicts the assumption
d There is a number of the form 2n – 1 that is neither that a + b is irrational.
a prime nor a multiple of 3. Therefore if a + b is irrational then at least one of a
e None of the above statements are true. and b is irrational.
3 a There exists a number n such that n2 is odd but n is c Many possible answers e.g. a = 2 – √2, b = √2.
even. 6 Assumption: there exists integers a and b such that
b n is even so write n = 2k 21a + 14b = 1.
n2 = (2k)2 = 4k2 = 2(2k2) ⇒ n2 is even. Since 21 and 14 are multiples of 7, divide both sides
This contradicts the assumption that n2 is odd. by 7.
1
Therefore if n2 is odd then n must be odd. So now 3a + 2b = __
7
4 a Assumption: there is a greatest even integer 2n. 3a is also an integer. 2b is also an integer.
2(n + 1) is also an integer and 2(n + 1) > 2n The sum of two integers will always be an integer, so
2n + 2 = even + even = even 3a + 2b = ‘an integer’.
1
So there exists an even integer greater that 2n. This contradicts the statement that 3a + 2b = __
This contradicts the assumption. 7
Therefore there exists no integers a and b for which
Therefore there is no greatest even integer. 21a + 14b = 1
b Assumption: there exists a number n such that n3 is 7 a Assumption: There exists a number n such that n2
even but n is odd. is a multiple of 3, but n is not a multiple of 3.
n is odd so write n = 2k + 1 We know that all multiples of 3 can be written in
n3 = (2k + 1)3 = 8k3 + 12k2 + 6k + 1 the form n = 3k, therefore 3k + 1 and 3k + 2 are not
= 2(4k3 + 6k2 + 3k) +1 ⇒ n3 is odd. multiples of 3.
This contradicts the assumption that n3 is even. Let n = 3k + 1
Therefore, if n3 is even then n must be even. n2 = (3k + 1)2 = 9k2 + 6k + 1 = 3(3k2 + 2k) + 1
c Assumption: if pq is even then neither p nor q is In this case n2 is not a multiple of 3.
even. Let m = 3k + 2
p is odd, p = 2k + 1 m2 = (3k + 2)2 = 9k2 + 12k + 4 = 3(3k2 + 4k + 1) + 1
q is odd, q = 2m + 1 In this case n2 is also not a multiple of 3.
pq = (2k +1)(2m + 1) = 2km + 2k +2m +1 This contradicts the assumption that n2 is a multiple
= 2(km + k + m) +1 ⇒ pq is odd. of 3.
This contradicts the assumption that pq is even. Therefore if n2 is a multiple of 3, n is a multiple of 3.
Therefore, if pq is even then at least one of p and q
b Assumption: √3 is a rational number.
is even. __
a
d Assumption: if p + q is odd than neither p nor q is odd Then √3 = __ for some integers a and b.
b
p is even, p = 2k Further assume that this fraction is in its simplest
q is even, q = 2m terms: there are no common factors between a and b.
p + q = 2k + 2m = 2(k + m) ⇒ so p + q is even a2
This contradicts the assumption that p + q is odd. So 3 = ___2 or a2 = 3b2
b
Therefore, if p + q is odd that at least one of p and q Therefore a2 must be a multiple of 3.
is odd. We know from part a that this means a must also
5 a Assumption: if ab is an irrational number then be a multiple of 3.
neither a nor b is irrational. Write a = 3c, which means a2 = (3c)2 = 9c2
c
a is rational, a = __ where c and d are integers. Now 9c2 = 3b2, or 3c2 = b2
d
Therefore b2 must be a multiple of 3, which implies
e
b is rational, b = __ where e and f are integers. b is also a multiple of 3.
f
ce If a and b are both multiples of 3, this contradicts
ab = ___ , ce is an integer, df is an integer.
df the statement that there are no common factors
Therefore ab is a rational number. between a and b.
Therefore, √3 is an irrational number.
160 ANSWERS

8 Assumption: there is an integer solution to the equation 4 Assumption: if a – 2b is irrational then neither a nor b
x2 – y2 = 2 is irrational.
Remember that x2 – y2 = (x – y)(x + y) = 2 c
Let a = __ where c and d are integers.
To make a product of 2 using integers, the possible d
e
pairs are: (2, 1), (1, 2), (–2, –1) and (–1, –2). Let b = __ where e and f are integers.
Consider each possibility in turn. f
3 1 c 2e cf – 2de
x – y = 2 and x + y = 1 ⇒ x = __, y = – __ Then a – 2b = __ – ___ = ________ which is clearly
2 2 rational. d f df
3 1
x – y = 1 and x + y = 2 ⇒ x = __, y = __
2 2 This contradicts the original assumption that a – 2b is
3 1 irrational.
x – y = –2 and x + y = –1 ⇒ x = – __, y = __
2 2 Therefore the original statement must be true: If a – 2b
3 1
x – y = –1 and x + y = –2 ⇒ x = – __, y = – __ is irrational then at least one of a and b is irrational.
2 2 5 Assumption: There exists integers x and y such that
This contradicts the statement that there is an integer 3x + 18y = 1
solution to the equation x2 – y2 = 2 1
Therefore the original statement must be true: There Since 3 is a common factor, x + 6y = __
3
are no integer solutions to the equation x2 – y2 = 2. Then x and 6y are both integers.
3 __
9 Assumption: √2 is rational and can be written in the The sum x + 6y must also be an integer.
__
3 a 1
form √2 = __ and there are no common factors between This contradicts the statement that x + 6y = __
b 3
a and b. Therefore there exists no integer for which
a 3
2 = ___3 or a3 = 2b3 3x + 18y = 1
b 6 Assumption: If n4 is odd then n can be even.
This means that a3 is even, so a must also be even.
Let n = 2k, where k is an integer.
If a is even, a = 2n.
So a3 = 2b3 becomes (2n)3 = 2b3 which means 8n3 = 2b3 Then n4 = (2k)4 = 16k4 which must be even.
or 4n3 = b3 or 2(2n3) = b3. This contradicts the assumption.
This means that b3 must be even, so b is also even. Therefore this contradicts the original statement:
If a and b are both even, they will have a common If n4 is odd then n must be odd.
factor of 2.
This contradicts the statement that a and b have no
common factors. CHAPTER 2
3 __
We can conclude the original statement is true: √2 is Prior knowledge check
an irrational number.
1 1 a (x + 3)(x + 2)
10 a m could be non-positive, e.g. if n = __
2 b (x – 7)(x + 2)
b Assumption: There is a least positive rational x–3
2 a _____
number, n. x+6
a x+5
n = __ where a and b are integers. b – _____
b x+3
a 3 a (x – 1)(x2 – 2x + 3)
Let m = ___ Since a and b are integer, m is rational
2b b (x + 1)(x – 2)2
and m < n.
This contradicts the statement that n is the least
positive rational number. Exercise 2A
Therefore, there is no least positive rational number. 4 2 3 1
1 a _____ + _____ b _____ − _____
x+3 x−2 x+1 x+4
Chapter review 1 3 5 4 1
c ___ − _____ d _______ − _____
2x x − 4 2x + 1 x − 3
1 a No more than one of the above statements is true
2 4 2 1
b People in hot countries are happy e _____ + _____ f − _____ − _____
c Three quarters of the people that entered the x+3 x−3 x+1 x−4
competition did not win a prize 2 3 3 1
g __ − _____ h _____ − _____
2 Assumption: If ab is rational then either a or b is x x+4 x+5 x−3
1 3
irrational. 2 A = __ , B = − __
c 2 2
Let a = __ where c and d are integers.
d 3 A = 24, B = –2
__
Let b = √k , where k is not a square number. 4 A = 1, B = –2, C = 3
c __ 5 D = –1, E = 2, F = –5
Then ab = __ √k which is clearly irrational.
d 1 2 3
This contradicts the original assumption. 6 a _____ − _____ + _____
x+1 x−2 x+5
Therefore the original statement must be true: If ab is
1 2 5
rational then no single number a or b can be irrational. b − __ + _______ − _______
x 2x + 1 3x − 2
3 B
3 2 6
c _____ − _____ − _____
x+1 x+2 x−5

Online Worked solutions are available in SolutionBank.

 ANSWERS 161

3 2 5 1 1 3
7 a __ − _____ + _____ 7 a – ___ + _____ + _____2
x x+1 x−1 16(x + 1) 16(x – 3) 4(x – 3)
−1 2 3 3 3
b _______ + _______ b ___ – ________ + _________2
5x + 4 2x − 1 x+1 x x
1 3
8 A = __, B = – ___
Challenge 2 2
6 1 2 4 4 4
_____ + _____ − _____ 9 ___ – _____ + _____2
x−2 x+1 x−3 9(x + 2) 9(x – 1) 3(x – 1)
13 5
10 a 3 – ___ b x – 2 + _____
x+4 x+2
Exercise 2B 11 A = 1, B = 4, C = 6
1 A = 0, B = 1, C = 3 2 D = 3, E = –2, F = –4
2 1
3 P = –2, Q = 4, R = 2 4 C = 3, D = 1, E = 2 12 a – 1 – ___ – _____
3(x + 1) 3(x – 2)
5 A = 2, B = –4 6 A = 2, B = 4, C = 11
64
7 A = 4, B = 1 and C = 12. b 4x + 16 + _____
x–4
4 19 2 1 6
8 a _____ − _______2 b __ − _______ + ________2
x + 5 (x + 5) x 2x − 1 (2x − 1) 13 A = 1, B = –6, C = 27, D = –27

Exercise 2C CHAPTER 3
1 5
1 a 1 – ___ b – 1 + ___ Prior knowledge check
x+2 x+1 __

√
2 18 x y
c x + 1 + _____ d 2x – 6 + _____ 1 a t = _____ b t = ± __
x–1 x+3 4−k 3

d t = − __ ln (_____)
4 9 1 x−1
1 + ________ – ________
2−y
____
2 c t=e 4
5(x – 2) 5(x + 3) 3 2
_________
3 A = 2, B = 3, C = 1 2 a 7 − 3 cos2 x b 2 cos x√1 − cos 2x
8 2 16 cos x
4 a x – 3 + ___ b 2 – ___ – ________ c __________
_________ d 2 cos x + 2 cos2 x − 1
x+3 3x 3(x + 3) √ 1 − cos 2 x
3 5 1 3 a y>0 b 0<y<2
c – __ + _____ + _____
2 6(2x – 1) 3(x + 1) c −6 < y < 3 d 0<y<1
8 1 4 (4,7) and (−4.8,2.6)
5 x – 1 + ___ + ___
3(x + 2) 3(x – 1)
1 7 3 3
6 a x – 2 + ___ + ___ b x + ___ + ________ Exercise 3A
2x 2(x + 2) 3(x + 2) 2(x – 2)
1 a y = (x + 2)2 + 1, −6 < x < 2, 1 < y < 17
2 1
7 1 – ___ + ___2 b y = (5 − x)2 − 1, x ∈ ℝ y > −1
x + 1 (x + 1)
1
4 5 24 17 c y = 3 − __, x ≠ 0, y≠3
8 a 1 + ___ + ___2 b 2x – 8 ___ – ________2 x
x – 2 (x + 2) x + 2 (x – 2) 2
_____
d y= , x > 1, y>0
x−1
Challenge
e y = (_______) , x > 0,
2
1 + 2x
9 9 3 y>4
3 + _____ + _______2 + ________3 x
x – 1 (x – 1) (x – 1)
x 1
f y = _______, 0 < x < __, y>0
1 − 3x 3
Chapter review 2 __
1

4 4 2 a i y = 20 − 10e 2 x + e x, x > 0 ii y > −5

1 A = – __, B = __
5 5 1 1
b i y = ______ ,x>0 ii 0 < y < __
8 5 1 3 ex + 2 3
2 a ___ + _____ b ___ – ________
x+3 x+1 3(x – 1) 2(x + 3) c i y=x ,x>0
3 ii y > 0
__
1 2 5 81
3 A = __, B = __ , C = – ___ 3 a y = 9x2 − x4, 0 < x < √5 , 0 < y < ___
5 21 28 4
2 3 4 3 7 8 b y 3 81
4 a ___ – _____ + _____ b ___ – ________ – _________ ( , )
2 4
x x+1 x–1 2x 10(x + 2) 5(2x – 1) 81

1 4 9
4 ( 5 , 20)
c _____ – _____ + _____
2(x + 1) x + 2 2(x + 3)
___4 5 11
5 + _____ – _____ y = 9x2 – x4
3(x + 2) 21(x – 4) 7(x + 3)
1 1 2
6 a – ___ + _____ + _____ O x
x – 1 3(x + 1) 3(x – 2) 3
2
1 3 8
b ___ + ________ – _________
6x 2(x + 2) 3(x + 3)
162 ANSWERS

15 1
4 a i y = ___ − __ x ii x > −3, y < 9 Therefore C1and C2 represent a segment of the
2 2
iii y same straight line. ___
___ √ 13
15
b Length of C1 = 3√13 , length of C2 = ____
2 y= 15
– 12 x 3
2 6 a x ≠ 2, y < −2
3 3
b x = __ + 2, t = _____
t x−2
O 15 x
Sub into y = 2t − 3 − t2
y = 2(_____) − 3 − (_____) = _____ − 3 − _______2
1 3 3
2
6 9
b i y = __ (x − 2)(x + 7)
9 9 x−2 x−2 x−2 (x − 2)
ii −13 < x < 11, − __ < y < 18
4 6(x − 2) − 3(x − 2) 2 − 9
iii y = _____________________
18 (x − 2) 2
6x − 12 − 3x 2 + 12x − 12 − 9 ________________
− 3x 2 + 18x − 33
(– 52 , – 94 ) y = 19 (x – 2)(x + 7) = ____________________________ =
(x − 2) 2 (x − 2) 2

O − 3(x 2 − 6x + 11)
= ________________ so A = −3, b = −6, c = 11
(x − 2) 2
– 14 2 11 x
1
9
7 a x = ln (t + 3) t = ex − 3 Sub into y = _____
1 t+5
c i y = _____
x−2 1 1
ii x ∈ ℝ, x ≠ 2, y ∈ ℝ, y ≠ 0 y = __________ = ______, x > 0
ex − 3 + 5 ex + 2
iii y 1
b 0 < y < __
y= 1 3
x–2 __
x6 2x 2
8 a y = ____ − ____, 0 < x < 3√2
O 729 9
x dy
– 12 2 b y = t3 − 2t, ___ = 3t 2 − 2
dt __

0 = 3t 2 − 2
2
t 2 = __
3 √
2
t = __
3
d i y = 3x + 3 __
4√ 6
ii x > −1, y > 0 c − ____ < f(x) < 4
9 _____
iii y 9 a y = 4 − t 2 ⇒ t = √4 − y
Sub into x = t 3 − t = t(t 2 − 1)
_____ _____
y = 3x + 3 x = √4 − y (4 − y − 1) = √4 − y (3 − y)
3
x 2 = (4 − y)(3 − y) 2
a = 4, b = 3
–1 O x
b Max y is 4
e i y = 2 − ex
ii x > 0, y < 1 Challenge
(1 − t 2) 2 4t 2
iii y a x 2 = ________, y 2 = ________
(1 + t 2) 2 (1 + t 2) 2
1
(1 − t 2) 2 4t 2 1 − 2t 2 + t 4 4t 2
x 2 + y 2 = ________ + ________ = ___________ + ________
O x (1 + t )
2 2 (1 + t )
2 2 (1 + t )
2 2 (1 + t 2) 2
ln2
1 + 2t 2 + t 4 (1 + t 2) 2
= ___________ = ________ = 1
y = 2 – ex (1 + t 2) 2 (1 + t 2) 2
So x2 + y2 = 1
x−1
5 a C1: x = 1 + 2t, t = _____ b Circle, centre (0,0), radius 1.
2
Sub t into y = 2 + 3t: Exercise 3B
( 2 )
x−1 3 3 3 1 1 a 25(x + 1)2 + 4(y − 4)2 = 100 b y2 = 4x2______
(1 − x2)
y = 2 + 3 _____ = 2 + __x − __ = __x + __
2 2 2 2 √
2x 1 − x2
c y = 4x2 − 2 d y = __________
1 1 + 3x 1 − 2x2
C2: x = ______, t = _______
2t − 3 2x
(3)
4 x 2
e y = _____ f y2 = 1 + __
t
______ x−2
Sub into y = .
2t − 3 2 a (x + 5)2 + (y − 2)2 = 1
1 + 3x
_______ 1 + 3x
_______ b Centre (−5, 2), radius 1
2x 2x 1 + 3x 3 1 c 0 < t , 2π
y = _____________ = _______ = _______ = __x + __
2(
2x )
1 + 3x
_______ 1
__ 2 2 2 3 Centre (3,−1), radius 4
−3 x

Online Worked solutions are available in SolutionBank.

 ANSWERS 163

4 (x + 2)2 + ( y − 3)2 = 1 y y
10
(–2, 3) 8
6
4
2

–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 O 2 4 6 8 10 x
–2
O x
–4
__ _______
√2 √2(1 − x 2) –6
5 a y = ___x + __________ –8
2 2
______
__
√3 √9 − x 2 –10
b y= ___ x− _________
3 3
c y = −3x 2 t −4 −3 −2 −1 0
16 x= t2 16 9 4 1 0
6 a y = ___
x2 t 3
y = __ −12.8 −5.4 −1.6 −0.2 0
b y 5

t 1 2 3 4
x= t2 1 4 9 16
t3
y = __ 0.2 1.6 5.4 12.8
x 5
O
9 y
7 y = _____ Domain: x > 0
3+x 14
8 a y = 9x(1 − 12x2) ⇒ a = 9, b = 12 12
1
b Domain: 0 < x < __, Range: −1 < y < 1 10
3
π π 8
(6) (6)
9 y = sin t cos __ − cos t sin __
6
_________

√
3(1 − ___)
x2 4
__
√3 1 4 1 2
= ___ sin t − __ cos t = ___________ − __x
2 2 2 4 O x
________ 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
√
= __(2 3 − __x 2 − x) = __(√12 − 3x 2 − x)
1 3 1 _______ –2
4 4 4 –4
–6
t = 0 ⇒ x = 2, t = π ⇒ x = −2, so −2 < x < 2.
–8
10 a y2 = 25(1 − _____)
1 –10
b x > 5, 0 < y < 5
x−4 –12
y
11 x = − ________
_____ , x > 0
√9 − y 2
π π π
3 t − __ − __ − ___ 0
Challenge 4 6 12
(4y2 − 2 + 2x)2 + 12x2 − 3 = 0 x = tan t + 1 0 0.423 0.732 1
y = sin t −0.707 −0.5 −0.259 0
Exercise 3C
π
___ π
__ π
__ π
__
1 t −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 −0.5 t
12 6 4 3
x = 2t −10 −8 −6 −4 −2 −1 x = tan t + 1 1.268 1.577 2 2.732
5
y = __ −1 −1.25 −1.67 −2.5 −5 −10 y = sin t 0.259 0.5 0.707 0.866
t
y
t 0.5 1 2 3 4 5
1
x = 2t 1 2 4 6 8 10
5 O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 x
y = __ 10 5 2.5 1.67 1.25 1
t –1
164 ANSWERS

4 a y b y Chapter review 3
b C(2√3 , __) c (__) + (__) = 1
__
3 x 2 y 2
17 4 1 a A(4, 0), B(0, 3)
2 4 3
2 y

t= π
O 2
5 x
–6 O 2 x
–2 t =π t=0 x
t = 3π
2
c y
6 _____
1
3 a y = ln (2√x − 1 ) − __, x > e3 + 1
2
b y > 1 + ln 2
O 25 x 1
4 y = − ln (4) − 2 ln (x), 0 < x < __, y > 0
2

–24 5 a (x + 3)2 + ( y − 5)2 = 16 b y

d y e y
6 3 4

(–3, 5)
–2 –1 O x
O x

f y __ __ O x
3 c (0, 5 + √7 ), (0, 5 − √7 )
6 a x(1 + t) = 2 − 3t ⇒ xt + 3t = 2 − x ⇒ t(x + 3) = 2 − x
2−x
⇒ t = _____
x+3
–3 O x
–1 3 + 2t
Sub into y = ______
1+t
3 + 2(_____)
5 a y = (3 − x)2 − 2 2−x
b y x+3 3(x + 3) + 2(2 − x) 3x + 9 + 4 − 2x
y = ____________ = _________________ = _______________
1 + (_____)
7 2−x x+3+2−x 5
x+3
x + 13 1 13
= _______ ⇒ y = __x + ___
5 5 5
This is in the form y = mx + c, therefore the curve C
O 5 x is a straight line.
–2 ___
4√26
______
b
6 a (x + 2)2 + (y − 1)2 = 81 5 _____
b y 7 a y = 2√x + 2
b Domain: −2 < x < 2, Range: 0 < y < 4
(–2, 10)
c y
4
(–2, 1) (7, 1)
O x

c 6π
–2 O 2 x
Challenge
As t approaches −1 from the x y+5
y 8 a cos t = __, sin t = _____
positive direction, the curve 2 2

( 2 ) + ( 2 ) = 1 ⇒ x + (y + 5) = 4
2
–5 heads off to infinity in the x 2 y + 5
__ _____ 2 2
2nd quadrant.
As t approaches −1 from the Since 0 < t < π, the curve C forms half of a circle.
x negative direction, the curve
–10 –5 5
heads off to infinity in the 4th
–5 quadrant.

Online Worked solutions are available in SolutionBank.

 ANSWERS 165

b y c 2π x 3x 2 5x 3
e i 1 − __ + ____ − ____ ... ii |x| < 2
4 32 128
–2 O 2 x
4x 20x 2 320x 3 1
f i 1 + ___ + _____ + ______ ... ii |x| < __
3 9 81 2
4 a Expansion of (1 − 2x)−1 = 1 + 2x + 4x2 + 8x3 + …
–3 Multiply by (1 + x) = 1 + 3x + 6x2 + 12x3 + …
1
b |x| < __
2
–5 3 9 27
5 a 1 + __x − __x 2 + ___x 3
2 8 16
____ ____ ____

√
103 √ 103 √ 103
b f(x) = ____ = ______
____ = ______
9 a y = x3 + 4x2 + 4x b y 100 √ 100 10
C c 3.1 × 10−6 %
6 a α = ±8 b ±160x3
7 For small values of x ignore powers of x3 and higher.
x x2 x 3x 2
(1 + x) 2 = 1 + __ − ___ + …, (1 − x) − 2 = 1 + __ + ____ + …
__
1 __
1

2 8 2 8
______
–2 O x
√1+x
_____
1−x
=1+ −
x ___
__ x 2 __
2 8 2 4
+ +
x 2 ____
x ___
+
3x 2
8
x2
+ … = 1 + x + ___
2
8 a 2 − 42x + 114x2
b 0.052%
CHAPTER 4 1
c The expansion is only valid for |x| < __. |0.5| is not
1 5
__
less than .
Prior knowledge check 5
1 a 1 + 35x + 525x2 + 4375x3 9 27 27
b 9 765 625 − 39 062 500x + 70 312 500x2 9 a 1 − __x + ___x 2 + ___x 3
2 8 16
− 75 000 000x3 ___ 3 ___

b 0.97 2 = (____) = _______

√ 97 97√97
c 64 + 128x + 48x2 − 80x3 __
3

4 3 12 13 10 1000
2 a _______ + _______ b _______ − ________2 c 9.84886
1 + 2x 1 − 5x 1 + 2x (1 + 2x)
8 56 Challenge
c _______ + _________2
3x − 4 (3x − 4) 1 3
a 1 − ___ + ____2
2x 8x
Exercise 4A 1 1
__ ___

= (___) = ____
−__
b h(x) = (___)
10 2 9 2 3 3√10
1 a i 1 − 4x + 10x2 − 20x3… ii |x| < 1 ___ = ______
9 10 √ 10 10
b i 1 − 6x + 21x2 − 56x3… ii |x| < 1
c 3.16
x x2 x3
c i 1 + __ − ___ + ___ ... ii |x| < 1
2 8 16
5x ____
___ 5x 2 ____
5x 3 Exercise 4B
d i 1+ + − ... ii |x| < 1
3 9 81 x x2 x3
1 a i 2 + __ − ___ + ___ ii |x| < 2
x 5x 2 15x 3
2 16 64
e i 1 − __ + ____ − _____ ... ii |x| < 1
4 32 128 1 x x2 x3
15x 2 _____
3x _____ 35x 3 b i __ − __ + ___ − ___ ii |x| < 2
f i 1− ___ + − ... ii |x| < 1 2 4 8 16
2 8 16
1 x 3x2 x3
2 a i 1 − 9x + 54x2 − 270x3…
1
ii |x| < __ c i ___ + __ − ___ + ___ ii |x| < 4
3 16 32 256 256
5x 15x 2 35x 3 x x2 x3
b i 1 − ___ + _____ − _____ ... ii |x| < 2 d i 3 + __ − ___ + ___ ii |x| < 9
2 4 8 6 216 3888
___ 3x 2 ____
3x ____ 5x 3 1 __ __ __ __
c i 1+ − + ... ii |x| < __ √2 √2 3√2 5√2
2 8 16 2 e i ___ − ___ x + ____ x2 − ____ x3 ii |x| < 2
2 8 64 256
35x 350x 2 1750x 3 1
d i 1 − ____ + ______ − _______ ... ii |x| < __
5 10 20 40 3
3 9 81 5 f __ − ___ x + ___ x2 − ___ x3 ii |x| < __
320 x 3 1 3 9 27 81 2
e i 1 − 4x + 20x 2 − ______ ... ii |x| < __
3 6 1 1 1 1
g i __ + __ x − __ x2 + ___ x3 ii |x| < 2
5x 5x 2 55x 3 4 2 4 8 16
f i 1 + ___ + ____ + _____ ... ii |x| < __ __ __ __
4 4 48 3 __
3√2 15√2 51√2
h i √2 + ____ x + _____ x2 + _____ x3 ii |x| < 1
3 a i 1 − 2x + 3x2 − 4x3… ii |x| < 1 4 32 128
1 1 8 48 2 _____ 256 3
b i 1 − 12x + 90x2 − 540x3… ii |x| < __ 2 ___ − ____ x+ ____ x − x
3 25 125 625 3125
x x 2x 3
c i 1 − __ − ___ − ___ ... ii |x| < 1 x x2
2 8 16 3 a 2 − __ − ___
5x 3 1 4 64
d i 1−x− x2 − ____ ... ii |x| < __ ___ ___ ___

√
35 √35
3 3 √ 35
b m(x) = ___ = ____ __ = ____
9 √9 3
166 ANSWERS

c 5.91609 (correct to 5 decimal places), 4 a c = −9, d = 36 b 1.282

% error = 1.38 × 10−4 % c calculator = 1.28108713, approximation is correct
1 2 5 to 2 decimal places.
4 a a = __, b = − ___ b ____
9 81 486 5 a a = 4 or a = −4
5 For small values of x ignore powers of x3 and higher. b coefficient of x3 = 4, coefficient of x3 = −4
1 x x2 6 a 1 − 3x + 9x2 − 27x3
(4 − x)−1 = __ + ___ + ___ + …
4 16 64 b (1 + x)(1 − 3x + 9x2 − 27x3)
3 x x 2 3x x 2 3x 2 = 1 − 3x + 9x2 − 27x3 + x − 3x2 + 9x3
Multiply by (3 + 2x − x2) = __ + __ − ___ + ___ + ___ + ____
4 2 4 16 8 64 = 1 − 2x + 6x2 − 18x3
3 ___
__ 11 5 2
___
= + x− x c x = 0.01, 0.980 58
4 16 64
7 a n = −2, a = 3 b −108
x
1__ ____ 3x 2__ 11x 23x__2
1__ ____
6 a ___ − __ + _____ b − ___ + __ − _____ c |x| <
1
__
√5 5√5 50√5 √5 5√5 50√5 3
3 27 8 For small values of x ignore powers of x3 and higher.
7 a 2 − ___x − _____x 2 b 1.991
32 4096 1
_______ 1 x 3x 2 3 3 3 9
_____ = __ − ___ + ____, _______
_____ = __ − ___x + ____x 2
3 3 3x 3x 2 2 2 10x 50x 2 √4 + x 2 16 256 √4 + x 2 16 256
8 a _______ = __ + ___ + ____, _______ = __ − ____ + _____
4 − 2x 4 8 16 3 + 5x 3 9 27 1 x 3 1 17 35
9 a __ + ___ + ____x 2 b __ + ___x + ____x 2
3 2 1 107 719
_______ − _______ = ___ + ____x − ____x 2
2 16 256 2 16 256
4 − 2x 3 + 5x 12 72 432 1 3 9 27 1 x 3 9
10 a __ − __ x + __ x2 − ___ x3 b __ − __ + __ x2 − ___ x3
b 0.0980311 2 4 8 16 2 4 8 16
c 0.0032% 1 x 3x 2 5x 3
11 a __ − ___ + ____ − _____ b 0.6914
2 16 256 2048
Exercise 4C 1 4 32
12 ___ − ___x + ___x 2
4
_______ 4 7 27 27 81
1 a − _______ b 2 + 5x + __ x2
1−x 2+x 2 3 51 477
13 a A = 1, B = −4, C = 3 b − __ − ___x + ____x 2
c valid |x| < 1 8 64 512
2 4 1 3 14 a A = 3 and B = 2 b 5 − 28x + 144x2
2 a − _______ + _______2 b B = __ , C = − __
2 + x (2 + x) 2 8
5 11 5 11
c |x| < 2 15 a 10 − 2x + __x2 − ___x3, so B = __ and C = −___
2 4 2 4
2 3 4 9 5
3 a _______ + _______ − _______ b 3 + 2x + __ x2 + __ x3 b Percent error = 0.0027%
1+x 1−x 2+x 2 4
c |x| < 1 Challenge
14 9
4 a A = − ___ and B = __ b −1 + 11x + 5x2 3x 2 27x 4 135x 6
5 5 1 − ____ + _____ − ______
1 6 3 67 407 2 8 16
5 a 2 − _____ + _____ b ___ − ____x − _____x 2
x+5 x−4 10 200 4000
Review exercise 1
c |x| < 4 1 Assumption: there are finitely many prime numbers,
5 19 97
6 a A = 3, B = −2 and C = 3 b __ − ___x − ____x 2 p1, p2, p3 up to pn. Let X = ( p1 × p2 × p3 × … × pn) + 1
6 36 216 None of the prime numbers p1, p2, … pn can be a
7 28 8
7 a A = −__, B = ___ and C = __ b 11 + 38x + 116x2 factor of X as they all leave a remainder of 1 when X
9 3 9 is divided by them. But X must have at least one prime
c 0.33% factor. This is a contradiction.
So there are infinitely many prime numbers.
Chapter review 4 2
a
Assumption: x = __ is a solution to the equation,
1 a i 1 − 12x + 48x2 − 64x3 ii all x b
where a and b are integers with no common factors.
x x2 x3
b i 4 + __ − ____ + _______
(b)
ii |x| < 16 a 2
a 2
8 512 16384 __ − 2 = 0 ⇒ ___2 = 2 ⇒ a 2 = 2b 2
1 b
c i 1 + 2x + 4x2 + 8x3 ii |x| < __ So a2 is even, which implies that a is even.
2
9x 2 27x 3 2 Write a = 2n for some integer n.
d i 2 − 3x + ____ − _____ ii |x| < __
2 4 3 (2n)2 = 2b2 ⇒ 4n2 = 2b2 ⇒ 2n2 = b2
x 3 x 2 5 x 3 So b2 is even, which implies that b is even.
e i 2 + __ + ____ + ____ ii |x| < 4 This contradicts the assumption that a and b have no
4 64 512
1 common factor.
f i 1 − 2x + 6x2 − 18x3 ii |x| < __
3 Hence there are no rational solutions to the equation.
g i 1 + 4x + 8x2 + 12x3 ii |x| < 1 3 Assumption: if n is odd then 3n2 + 2 is even.
1 Let n = 2k + 1 where k is an integer.
h i −3 − 8x − 18x2 − 38x3 ii |x| < __
2 Then 3(2k + 1)2 + 2 = 3(4k2 + 4k + 1) + 2 = 12(k2 + k) + 5
x x2 x3
2 1 − __ − ___ − ____
4 32 128 This is an even number plus an odd number which
x x2 x3 1145 must be odd. The contradicts the assumption made.
3 a 1 + __ − ___ + ___ b _____
2 8 16 512 Therefore if n is odd then 3n2 + 2 is odd.

Online Worked solutions are available in SolutionBank.

 ANSWERS 167

__
π π π
( 6)
4 Assumption: √5 is rational. 18 a y = sin t + __ = sin t cos __ + cos t sin __
__
a __ 6 6
Let √5 = __ for integers a and b. Also assume that this √3 1
b = ___ sin t + __ cos t
fraction is in its simplified form and there are no 2__ 2
common factors. √3 1 ________
= ___ sin t + __√1 − sin 2 t
a2 2__ 2
Then 5 = __2 or a2 = 5b2. Hence a2 must be a multiple of 5.
b √3
___ 1 √_____2
__
Since a is an integer it follows that a is also a multiple of 5. = x+ 1−x
2 2
So let a = 5c where c is an integer. −1 < sin t < 1 ⇒, −1 < x < 1
Then a2 = 25c2, and so 5b2 = 25c2 which leads to b2 = 5c2 b A = (−0.5, 0), B = (0, 0.5)

(3)
x 2
Now b2 is a multiple of 5, and so b is a multiple of 5. 19 a y = 2 __ − 1, −3 < x < 3
If a and b are both multiples of 5 then this contradicts b y
the initial statement of there being no common factors.
__
Hence √5 is irrational.
y=2
x 2
3
–1 ( )
−1
_____ 4
5 + _______
x − 1 2x − 3
6 P = 2, Q = −1, R = −1 –3 3 O 3 3x
–
2 2 2 2 –1 2
7 A = __, B = __, C = __
9 9 3 __
8 A = 3, B = 1, C = −2 √3
tan x + ___
π
( 6) 6
1 3 1
9 d = 3, e = 6, f = −14 20 tan x + __ = ⇒__ ____________
__ = __
√3
___ 6
2 5 1− tan x
10 p(x) = 6 − _____ + _______ __ 3
1 −x 1 + 2x __ √ 3
13 5 6 tan x + 2√3 = 1 − ___ tan x
11 ________ – ________ 3
2(x + 3) 2(x + 1) __

( ) tan x = 1 − 2 3
18 + √3
________ √
__

12 A = 4, B = 27, C = –7, D = –2 3
__ __ __
5x + 3 3 1 3 − 6√3 ________
18 − √3 ____________
72 − 111√3
13 a ______________ ≡ _______ + _____ b ln 54 tan x = ________
__ × __ =
(2x − 3)(x − 2) 2x − 3 x + 2 18 + √3 18 − √3 321
14 a x ≠ 1, y > −1.25
21 a sin (x + 30°) = 2 sin (x − 60°)
−4 4
b t = _____ = _____ sin x cos 30° + cos x sin 30°
x−1 1−x
= 2(sin x cos 60° − cos x sin 60°)
y = (_____) − 3(_____) + 1
2
4 4 __ __

sin x + __ cos x = 2(__ sin x − ___ cos x)

√3
___ 1 1 √3
1−x 1−x
2 2 2 2
__ __
16 12(1 − x) _______
(1 − x) 2 √ 3 sin x + cos x = 2 sin x − 2√ 3 cos x
y = _______2 − _________ +
(1 − x) (1 − x) 2 (1 − x) 2 __ __
16 − 12 + 12x + 1 − 2x + x2 (−2 + √3 ) sin x = (−1 − 2√3 ) cos x
y = __________________________
(1 − x) 2 __ __ __
− 1 − 2√3 __________
sin x __________
_____ −1 − 2√3 _________
−2 − √3
x 2 + 10x + 5 = __ = __ × __
y = ____________ ⇒ a = 1, b = 10, c = 5 cos x − 2 + √3 −2 + √3 −2 − √3
(1 − x) 2 __ __

15 a t = e − 2 2 + 4√3 + √3 + 6 __
x
= __________________
__ __ = 8 + 5√3
3t 3e x − 6 4 + 2√3 − 2√3 − 3
y = _____ = _______ __
t+3 ex + 1 b 8 − 5√3
t > 4 ⇒ e x − 2 > 4 ⇒ e x > 6 ⇒ x > ln 6 22 a sin 165° = sin (120° + 45°)
12 12 = sin 120° cos 45° + cos 120° sin 45°
b t = 4 ⇒ y = ___, x → ∞, y → 3, ___ < y < 3 __ __ __ __
7 7 √3 −1 ___
1__ ____ 1 √6 − √2
√ 3 − 1 ________
1 1−x = ___ × ___ + × __ = _______
__ =
16 x = _____ ⇒t= _____ 2 √2 2 √2 2√ 2 4
1+t x
1
1 x
y = _________ = __________ = _______
x b cosec 165° = _________
1 − x x − (1 − x) 2x − 1 sin 165°
1− _____ __ __ __ __
x 4 (√6 + √2 ) __________
4(√6 + √2 ) √__ √__
17 a y = cos 3t = cos (2t + t) = cos 2t cos t − sin 2t sin t = _________
__ __ ×
_________
__ __ = = 6+ 2
(√6 − √2 ) (√6 + √2 ) 6−2
= (2 cos 2 t − 1) cos t − 2 sin 2 t cos t
(− 2 )(− 2 )
1
__ 3
__
= 2 cos 3 t − cos t − 2(1 − cos 2 t) cos t
23 a (1 − x) 2 = 1 + (− )(− x) +
__
1 1
__ __________
− (− x) 2
= 4 cos 3 t − 3 cos t 2 2!

(− 2 )(− 2 )(− 2 )
x 1 3 5
x = 2 cos t ⇒ cos t = __ __ __ __
2
+ _______________(− x) 3 + ...
y = 4(__) − 3(__) = __(x 2 − 3)
x 3 x x 3!
2 2 2 1 3 5
b 0 < x < 2, −1 < y < 1 = 1 + __x + __x 2 + ___x 3 + …
2 8 16
168 ANSWERS

b |x| < 1 Accept −1 < x < 1 CHAPTER 5

36 2
24 a a = 9 n = − ___ = − __ Prior knowledge check
54 3
2x(1 − 3x)3
b −360 1 a 2cos2x b ___________ c 2e2x + 3
(1 − 9x)
1 1
3 (0, 2), (0, ____), (11.1, 0)
c − __ < x < __ 3
__ 179
9 9 2
4 27
25 a 1 + 6x + 6x 2 − 4x 3 4 0.588, 3.73
3 3 ____ 3 ____ 3

(1 + 4( 100 )) = ( 100 ) = ( 100 ) = ( 10 )√

__ __
3
____ 2 112 2
____ 112
____ √ 112
______
b
Exercise 5A
____
112√112 2t − 3 6t2 4 15t3
= _________ 1 a ______ b ___ = t c ______ d ____
1000 2 6t 1 + 6t 2
2t 2
c 10.58296 d 0.00039% e −3t3 f t(1 − t) g ______ h _________
t2 − 1 (t2 + 2t)et
1
___ x
___ 2x2 ____
____ 8x3 3
26 − + − i − __ tan 3t j 4 tan t k cosec t l cot t
27 27 81 729 4
1 1
__
m ___t n 2t2 o __t
27 a (4 − 9x) 2 = 2(1 − __x) = 2 − __x − ___x 2
1

__
1 9 2 9 81 te e
4 4 64 1 3
___________ ____ ____ 2 a y = −__ x + __ − π b 2y + 5x = 57
b √ 1
100 100 √
4 − 9(____) = ____ = ______
391 √391
10 3 a x=1
2 2 __
b y + √3 x = √3
__

c Approximate: 1.97737 correct to 5 decimal places. 4 (0, 0) and (−2, −4)

1
5 a y = __x
3 1 4
28 a a = 2, b = −1, c = ___ b __ dy 1
16 8 b ___ = __e −t = 0 ⇒ e −t = 0
3 dx 2
a = −2, b = 1, c = ___
16 No solution, therefore no stationary points.
29 a A = 1, B = 2 b 3 − x + 11x2 − … 6 y=x+7
__
3 1 1
30 a A = − __, B = __ b −1 − x + 4x3 + … 7 a − __ sec t cosec3 t b 8x + √3 y − 10 = 0
2 2 2
25 25 25 π
31 a A = 2, B = 10, C = 1 b ___ − ___ x + ___ x2 + … 8 a __
9 27 9 3
32 a A = 2, B = 5, C = −2 dy
___ dx
b = − 4 cot 2t cosec 2t, ___ = 4 cos t
b 2 + 5(4 + x) −1 − 2(3 + 2x) −1 dt dt
dy ________________ − cot 2t cosec 2t
− 4 cot 2t cosec 2t _______________
= 2 + __(1 + __) − __(1 + __x)
−1 ___
5 x −1 2 2 = =
dx 4 cos t cos t
4 4 3 3
dy __
π ___
= 2 + __(1 − __ + ___) − __ 1 − __x + __x 2
4
3( 9 )
5 x x2 2 2 4 __
At t = , =
4 4 16 3 3 dx 3
3
31 19 377 Gradient of normal: − __
= ___ + ____x − _____ x 2 4
12 144 1728 Equation of normal:
__
4√ 3 3 __ __
Challenge y − ____ = − __(x − 2√3 ) ⇒ 9x + 12y − 34√3 = 0
3 4
1 Assumption: There exists a, b ∊ ℤ such that a2 – 8b = 2
9 a (30, 101) b y = 2x + 41
First let a2 = 2 + 8b = 2(4b + 1) which means that a2
c t2 − 10t + 5 = 2(t2 + t) + 41
is even.
t2 − 10t + 5 = 2t2 + 2t + 41
Since a2 is even, it follows that must also be even. 0 = t2 + 12t + 36
Then let a = 2c where c is an integer. Discriminant = 122 − 4 × 1 × 36 = 144 − 144 = 0
So (2c)2 = 2(4b + 1), or 2c2 – 4b = 1 Therefore the curve and the line only intersects once.
Therefore it does not intersect the curve again.
Since we now have 2(c2 – 2b) = 1, and that also b, c ∊ ℤ __ __ __

it follows that from our statement that 1 must be even. 10 a − 2√2 sin t b x − √6 y − 2√3 = 0
___ __
Since we know 1 isn’t even, this contradicts our c 2 sin t − √12 cos 2t − 2√3 = 0
__ __
assumption, and so a2 – 8b ≠ 2 sin t − √3 cos 2t − √3 = 0
__ __
5 5 2√3 sin2 t + sin t − 2√3 = 0
2 2x2 + 2 – ________ + ________ __ __
2(x + 1) 2(x – 1) (2sin t −__√3 )(√3 sin t + 2) = 0

2 ( √3 )
3 a y = 3x – 4x3 √3 2__ π 2π
sin t = ___ sint t ≠ −___ ⇒ t = __ or ___
3 3
b 0 < x < 1, –1 < y < 1

3 (
: 2 sin , 2 cos ) = √3 , − ___
( √2 )
___
π 2π
___ 2π √__
___ 4π
___
__
1__
4 √ 98 ≈ 9.899495 and cos __ ≈ 0.707107 B is when t =
4 3 3
Same point as A, so l only intersects C once.

Online Worked solutions are available in SolutionBank.

 ANSWERS 169

__
cos 2t 3√3 11 a 0.070 cm per second b 20.5 cm3
11 a − ______ b y = − x + ____
sin t 4 dV √__ dV __
__ 12 ___ ∝ V⇒ ___ = − k1√V , V ∝ h ⇒ h = k2V
3√3
____
dt dt ___

√
c y = − x and y = − x − dh ___dh ___dV __
h
4 ___ = × = k2 × (− k1√V ) = − k1k2 ___
dt dV dt k2
Exercise 5B − k1k2 __ __
__ √ h = −k√ h
= ______
du √k2
1 Letting u = yn, ___= nyn − 1
dy 3
__ 1
__

(6) 4( 6 )
A 2 1 A 2
d n ___
___ du ___ dy
du ___ dy 13 a V = __ b __ __
(y ) = = × = ny n−1 ___
dx dx dy dx dx 1
__ 1

dt dA dt 4 ( 6 )
__

c ___ = ___ × ___ = __ __ × 2 = __(V 3 ) = __V 3

d d d dy dy
___ xy = x ___ y + ___ (x)y = x ___ + 1 × y = x ___
dV dV dA 1 A 2 1 __2 2 1 __1
2 ( ) ( ) +y 2 2
dx dx dx dx dx
π 2
__ π
__ π 3
__
2x x −3 − x 14 V = r h = (h tan 30°) h = h
2
3 a − ____2 b − ___ c _______ 3 3 9
3y 5y 5y − 4
dh ___
___ dh ___
dV ___ 1 dV ____
___ 1 18
= × = × = π × (−6) = − ____2
4 − 6xy 3x 2 − 2y 3x − y
2
dt dV dt ___ dh dt __ h2 πh
d __________ e ___________ f ________
3
3x 2 + 3y 2 6y − 2 + 2x 2+x dV
dh 1
4(x − y) 3 − 1 e xy − e y
___
− 2√xy − y So ___ ∝ ___2
g ____________ h ________ i __________
___
dt h
1 + 4(x − y) 3 xe y − e x 4y√xy + x
7 23 Chapter review 5
4 y = − __ x + ___ 5 y = 2x − 2
9 9 dy 4
1 a ___ = − __3 b y = 2x − 8
6 (3, 1) and (3, 3) 7 3x + 2y + 1 = 0 dx t
2 1
8 2 − 3 ln 3
1
9 __ (4 + 3 ln 3) 2 3y + x = 33 3 y = __ x + __
4 3 3
dy
b (__, ___) and (__, − ___)
cos x π 2π π 2π dx
___
10 a _____ 4 a = −2 sin t + 2 cos 2t; ___ = −sin t − 4 cos 2t
sin y 2 3 2 3 dt dt __
1
__ 5√ 2
3 + 3ye −3x b c y + 2x = ____
11 a __________ 2 2
e −3x − 2y dy dx dy _______
3t2 − 4
5 a ___ = 3t − 4,
2 ___ = 2, ___ =
dy 3 − 0 dt dt dx 2
b At O, ___= ______ =3
dx e 0 − 0 dy 1
At t = −1, ___ = − __, x = 1, y = 3.
So the tangent is y − 0 = 3(x − 0), or y = 3x. dx 2
Equation of l is 2y + x = 7.
Challenge b 2
dy dy dy x − y − 3 dV dM dP
a 6 + 2y___ + 2y + 2x___ = 2x ⇒ ___ = _________ 6 ___ = −kV 7 ____ = −kM 8 ___ = kP − Q
dx dx dx y+x dt dt dt
dy dr __ k dθ
So ___ = 0 ⇔ x − y = 3 9 ___ = 10 ___ = −k(θ − θ0)
dx dt r dt
Substitute: 6x + (x − 3)2 + 2x(x − 3) = x2 π 3
11 a __ b − ___ cosec t
So 2x2 − 6x + 9 = 0 6 16
Discriminant = −36, so no real solutions to quadratic. dy 3 8
c ___ = − __ ⇒ gradient of normal = __
dy dx 8 3
Therefore no points on C s.t. ___ = 0
dx 3 8
y − __ = __(x − 2) ⇒ 6y − 16x + 23 = 0
b (0, 0) and (3, −3) 2 3
123
d − ____
Exercise 5C 64
9 8 dP
1 6π 2 15e2 3 − __ 4 ___ 5 ___ = kP 12
1
__
a − sec t b 4y + 4x = 5a
2 9π dt 2
dy dy __ 1 1 1 5
6 ___ = kxy; at (4, 2) ___ __
= , so 8k = , k = ___ c Tangent crosses the x-axis at x = __a, and crosses
dx dx 2 2 16 4
dy ___xy 5
___ the y-axis at y = __a.
Therefore = 4
dx 16
So area AOB = __ (__ a) = ___ a 2, k = ___
2
dV 2 dV 1 5 25 25
7 ___= rate in − rate out = 30 − ___V ⇒ 15 ___ = 450 −2V
dt 15 dt 2 4 32 32
dV 1
So −15 ___ = 2V − 450 13 y + x = 16 14 __
dt 7
dQ dx k y − 2e2x 3 ___ 3 ___
8 ___ = −kQ 9 ___ = ___2 15 ________ 16 (1, 1) and (− √−3 , √−3 ).
dt dt x 2e − x
2y
dC
10 a Circumference, C, = 2πr, so ___ = 2π × 0.4 2x − 2 − y 4 1
dt 17 a __________ b __ , − __
= 0.8π cm s−1 1 + x − 2y 3 3
Rate of increase of circumference with respect to time. ___ ___ ___ ___

c (_________ , ________) and (_________ , ________)

25 5 + 2√13 4 + √13 5 − 2√13 4 − √13
b 8π cm2 s−1 c ___π cm 3 3 3 3
170 ANSWERS

dy dy dy − 7x − 24y Exercise 6A
18 14x + 48y + 48x ___ − 14y ___ = 0 ⇒ ___ = ___________
dx dx dx 24x − 7y 1 9
−7x − 24y ___ 2 2 16 __
So ___________ = ⇒ −77x − 264y
24x − 7y 11 π ___
__ √3
3 +
= 48x − 14y ⇒ x + 2y = 0 3 4
1 dy d d 4 b=5
19 ln y = x ln x ⇒ __ × ___ = x___ (ln x) + ___ (x) ln x = 1 + ln x 5 ln 256
y dx dx dx
dy 6 65050
So ___= y(1 + ln x) = xx(1 + ln x)
dx
20 a ln ax = ln ekx ⇒ x ln a = kx ln e = kx ⇒ k = ln a Exercise 6B
8 55
dy 1 a 640π b ___ c 48π d ___π
b y = e(ln 2)x ⇒ ___= ln 2 e(ln 2)x = 2x ln 2 3π 24
dx 2 250π
dy 141π
c ___ = 22 ln 2 = 4 ln 2 = ln 24 = ln 16 3 _____
dx 10
ln P − ln P0 4 8π
21 a __________ b 8.04 years c 0.172 P0 2187
ln 1.09 5 a (3, 0) b _____π
20
π 6 5.97
(2 )
22 a __, 0 279π
7 _____
20
d2y 1
b ____2 = −cosec2x. cosec2x > 0 for all x, 8 a = __
dx 2
d2y 9 y = r, π∫0h r2dx = π[r 2x] h0 = πr 2h
hence −cosec2x < 0, so ____2 < 0 for all x.
dx 3 __
10 __ π (9√3 – 1) or 27.5
Thus C is concave for all values of x. 4
11 18π ln (__)
23 a 40e−0.183 = 33.31… b −9.76e−0.244t 3
c The mass is decreasing 2
2 sin 2x + cos 2x Challenge
24 a f 9(x) = − ________________
ex 35
___ π
f 9(x) = 0 ⇔ 2 sin 2x + cos 2x = 0 ⇔ tan 2x = −0.5 2
A(1.34, −0.234), B(2.91, 0.0487)
Exercise 6C
b Maximum (6.91, 2.19); minimum (5.34, 1.06) to 3 s.f. 2 2
a __ (1 + x) 2 − __ (1 + x) 2 + c
__
5 __
3
1 b −ln |1 − sin x| + c
c 0 < x < 0.322, 1.89 < x < π 5 3 __

Challenge c
cos3 x
______
3
− cos x + c | √x − 2
d ln _______
__
√x + 2
| +c
4 cos 2t 2 2
a − _____________ e __ (1 + tan x) 2 − __ (1 + tan x) 2 + c
__
5 __
3

π
( 12 )
5 sin t + ___ 5 3
1
__ __ f tan x + __ tan3 x + c
3
b (__, 2), (− ____, −2), (− __, 2), (____, −2)
5 5√3 5 5√3 506 392 14 16 __
1 9
2 2 2 2 2 a ____ b ____ c ___ d ___ − 2√3 e __ ln __
15 5 9 3 2 5
c Cuts the x−axis at:
(3 + 2x)7 (3 + 2x)6 2 _____
a _________ − _________ + c b __ (1 + x) 2 − 2√1 + x + c
__
(4.83, 0) gradient −3.09; (−1.29, 0) gradient 0.828
3
3
(−4.83, 0) gradient 3.09; (1.29, 0) gradient −0.828 28 8
______
3

|√ x2 + 4 − 2
|
______
Cuts the y−axis twice at (0, 1) gradients 0.693 and −0.693 c √x2 + 4 + ln ___________
______ +c
d (−5, −1) and (5, −1) √ x2 + 4 + 2
e y 886 2
4 a ____ b 2 + 2 ln __ c 2 − 2 ln 2
15 3
(– 52 , 2) ( 52 , 2) 592
5 ____
C
3 __

∫ln3 ______ dx = ∫ _________ du

2(u 2 + 2)3
√2
1 ln4
e 4x
6
–4.83 –1.29 1.29 4.83 e −2
x 1 u
O __

= ∫ (2u 5 + 12u 3 + 24u + ___) du

x √2
16
(–5, –1) (5, –1)
1 u
__

= [__u 6 + 3u 4 + 12u 2 + 16 ln u]
2√
1
(– 5 2 3 , –2) ( 5 2 3 , –2)
3 1

= (____ + 16 ln √2 ) − (___ + 16 ln 1)
__
116 46
3 3
CHAPTER 6 __
70 70
= ___ + 16 ln √2 = ___ + 8 ln 2 ⇒
Prior knowledge check 3 3
1 __x
1 a 12(2x − 7) 5 b 5 cos 5x c __ e 3 a = 70, b = 3, c = 8, d = 2
3
16 __3 __
1 268
2 a y = ___x 2 − 12x 2 b ____
3 3
7
_______ 1
3 − _____ 4 6 units2
4x − 1 x + 3

Online Worked solutions are available in SolutionBank.

 ANSWERS 171

π
__ 1
__ 1
__ c 15.6
7 ∫0 3 sin 3 x cos 2x dx = ∫1 2 (u 2 − 1)u 2 du = ∫1 2 (u 4 − u 2) du 1 1 1
1 7 a __ tan 3x + c b __x tan 3x − __ ln |sec 3x| + c
__
3 3 9
= [__u 5 − __u 3] = ____
1 1 2 47 π π
__

∫ π9 x sec 2 3x = [__1 x tan 3x − __1 ln |sec 3x|] π

__

__
5 3 1 480 c
9
___
2π + 3√3
_________ 18 3 9 ___
8 18
96 __ __

(162 9 √3 )
= (____ − __ ln 2) − ____ − __ ln ___
√3 π 1 √3 π 1 2__
Challenge 27 9
__
dx 5√3 π 1
x = 3 sin u, ___ = 3 cos u ⇒ dx = 3 cos u du 1 1 __
= ______ − __ ln 2 + __ ln 2 − __ ln √3
du 9 9 9
162
(3 sin u) 2 + (3 cos u) 2 = 9 __ __
_____ 5√3 π 1 5√ 3 1
√9 − x 2 = ______ − ___ ln 3 ⇒ p = ____ and q = ___
⇒ x 2 + (3 cos u) 2 = 9 ⇒ cos u = ________ 162 18 162 18
3

∫ 1
__________
_____ dx =
x 2√ 9 − x 2
∫ 1
____________
9 sin 2u cos u
(3 cos u) du Exercise 6E _______
1 a ln |(x + 1)2(x + 2)| + c b ln |(x − 2)√2x + 1 | + c
1
∫ 1 cos u
= __ cosec 2 u du = − __ cot u + c = − ______ + c
9
_____
√9 − x2
9 9 sin u |
(x + 3)3
c ln _______ + c
x−1 | 2+x
|
d ln _____ + c
1−x |
________ _____

| |
_______
3 √9 − x2 x2 x2
= − ________ + c = − ________ + c 2 a x + ln|(x + 1)2√2x − 1 | + c b __ + x + ln _______3 + c
3x 9x 2 (x + 1)

Exercise 6D
1 a −x cos x + sin x + c b x ex − ex + c
c
x−2
|
x + ln _____ + c
x+2 | (3 + x)2
d −x + ln _______ + c
1−x | |
c x tan x − ln |sec x| + c d x sec x − ln |sec x + tan x| + c
e −x cot x + ln |sin x| + c
3 a A = 2, B = 2
2x + 1
b ln _______ + c
1 − 2x | 5
| 5
c ln __ , so k = __
9 9
x2 x2 2 1 1 1 10
2 a 3x ln x − 3x + c b __ ln x − __ + c 4 a f(x) = _______ + _____ + _______2 b __ + ln ___
2 4 3 + 2x 2 − x (2 − x) 2 3
ln x ____
1 2 4
____
c − 2 − + c d x(ln x)2 − 2x ln x + 2x + c 5 a A = 1, B = 2, C = −2 b a = __, b = − __, c = 3
2x 4x2 3 3
x3 x3 3 _____
___ 1 3
__ 2
__
e __ ln x − __ + x ln x − x + c 6 a f(x) = 2 − b a= ,b=
3 9 x x+2 4 3
3 a −e−x x2 − 2x e−x − 2e−x + c 3
_______ 3
_______
7 a f(x) = 2 − + , so A = 2, B = −3 and C = 3
b x2 sin x + 2x cos x − 2 sin x + c 4x + 1 4x − 1
3 35
x(3 + 2x)7 (3 + 2x)8 b k = __, m = ___
c x2 (3 + 2x)6 − __________ + _________ + c 4 27
7 112
1
d −x2 cos 2x + x sin 2x + __ cos 2x + c Exercise 6F
2 1 a y = A ex − x2 − 1 b y = k sec x
e x2 sec2 x − 2x tan x + 2 ln |sec x| + c −1
3 π c y = ____________ d y = ln |2ex + c|
4 a 2 ln 2 − __ b 1 c __ − 1 tan x − x + c
4 2
1 cos3 x
1 __ __
2 a ___ − ______ b sin 2y + 2y = 4 tan x − 4
d __ (1 − ln 2) e 9.8 f 2√2 π + 8√2 −16 24 3
2
1
1 c tan y = __ sin 2x + x + 1 d y = arccos (e −tanx)
g __ (1 − ln 2) 2
2
b y = − e 3xe − x = − xe ( )
__
1 __
1 ____
3x − 1
3 a y = Axe − x x
1
5 a ___ (4x sin 4x + cos 4x) + c ______

√
16 x
4 y = _____ 5 ln |2 + ey| = −x e−x − e−x + c
1 x+1
b ___ ((1 − 8x2)cos 4x + 4x sin 4x)) + c
32 3 3(1 + x2) + 1
6 y = _____ 7 y = ____________
2 1−x 3(1 + x2) − 1
a − __ (8 − x) 2 + c
__
3
6
3
du dv _____
b u = x − 2 ⇒ ___ = 1; ___ = √8 − x ⇒ v = − __ (8 − x) 2
dx dx
2
3
__
3
8
2 |
x 2 − 12
y = ln ________ | 1 2−π
9 tan y = x + __ sin 2x + _____
2 4
2 __
3
∫
I = (x − 2)(− __(8 − x) 2) − − __(8 − x) 2 dx
2 __
3 10 ln |y| = − x cos x + sin x − 1

b y = (__x + 2 ln |x| + __)

2
3 3 3 5
11 a 3x + 4 ln |x| + c
2 2 2 2
= − __(x − 2)(8 − x) 2 + __∫ (8 − x) 2 dx
__
3 __
3

3 3 5 1
12 a _______ + _____
2 4 3x − 8 x − 2
= − __(x − 2)(8 − x) 2 − ___(8 − x) 2 + c
__
3 __
5

3 15 5
b ln |y| = __ ln |3x − 8| + ln |x − 2| + c
2 4 3
= − __(x − 2)(8 − x) 2 − ___(8 − x)(8 − x) 2 + c
__
3 __
3
__
5
3 15 c y = 8(x − 2)(3x − 8) 3
= (8 − x) 2 (− __(x − 2) − ___(8 − x)) + c
__
3 2 4 13 a y = x2 − 4x + c
3 15
b Graphs of the form y = x2 − 4x + c, where c is any
= (8 − x) 2 (− ___ + __) + c = − __(8 − x) 2 (x + 2) + c
__
3 2x 4 2 __
3
real number
5 5 5
172 ANSWERS

1 1
14 a y = ________ + c b k = _____ ln 2
x+2 5730
1 c 0.1R0 = R0e 5730 ln ( 2 ) × t
b Graphs of the form y = _____ + c, where c is any real
____
1 __
1

x+2
ln (0.1) = _____ ln (__) × t ⇒ t ≈ 19035
number 1 1
1 5730 2
c y = _____ + 3
x+2
dy x Chapter review 6
15 a ___ = − __ ⇒ ∫ y dy = ∫ − x dx
dx y 1 8.8
1 1 2 40 − 8 ln 3
⇒ __y 2 = − __x 2 + b ⇒ y 2 + x 2 = c
2 2 __ 4374
b Circles with centre (0, 0) and radius √c , where c is 3 _____ π
any positive real number. 35
1 81
c y 2 + x 2 = 49 4 a __ b ___π
4 8
5 a x2 + 4x __ + 4 = y ⇒ y = (x + 2) 2
Exercise 6G ⇒ x = √y – 2 ⇒ x = 4 – 4√y + y
2
__

1 a y = 200ekt b 1 year 11
c The population could not increase in size in this b ___π
6
way forever due to limitations such as available 56π
6 ____
food or space 5
et 2
2 a M = ______t b __ c M approaches 1 7
2
a __(2 + 1) 2 = 4.5
1+e 3 4
dx k 1 3 × 2 + 4 × 4.5 = 24
3 a ___ = ___2 ⇒ __x 3 = kt + c
dt x 3 1549 81 5027
1 7 b _____π + ___π = _____π
t = 0, x = 1 ⇒ c = __ ⇒ t = 20, x = 2 ⇒ k = ___ 210 2 105
3 _________ 60 28
___ π
√
8
t + __ ⇒ x = (___t + 1)
1 3 ___
__ 7 1 3 7 3
x =
3 60 3 20 9 0.356
b x = 3, t = 74.3 days. So it takes 54.3 days to 10 π ln 16
increase from 2 cm to 3 cm. 1 1
a ___(4x − 1) 2 + ___(4x − 1) 2 + c
__
5 __
3
11
4 a The difference in temperature is T − 25. The tea is 40 24
cooling, so there should be a negative sign. k has to x2 1
b __ ln x − __ x2 + c
be positive or the tea would be warming. 2 4
b 46.2°C 1
c − __ ln |cos 2x| + c
4
a __π − __ ln 2 b __ ln (___) c ln (__)
−1
−__2 ____ 19 1 1 1 35 4
a ∫ A − 2 dA = __
1
∫ t −2dt ⇒ ____ + C ⇒ C = − ___
__
3
5 10
= 12
√A 10t 10 4 2 4 19 3

( −1 − 19t ) a ∫ ___2 ln x dx = (ln x)(− __) − ∫ (− __ x )( x ) dx

__
−2 −1 19 −20t 1 1 1 __ 1
__ = ____ − ___ ⇒ √ A = _________
⇒ ____ 13
√A 10t 10 x x
ln x 1 ln x 1
⇒ A = (_______) = − ____ + ∫ ___2 dx = − ____ − __ + c
2
20t
x x x x
1 + 19t
∫ ___ ln x dx = [− ____ − __] = (− __ − __) − (0 − 1) = 1
e e
1 ln x 1 1 1
b As t → ∞, A → (___) = ____ from below
2
20 400 2 1 2 x x 1 e e
19 361 − __ x
e
dV dV 1 A B 1 2
6 a V = 6000h ⇒ ___ = 6000, ___ = 12000 − 500h, b ______________ = _____ + _______ ⇒ A = − __, B = __
dh dt (x + 1)(2x − 1) x + 1 2x − 1 3 3
dh ___ dV ___dV _____ 1 (
1 ( )
p p
∫1 ______________ dx = ∫ − ________ + _________ dx
___ = ÷ = 12000 − 500h) 1 1 2
dt dt dh 6000 (x + 1)(2x − 1) 3(x + 1) 3(2x − 1)
dh
60 ___ = 120 − 5h
[ x + 1 ]1
p
= [− __ ln (x + 1) + __ ln (2x − 1)] = __ ln (_______)
p
dt 1 1 1 2x − 1
3 3 3
b t = 12 ln (__)
9 1

( 3 ( p + 1 )) ( 3 2 )
= __ ln _______ − __ ln (__)
7 1 2p − 1 1 1

( 10000 ) ( 10000 )
1
_______ 1
_______

3 ( p+1 ) 3 (p+1)
7 a ________ + __________ 1 2(2p − 1) 1 4p − 2
P 10000 − P = __ ln _________ = __ ln _______
10000
_________
b P= so a = 10000, b = 1 and c = 3. 2 _____
8
1 + 3e −50t 14 a __ (x − 2)√x + 1 + c b __
3 3
c 10 000 deer
1 1
8
dV 1 dV
a ___ = 40 − __V ⇒ − 4___ = V − 160 15 a − __x cos 8x + ___ sin 8x + c
4 8 64
dt dt
__
1 1 2
__ 1 1
b V = 160 + 4840e − 4 t, a = 160 and b = 4840 b x sin 8x + ___x cos 8x − ____ sin 8x + c
c V → 160 8 32 256
1
9
dR 1
a ___ = −kR ⇒ ∫ __dR = −k∫ dt 16 a A = __ , B = 2, C = −1
dt R 2
⇒ ln R = −kt + c ⇒ R = e −kt + c 1
__ 1
b ln |x| + 2 ln |x − 1| + _____ + c
2 x−1
⇒ R = Ae −kt ⇒ R0 = Ae 0 ⇒ A = R0 ⇒ R = R0e −kt

Online Worked solutions are available in SolutionBank.

 ANSWERS 173

∫4 f(x) dx = [__1 ln |x| + 2 ln |x − 1| + _____]

9 9
1 dA
c 30 a A = πr 2 ⇒ ___ = 2πr
2 x−1 4 dr
= ( ln 9 + 2 ln 8 + ) − ( ln 4 + 2 ln 3 + __) × k sin (___) = ____ sin (___)
1
__ 1
__ 1
__ 1 dr ___
___ dr ___
dA ____1 t k t
= × =
2 8 2 3 dt dA dt 2πr 3π 2πr 3π
= (ln 3 + ln 64 + __) − (ln 2 + ln 9 + __)
1 1
b r2 = −6 cos(___) + 7
t
8 3 c 6.19 days
3π
= ln (_______) − ___ = ln (___) − ___
3 × 64 5 32 5
2×9 24 3 24 Challenge
1 1 a 15 b −3
17 a __x 3 ln 2x − __x 3 + c
3 9

[3 9 ] __1
x ln 2x − __x 3 = (9 ln 6 − 3) − (0 − ___)
3
1 3
__ 1 1
b
72
CHAPTER 7
2

215
= 9 ln 6 − ____
Prior knowledge check
a (4) b ( 5) c ( )
72 −1
18 a −x e−x − e−x + c b cos 2y = 2e−x(x − ex + 1) 1
2 −2 −3
1 1 7 2 7
19 a − __ x cos 2x + __ sin 2x + c 2 a __ b __ c __
2 4 9 9 2
1 1 1
b tan y = − __ x cos 2x + __ sin 2x − __ 3 a 123.2° b 13.6 c 5.3 d 21.4°
2 4 4
1 1
20 a − __ = __x 2 + c Exercise 7A
y 2
1 1 3 1 a b
b x = 1: − __ = __ + c ⇒ c = − __
1 2 2
1 1 3 1 1 2 a+c
− __ = __x 2 − __ ⇒ __ = __ (3 − x 2) ⇒ y = ______2 a –b
y 2 2 y 2 3−x
c
c 1 d y = x; (−2, −2)
1
21 a ln |1 + 2x| + _______ + c c d c
1 + 2x c–d
1 π
b 2y − sin 2y = ln |1 + 2x| + _______ + __ − 2 –d d
1 + 2x 2 c b
1 1 1
22 a A1 = __ − ___ , A2 = __ b+c+d
4 2e 4
1 1 1 2
b A1 : A2 ⇒ __ − ___ : __ ⇒ 1 − __ : 1 ⇒ (e − 2) : e
4 2e 4 e
e 2c f
23 a − e−x(x2 + 2x + 2) + c
1
b y = − __ ln |3e−x(x2 + 2x + 2) − 5|
3 a
1 1 2c + 3d 3d
24 a A = 1, B = __ , C = − __
2 2
1 1 1 a – 2b
b x + ln |x − 1| − ln |x + 1| = 2t − __ ln 3
__ __
2 2 2
dV 1 g a+b+c+d
25 a ___ = − kV ⇒ ∫ __ dV = ∫ − k dt ⇒ ln V = − kt + c c
dt V –2b
⇒ V = Ae −kt a d
b
b V
A

2 a 2b b d c b
V = Ae–kt
d 2b e d+b f d+b
g −2d h −b i 2d + b
j −b + 2d k −b + d l −d − b
O t 3 a 2m b 2p c m
d m e p+m f p+m
1 1
c __A = Ae −kT ⇒ __ = e −kT ⇒ 2 = e kT ⇒ ln 2 = kT g p + 2m h p−m i −m −p
2 2
j −2m + p k −2p + m l −m − 2p
1 1
26 a ∫ (k − y) dy = ∫ x dx ⇒ ky − __y 2 = __x 2 + c 4 a d−a b a+b+c
2 2
x + (y − k) = C
2 2
c a+b−d d a+b+c−d
b Concentric circles with centre (0, 2). 5 a 2a + 2b b a+b c b−a
(1 + 2x2)6 6 a b b b − 3a c a−b
1 11
27 a _________ + c b tan 2y = ___ (1 + 2x2)6 + ___ d 2a − b
24 12 12 ⟶ ⟶ 5 ⟶ 5 3
8x 7 a OB = a + b b OP = __ (a + b) c AP = __ b − __ a
28 arctan x + c 29 y2 = _____ 8 8 8
x+2 8 a Yes (λ = 2) b Yes (λ = 4) c No
d Yes (λ = −1) e Yes (λ = −3) f No
174 ANSWERS

1 1 1 1 7 a |3i + 4j| = 5, 53.1° above

9 a i b−a ii __ a iii __ b iv __ b − __ a
2 2 2 2
⟶ ⟶ 1
b BC = b − a, PQ = __ (b − a) so PQ is parallel to BC.
2
10 a i 2b ii a − b 4
⟶ ⟶
b AB = 2b, OC = 3b so AB is parallel to OC.
11 1.2 3
__
b |2i − j| = √5 , 26.6° below
Exercise 7B 2
v1: 8i, ( ) v2: 9i + 3j, ( ) v3: −4i + 2j, (−4)
8 9 1
1
0 3 2

v4: 3i + 5j, ( ) v5: −3i − 2j, ( v6: −5j, ( )

−2)
___
3 −3 0 c |−5i + 2j| = √29 , 158.2° above
5 −5
2 a 8i + 12j b i + 1.5j c −4i + j
d 10i + j e −2i + 11j f −2i − 10j 2
g 14i − 7j h −8i + 9j 5
a ( ) b ( ) c ( )
45 4 12
3 8 k = ±6
35 0.5 3
9 p = ±8, q = 6
d ( ) e (
−29) ( 2)
−1 −21 10 10 a 36.9° b 33.7° c 70.6°
f
16 11 a 67.2° b 19.0
3
4 a λ=5 b µ = − __
2
1
Exercise 7D
5 a λ = __ b µ = −1 −3 11
(−9) ( 19 )
3
1 1 a i 5 ii −11
c s = −1 d t = − ___
17
6 i–j b a – b is parallel as –2(a – b) = 6i – 10j + 18k

(− 12 )
⟶ ⟶
a AC = 5i − 4j = ( 5)
12 3 −a + 3b is not parallel as it is not a multiple of
7 b AP = 3i − ___j = __
−4 5 5 6i − 10j + 18k.

( 5)
⟶ 5 3 −3
(−1) (4)
8
c OP = 5i + __j = __8 2
1
3a + 2b = 3 2 + 2 −2 = 3i + 2j + 5k = __ (6i + 4j + 10k)
5 2
8 j = 4, k = 11
3 p = 2, q = 1, r = 2
9 p = 3, q = 2 ___ __ __ ____ __
10 a p = 5 b 8i − 12j 4 a √35 b 2√5 c √3 d √170 e 5√3
7 −5 14 8 8
(−1) (−5) (1) (4) (10)
Exercise 7C 5 a 1 b 5 c −3 d 4 e −6
1 a 5 b 10 c 13 __ __
d 4.47 (3 s.f.) e 5.83 (3 s.f.) f 8.06 (3 s.f.) 6 7i – 3j + 2k 7 6 or –6 8 √3 or –√3
g 5.83 (3 s.f.) h 4.12 (3 s.f.) 9 a i A: 2i + j + 4k, B: 3i – 2j + 4k, C: −i + 2j + 2k
___ __ ____
2 a √ 26 b 5√2 c √101 ii –3i + j – 2k
___

a __ ( ) b ___ ( 5)
1 4 1 b i √14 ii 3
3 4 3 12
5 3 13 −12 10 a –4i + 3j – 12k b 13 c − ___i + ___j − ___k
13 13 13

√ 10 (−3)
c ___ ( )
1 −7 1 1
d ____
___
11 a –6i + 4j + 3k
___
b √61 c − ____
6 4
___ i + ____
3
___ j + ____
___ k
25 24
√ 61 √ 61 √ 61
__ __
4 a 53.1° above b 53.1° below 3 4 2 √2 4 √7
c 67.4° above d 63.4° above 12 a _______ i − ____
___ j − ____
___ k b ___ i − __ j − ___ k
√ 29 √ 29 √ 29 5 5 5
__ __ __
5 a 149° to the right b 29.7° to the right √5 √3
___ 2√ 2
____ ___
c 31.0° to the left d 104° to the left c i− j− k
4 4 4

⎜ ⎟
⎛_____
15√2 ⎞
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
__
__ __ 13 a AB = 4j – k, AC = 4i + j – k, BC = 4i – 3j
b 7.52i + 2.74j, (
2.74)
15√2 15√2 2 __ 7.52 ⟶ ___ ⟶ __ ⟶
6 a _____ i + _____ j,
2 2 15√2 b |AB| = √17 , |AC| = 3√2 , |BC| = 5
_____
⎝ 2 ⎠ c scalene
__ ⟶ ⟶
__
5√3

( −2.5)
14 a AB = –2i – 6j – 3k, AC = 4i – 9j – k,
c 18.1i − 8.45j, (
−8.45)
18.1 5√3
____
____
d i − 2.5j, 2 ⟶
2 BC = 6i – 3j + 2k
⟶ ⟶ __ ⟶
b |AB| = 7, |AC| = 7√2 , |BC| = 7 c 45°
15 a i 98.0° ii 11.4° iii 82.0°
b i 69.6° ii 62.3° iii 35.5°
c i 56.3° ii 90° iii 146.3°

Online Worked solutions are available in SolutionBank.

 ANSWERS 175

⟶ ⟶
a AB = 2i + 3j − 2k ⇒ |AB| = √ 17
___
16 5.41
⟶ ___ ⟶ ___ ⟶ 2
| | | |
17 PQ = √14 , QR = √29 , |PR | = √35
____
___
⟶ ⟶
AC = 6j ⇒ |AC| = 6
Let θ = ∠PQR. 14 + 29 − 2√406 cos θ = 35 ⟶ ⟶
BC = −2i + 3j + 2k ⇒ |BC| = √ 17
___
⇒ cos θ = 0.198… ⇒ θ = 78.5° (1 d.p.)
⟶
Challenge
|⟶
AB| = |BC|, so ABC is isosceles.
__
25.4° b 6√ 2
c (4, 10, 3), (0, 4, 7) or (4, −2, 3)
⟶
Exercise 7E 3 a AB = 4i − 10j − 8k = 2(2i −5j − 4k)
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
1 XY = b − a and YZ = c − b, so b − a = c − b. CD = −6i + 15j + 12k = −3(2i − 5j − 4k)
Hence a + c = 2b. ⟶ 3⟶
CD = − __ AB, so AB is parallel to CD
2 a i 2r ii r 2
b Sides of triangle OAB are twice the length of sides of AB : CD = 2 : 3
triangle PAQ and angle A is common to both SAS. b ABCD is a trapezium
2 1 8 3
3 a __ a + __ b 4 a = __, b = –1, c = __
3 3 3 2
(7, 14, −22), (−7, 14, −22) and (_____, 14, −22)
⟶ 1 ⟶ ⟶ 2 1813
b AN = __ (b − a), AB = b − a, NB = __ (b − a) 5
3 3 20
so AN : NB = 1 : 2. 6 a 18.67 (2 d.p.) b 168.07 (2 d.p.)
3 2 7 Let H = point of intersection of OF and AG.
4 a __ a + __ c
5 5 ⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶
⟶ OH = rOF= OA + sAG
3 2 2 ⟶ ⟶
b AP = −a + __ a + __ c = __ (c − a),
5 5 5 OF = a + b + c, AG = −a + b + c
⟶ 3 2 3 So r(a + b + c) = a + s(−a + b + c)
__ __ __
PC = c − ( a + c) = (c − a) so AP : PC = 2 : 3
5 __ 5 5 __ 1 ⟶ 1⟶ ⟶ 1⟶
___ r = 1 – s = s ⇒ r = s = __, so OH = __OF and AH = __AG .
5 a √26 b 2√2 c 3√2 2 2 2
⟶ 2
d ∠BAC = 56°, ∠ABC = 34°, ∠ACB = 90° 8 Show that FP = __ a (multiple methods possible)
⟶ 3
6
1 2 1
a OR = a + __ (b − a) = __ a + __b, ⟶ __ 1
3 3 3 Show that PE = a (multiple methods possible)
⟶ ⟶ 3
2 1
OS = 3OR = 3(__ a + __b) = 2a + b Therefore FP and PE are parallel, so P lies on FE
3 3
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶ FP : PE = 2 : 1
b TP = TO + OP = a + b, PS = PO + OS = − a + 2a + b
=a+b Challenge
⟶ ⟶
TP is parallel (and equal) to PS and they have a 24 32
1 p = ___, q = ___, r = –4
point, P, in common so T, P and S lie on a straight 11 11
line. ⟶ 1 ⟶ 1 ⟶
2 OM = __ a + b + c, BN = a − b + __ c, AF = −a + b + c
2 2
Challenge: ⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶
⟶ ⟶ Let OM and AF intersect at X: AX = rAF = r (−a + b + c)
a PR = b − a, PX = j (b − a) = −ja + j b
⟶ ⟶
⟶ 1 ⟶ OX = sOM = s(__ a + b + c) for scalars r and s
1 1 1
b ON = a + __ b, PX = −a + k(a + __ b) = (k − 1)a + __ kb 2
2 2 2
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
c Coefficients of a and b must be the same in both OX = OA + AX = a + r (−a + b + c)
⟶
⇒ s(__ a + b + c) = a + r (−a + b + c)
expressions for PX 1
1
Coefficients of a: k − 1 = −j; Coefficients of b: j = __ k 2
2 2
1 2 Comparing coefficients in a, b and c gives r = s = __
d Solving simultaneously gives j = __ and k = __ 3
3 3 ⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶
⟶ 1⟶ Let BN and AF intersect at Y: AY = pAF = p (−a + b + c)
e PX = __ PR .
⟶ ⟶
BY = qBN = q(a − b + __ c) for scalars p and q
3 1
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
By symmetry, PX = YR = XY , so ON and OM divide PR 2
into 3 equal parts. ⟶ ⟶ ⟶
BY = BA + AY = a − b + p (−a + b + c)

⇒ q(a − b + __ c) = a − b + p(−a + b + c)
1
Exercise 7F 2
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶
1 a i |OA | = 9; |OB | = 9 ⇒ |OA | = |OB | 1 2
Comparing coefficients in a, b and c gives p = __, q = __
3 3
⟶ 9 ⟶ ____ ⟶ 6 ⟶ ⟶ 2⟶ ⟶ 1⟶
(22) (23)
4 , |AC | = √581 ; BC = −4 , |BC | = √581
____
ii AC = AX = __ AF , AY = __ AF
3 3
⟶ ⟶ So the line segments OM and BN trisect the diagonal AF.
Therefore |AC | = |BC |
b OACB is a kite
176 ANSWERS

Exercise 7G 3 1 2 1 10 1 9
( 8 ) (−2) (10) ( 5 ) ( 0 ) (−2) ( 2 )
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ 7 −1 − 7 = −8 = 2 −4 ; 4 − 7 = −3
1 a i OA = 3i − j, OB = 4i + 5j, OC = −2i + 6j
ii i + 6j iii −5i + 7j
___ ___ ___ ___ so not collinear
b i √40 = 2√10 ii √37 iii √74 8 a = 2.5, b = −2
a −i + 5j or ( )
−1 9 r = (2i − 7j + 16k) + λ(2i – 4j + k)
2
5 10 a a = 14, b = −2 b X(9, 9, −10)
___ ___
b i 5 ii √13 iii √26 11 AB = 9
a −i − 9j or ( )
11
(−2 )
−1
3 12 B 3
___
−9 ___
b i √82 ii 5 iii √61
−2 1 0 1
( 7 ) (10) (3) (1)
4 a −2a + 2b b −3a + 2b c −2a + b
13 a A 4 , B 1 b r = 2 + λ −1
(9) or (3)
7 9
5
___ 1 −1
(4) ( 2 )
6 a __2i + 8j b 2√17 c C 1 , D 3 so P is midpoint
3√5
____
7
5 14 a A(10, 9, 8)
Challenge b Tightrope will bow in the middle with acrobat’s weight
⟶ ⟶ 46 9
OB = 2i + 3j or OB = ___ i + ___ j
13 13 Exercise 7J
1 a The two lines do meet at the point (3, 1, 10)
Exercise
___
7H __ b The lines do not meet.
1 2√21___ 2 7√3 1 1
__ ___ c The two lines do meet at the point (0, 1__, 4__)
3 a √14 b 15 c 5√2 d √30 2 2
4 k = 5 or k = 9 5 k = 10 or k = –4 2 l1 and l2 meet when λ = 4 and μ = −2
coordinates of point of intersection (−2, −4, 15)
Challenge 3 No solution for λ and μ
a (1,__–3, 4), (1, –3, –2), (7, 3, 4), (7, 3, –2), (7, –3, –2) 4 a (p = 3) b (2, 5 , −3)
b 6√5 5 (6, 1, –1)
−1 q

( 2 ) (−1)
6 a Solve 3 . 2 = 0 b p = −2
Exercise 7I
6 2 2 1 −1
(–1) (–1) (0) (1) (6)
1 a r= 5 + λ –3 b r= 5 +λ 1 c (4, 14, −4) d 29

–7 3 2 –3
(2) (2) (4) (1)
c r= 6 +λ 1 d r= 0 +λ 2
Exercise 7K
9
__
6 0 1

( 2 ) (−2)
2
e r = −11 + λ 5
2 a 2 b 17 c –6 d 20 e 0
3 a 55.5° b 94.8° c 87.4° d 79.0°
2 a i 2i + 7j – 3k ii r = (3i − 4j + 2k) + λ(2i + 7j – 3k)
e 100.9° f 53.7° g 74.3° h 70.5°
b i 2i − 3j + 4k ii r = (2i + j − 3k) + λ(2i − 3j + 4k) 3
c i −3i − j − 2k ii r = (i − 2j + 4k) + λ(−3i − j − 2k) 4 a –10 b 5 c 2__
5
1
−5 3 −5 d –2__ e –5 or 2
(−3) (4) (−3)
d i 4 ii r = −1 + λ 4 2
5 a 32.9° b 117.8°
6 a __20.5° b 109.9°
−6 4 −6
(1 ) (3) ( 1)
e i 4 ii r = −2 + λ 4 2√ 2
____
7
3
1 0
(0) ( λ )
___ ______
4 0 Use 3 . 1 = 3 = √10 √λ2 + 1 cos 60°
(8) (1)
8
3 a r = –3 + λ 0
9 a i + 2j + k b 3i + 2j + 3k c 3i + 2j + 4k
1
4 a p = 1, q = 10 b p = –6__, q = –21 10 64.7°, 64.7°, 50.6°
2 ⟶ ___ ⟶ ____
c p = –19, q = –15 11 a |AB| = √33 , |BC| = √173
2 ⟶ −2 2 b 29.1°
( 4) (−4) ( 4)
___
5 Direction of l1: − 3 , AB = 3 = − −3 , so parallel 26 1 √ 53
12 a cos θ = ___ b area = __ × 9 × 3 × ____
27 2 27
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
6 ⟶ 6 13 Let OA = a, OP = p; then OB = b = –a and find scalar

(−3) (−3)
⟶
6 AB = 3 , BC = 3 same direction and a point in product
common

Online Worked solutions are available in SolutionBank.

 ANSWERS 177

−1 ⟶ −4 ⟶ ⟶ t

(−4) (6)
⟶ TX = tTU = __ (a − b + c) for scalars r, s and t
14 a CA = 0 , CB = 5 2
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶ 1 r
____ RX = RO + OP + PX = __ (−a + c) + __(a + b − c)
3√101 2 2
b _______ s 1 r
2 ⇒ __(−a + b + c) = __ (−a + c) + __ (a + b − c)
c (9,____
−6, −6), (1, 4, 6), (3, 4, 6) 2 2 2
1
d 3√101 Comparing coefficients in a, b and c gives r = s = __
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶ 1 2
1
−3 ⟶ 2 TX = TO + OP + PX = __ (−b + c) + __ (a + b − c)

(−2) (9)
⟶ 2 4
15 a PQ = 6 ,QR = −2 ; scalar product = 0 t 1
⇒ __(a − b + c) = __ (a − b + c)
2 4
____ 1
√ 138 Comparing coefficients in a, b and c gives t = __
b centre (0.5, 1, 0.5), radius = _____ 2
2 So the line segments PQ, RS and TU meet at a point and
bisect each other.
Challenge
17
1 a.b = |a||b| cosθ, b.a = |b||a|cosθ so a.b = b.a 20 b = 1 or ___
3
PQ 21 a Air resistance acts in opposition to the motion of the
2 a i a.(b + c) = |a||b + c| cosθ, but cosθ = ______
|b + c| BASE jumper. The motion downwards will be greater
so a.(b + c) = |a| × PQ
PR than the motion in the other directions.
ii a.b = |a||b| cosα, but cosα = ___ b (16i + 13j – 40k) N c 20 seconds
|b|
so a.b = |a| × PR 7
22 a r = (i – j + 3k) + λ(3j – k) b i + j + __k
MN RQ 3
iii a.c = |a||c| cosβ, but cosβ = ____= ___
|c| |c| 23 r = (2i + 3j – 4k) + λ(2j + 3k)
so a.c = |a| × RQ
b a.(b + c) = |a| × PQ = |a| × (PR + RQ) = (|a| × PR) 24 7i + 4j − 5k lies on l when λ = 2
+ (|a| × RQ) = a.b + a.c; so a.(b + c) = a.b + a.c 9i + 3j – 6k = 3(3i + j – 2k) so parallel
25 a 3i + 4j + 5k, i + j + 4k
Chapter review 7 ⟶⟶
ML·MN 27 __ ___ 9
___ b _________ = ________
__ =
1 a 2√10 newtons b 18° to the left |ML||⟶
⟶
MN | 5√ 2 3√ 2 10
2 a 108° b 9.49 km h−1
9 –3
(1) (5)
3 8
3 a b − __ a b b − 4a c __ a − b d 3a − b 26 a r = –2 + µ 4 b p = 6, q = 11
5 5
4 1.25
36 2
b ( c ( )
5)
a (12) d ___ i + __ j + 4k
−18 49 c 39.8°
5 5 5
−1 13 1 4
(–3) (0)
6 a p = −1.5 b i − 1.5j 27 a r = 2 + µ –2 b µ = –3
7 p = 8.6, q = 12.3 ____
√ 145
8 ±6 c 53.4° d _____
3 2 2 5
9 a __ a + __ b b __ b 28 a r1.r2 = 0, therefore vectors are perpendicular
5 5 5
⟶ ⟶ 2 b 5i – k c l1 : λ = –3 d 1.5 km
c AB = b − a, AN = __ (b − a) so AN : NB = 2 : 3
___ 5 29 a intersect when λ = 3, µ = −2
10 √ 22 11 a = 5 or a = 6 ___
7
(−6)
⟶ 4√10
12 |AB | = 5√__2 ⇒ 9 + t 2 + 25 = 50 ⇒ t 2 = 16 ⇒ t = 4 b 4 c _____
⟶ 15
5
6i − 8j − __ tk = 6i − 8j − 10k = −2(−3i + 4j + 5k) = −2AB ____

⟶
2 30 a a = 11, b = 7 b P(5, 9, 4) c √122
5
So AB is parallel to 6i − 8j − __ tk −1 6 −1
(2) (4) (2)
2 ⟶
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ 31 a AB = −1 b r = 3 + λ −1
13 a PQ = –3i – 8j + 3k, PR = –3i – 9j + 8k, QR = –j + 5k
b 20.0 7.5
( 1 )
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ c 4.5
14 a DE = 4i + 3j + 4k, EF = −3i − 4j + 4k, FD = −i + j + 8k
⟶ ___ ⟶ ___ ⟶ ___
b |DE| = √41 , |EF| = √41 , |FD| = √66 c isosceles 32 a meet when λ = 2, µ = 6, (7, 0, 2)
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
15 a PQ = 9i – 4j, PR = 7i + j – 3k, QR = −2i + 5j – 3k b 80.4°
⟶ ___ ⟶ ___ ⟶ ___ c lies on l2 when λ = 1
b |PQ| = √97 , |PR| = √59 , |QR| = √38 c 51.3° d 2.42
16 31.5°
17 184 (3 s.f.) 33 a intersect at (180, −5, 7)
18 a (2, –7, –2) b rhombus c 36.1 b pass through same point but not necessarily at the
⟶ 1 ⟶ 1 ⟶ 1 same time
19 PQ = (a + b − c), RS = (−a + b + c), TU = __ (a − b + c)
__ __
2 2 2
⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶ r Review exercise 2
Let PQ , RS and TU intersect at X: PX = rPQ = __ (a + b − c) 1
2 1 a −2 sin3t cos t b y = − __ x + 2
⟶ ⟶ s 2
RX = sRS = __ (−a + b + c) 8
2 c y = ______2
4+x
x > 0 is the domain of the function.
178 ANSWERS

x 1 2
(3) (5)
2 a y = −9x + 8 b y = _______
2x − 1 29 a = 3, b = 13, r = −1 + λ 4 or any equivalent
3 7x + 2y − 2 = 0
dy cos x
4 a ___ = _____ 30 a As the solution λ = –2, µ = –3 satisfies all three
dx sin y equations, the lines do meet.
b Stationary points at (__ , ___) and (__ , ____) only in
π 2π π −2π b (3,__1, –2) is point of intersection.
2 3 2 3 5
the given range. c __ √3
9
dV dr 250 31 a a = 18 b=9
5 a ___ = 4πr2 b ___ = ___________
dr dt π(2t + 1)2r2 b (6, 10, 16)
__
dy x + 2y c 14√2
6 a ___ = – ______ b y = –3x + 4
dx x 32 a Lines do not intersect.
1
__ b Unlikely that the shark will not adjust course to
7 a k= b a=4
3 intercept flounder.
2
c y = __ x + 1 Challenge
5 dx
8 a x = sec2 t = (sec t)2 ___ = 2(sec t) (sec t tan t) dy 3x2 – y2
dt 1 a ___ = ________
= 2sec2 t tan t dx 2xy + 1
6x – 4y ___ – 2x (___)2
dy dy
b 2
d2y
____ dx dx
9 a=1 b = ____________________
2π dx2 2xy + 1
10 a 1 b ___
15 11
___ 404
____
c and –
π 5 125
11 __ (π + 2)
8 __ 3
__
2 3√3 2 ln
12 16 13 __ − ____ 2 ___

( 2 2) √
3 8 1
__ 1
__ 13
___
1 3 − , −1, , radius =
14 __ (2e3 + 10) 2
9
5x + 3 3 1
15 a ______________ ≡ _______ + _____ b ln 54
(2x − 3)(x − 2) 2x − 3 x + 2 Exam Practice
e–x 1 Assumption: if n2 + 1 is even then can be even.
16 ___ (2 sin 2x – cos 2x) + c
5 Let n = 2k where k is an integer.
2x − 1 −1 4
17 a ______________ ≡ _____ + _______ Then (2k)2 + 1 = 4k2 + 1.
(x − 1)(2x − 3) x − 1 2x − 3
But 4k2 is even, and so 4k2 + 1 must be odd.
A(2x − 3)2 10(2x − 3)2
b y = __________ c y = ___________ This contradicts our assumption, and so if n2 + 1 is
(x − 1) (x − 1)
even then n must be odd.
[ 8π ]
__
1

3k 9k 6

18 a _______ b r = ____2 t + A9 dy −x − 2y
16π2r5 2 a ___ = ________
dx 2x + 2y
dV
19 a Rate in = 20, rate out = −kV. So ___ = 20 − kV
( √ 3 √ 3 ) (√ 2 √ 3 )
1
2__ ___ 2__ ___1
dt b −___ , __ , ___ , − __
20 20
b A = ___ and B = − ___
a (−__, −___)
k k 1 1
3
c 108 cm3 (3 s.f.) 2 2e
e2
20
dC
a ___ = −kC, because k is the constant of b __ (2e3 − 1)
dt 4
proportionality. The negative sign and k > 0 4 a y = 2x2 − 1
indicates rate of decrease. b −1 < x < 1, −1 < y < 1
1 c 4 cos t
b C = Ae−kt c k = __ ln 10
4 d y = 4x − 3
21 −4.5 5 a 1 + 6x + 27x2 + 108x3
__
22 √7 b 1.062808
23 12 6 a H = 5 + 35e−20t
24 130.3° b −700e−20t, −0.0318
10 5 2 c 5
25 a 10i – 5j – 2k b _____
____ i − _____
____ j − _____
____ k
√ 129 √ 129 √ 129 7 a r = 2i + j + 3k + (3i − 3j − 2k)t
⟶ ⟶ c 129.8°
c 100.1° d Not parallel: PQ ≠ mAB . d (11, −8, −3), (−7, 10, 9)
26 k=2 27 p = –2, q = −8, r = –4 π__
___ 8
28 5√14 6

Online Worked solutions are available in SolutionBank.

 INDEX 179

INDEX
A rates of change 57–60, 88–91
see also differential equations
M
angles 115, 139, 148–9 magnitude-direction form 107
directed line segment 98–9
intersecting lines 149 modelling real-life 59, 60, 88–91
direction vector 125–6, 132–3
two vectors 134–7
displacement 99, 102
vector with axis 107–8, 110–11
answers to exercises 159–78
distance between points 123–5 N
distinct linear factors 7, 8, 15 natural logarithms 78–80
area 57–8, 59, 108, 138–9
domain 17–18, 22–3, 26, 29 Newton’s law of cooling 58–9
under a curve 67–9
dot product 135–40, 148–9 normal to a curve 51–2

B E P
binomial expansion 30–45, 47–9 parallelogram law 100
equating coefficients 7–8
(1 + x)n 31–6, 45 parallelograms 100, 114–15, 118
equation of a line 125–34
(a + bx)n 36–9, 45 parametric differentiation 51–4, 65
errors, identifying 5
partial fractions 40–2, 45 parametric equations 17–29, 47, 49
exam practice questions 153–4
boundary condition 85–6 converting to Cartesian 17–25
defining a curve 17–18, 29, 67
C F differentiation 51–4, 65
family of solutions 84 finding volume of rotation 70–1
Cartesian equations 29, 47, 49
finite series 31 substitution 17–21
converting to 17–25
chain rule 51, 54, 57 trigonometric identities 21–5
circle 21, 57, 128–9 G partial fractions 6–15, 46, 49
binomial expansion 40–2, 45
column vectors 102–5, 147 general solutions 84–5
addition 102–3, 104, 109 geometric problems 114–21 improper fractions 12–13, 15
magnitude and direction 106, glossary 155–8 integration 81–4, 85–6
107 gradient of a curve 51, 52 repeated linear factors 8, 10–11,
notation 102, 109, 132 15
vectors in 3D 109–10, 111, 148 splitting methods 7–8
comparing coefficients 114, 118–19 I particular solution 84, 85–6
contradiction 2–5, 46, 49 i, j and k notation 103, 109 parts, integration by 78–81
coordinate geometry implicit differentiation 54–7, 65 points of intersection 131–4, 149
three dimensions 123–5 improper fractions 12–13, 15 circle on a line 128–9
(x, y) plane 16–29 infinite series 31, 45 diagonals 114–15, 119
cubic approximation 40–1 integration 66–96, 150–2, 154 position vectors 109, 111, 121–6
cuboid 119 area under a curve 67–9 point dividing line in given ratio
curves 51–7 by parts 78–81 114–15
area under 67–9 by substitution 74–7 point of intersection 128–9,
defining 17–18, 29, 67 definite integrals 67–9, 76–7 131–2
region bounded by 68–9 differential equations 84–91 point on a straight line 126–9
rotated about x-axis 68–74 modelling real-life 88–91 prime numbers 3, 4
sketching 18, 25–7 natural logarithms 78–80 proof 1–5, 46, 49
partial fractions 81–4, 85–6
trigonometric functions 67–8,
D 75–7, 78, 80 Q
definite integrals 67–9, 76–7 volumes of revolution 68–74 quadrants 113–18
differential equations 84–91 inverse trigonometric functions 65 quadratic equations,
formulating 58–60 irrational numbers 2, 3 trigonometric 130–3
modelling with 59, 60, 88–91 quotients 4
solving 84–7
differentiation 50–65, 150, 154 L R
chain rule 51, 54, 57 line segments 20, 100, 117
radioactive decay rates 58
implicit equations 54–7, 65 directed 98–9
range 17–18, 22–3, 26, 29
parametric 51–4, 65 divided in given ratio 114–15
rates of change 57–60, 88–91
linear factors 7, 8, 10–11, 15
rational numbers 2, 3, 4, 5
180 INDEX

repeated linear factors 8, 10–11, 15 solids of revolution 68–74 geometric problems 114–21
resultant 98 sphere/hemisphere 57–8, 59 magnitude 98–9, 106–8, 110–11
review exercises 46–9, 148–52 straight lines 125–34 magnitude-direction form 107
binomial expansion 43–5, 47–9 intersecting 119, 131–4, 149 multiplying by a scalar 99,
coordinate geometry 28–9, 47, point on 126–9 102–4, 109
49 substitution non-coplanar 118–19
differentiation 61–4, 150, 154 converting parametric equations non-parallel 114, 148
integration 92–6, 150–2, 154 17–21 notation 98, 102–3, 106, 109,
parametric equations 28–9, 47, finding partial fractions 7–8, 10, 125
49 12, 13 parallel 100, 109–10, 135
partial fractions 14, 46, 49 integration by 74–7 perpendicular 135, 137–8
proof 5, 46, 49 surds 3, 33, 106, 115, 122–3 points of intersection 114–15,
vectors 141–7, 152–4 surface area 57–8, 59 119, 128–9, 131–4, 149
representing 102–5, 109
S V scalar product 134–40
skew lines 132–3, 149
scalar multiple 128, 133 vector sum 98
subtracting 99, 109–10, 147
scalar multiplication 99, 102–4, 109 vectors 97–149, 152–4
3D coordinates 123–5
scalar parameters 125–6 adding 98–100, 102–4, 109, 125
see also specific types of vector
scalar product 134–40 angle with axis 107–8, 110–11
volume 57–8, 59
separation of variables 84–7 angle between two 134–7
solids of revolution 68–74
series 31, 45 coplanar 118
sketching curves 18, 25–7 direction of 98–9, 106–8, 110–11
skew lines 132–3, 149 equation of a line 125–34 Z
zero vector 99, 147
181
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