Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

The internal combustion engine (ICE) is a heat engine that converts chemical energy
stored in a fuel into mechanical energy, usually made available on a rotating output shaft.
Chemical energy of the fuel is first converted to thermal energy by means of combustion
or oxidation with air inside the engine. This thermal energy raises the temperature and
pressure of the gases within the engine and the high-pressure gas then expands against the
piston. This expansion is converted by the mechanical linkages of the engine to a rotating
crankshaft, which is the output of the engine. The crankshaft, in turn, is connected to a
transmission and/or power train to transmit the rotating mechanical energy to the desired
final use. For engines this will often be the propulsion of a vehicle (i.e., automobile,
truck, locomotive, marine vessel, or airplane). Other applications include stationary
engines to drive generators or pumps, and portable engines for things like chain saws and
lawn mowers.

Most internal combustion engines are reciprocating engines having pistons that
reciprocate back and forth in cylinders internally within the engine. Other engines include
steam engines and gas turbine engines, which are better classified as external combustion
engines (i.e., combustion takes place outside the mechanical engine system).
Reciprocating engines can have one cylinder or many, up to 20 or more. The cylinders
can be arranged in many different geometric configurations. Sizes range from small
model airplane engines with power output on the order of 100 watts to large multi-
cylinder stationary engines that produce thousands of kilowatts per cylinder.

1.1 ENGINE CLASSIFICATIONS

Internal combustion engines can be classified in a number of different ways:
1. Types of Ignition
(a) Spark Ignition Engine (SIE). An SI engine starts the combustion process in each
cycle by use of a spark plug. The spark plug gives a high-voltage electrical
discharge between two electrodes which ignites the air-fuel mixture in the
combustion chamber surrounding the plug. In the suction stroke, a mixture of air
and fuel is introduced in the cylinder.

(b) Compression Ignition Engine (CIE). The combustion process in a CI engine

starts when the air-fuel mixture self-ignites due to high temperature in the
combustion chamber caused by high compression. In the suction stroke, air only is
introduced in the cylinder. As thus, CIE has neither a carburetor nor a spark
plunger.

2. Engine Cycle
(a) Four-Stroke Cycle. A four-stroke cycle experiences four piston movements over
two engine revolutions for each cycle.
(b) Two-Stroke Cycle. A two-stroke cycle has two piston movements over one
revolution for each cycle.

3. Valve Location (see Fig. 1.1)

(a) Valves in head (overhead valve), also called I Head engine.
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 (b) Valves in block (flat head), also called L Head engine. Some historic engines
with valves in block had the intake valve on one side of the cylinder and the
exhaust valve on the other side. These were called T Head engines.
(c) One valve in head (usually intake) and one in block, also called F Head engine;
this is much less common.

Figure 1-1 Engine Classification by

Valve Location.
(a) Valve in block, L head. Older
automobiles and some small engines.
(b) Valve in head, I head. Standard on
modern automobiles.
(c) One valve in head and one valve in
block, F head. Older, less common
automobiles.
(d) Valves in block on opposite sides of
cylinder, T head.

4. Basic Design
(a) Reciprocating. Engine has one or more cylinders in which pistons reciprocate
back and forth. The combustion chamber is located in the closed end of each
cylinder. Power is delivered to a rotating output crankshaft by mechanical linkage
with the pistons.
(b) Rotary. Engine is made of a block (stator) built around a large non-concentric
rotor and crankshaft. The combustion chambers are built into the nonrotating
block.

5. Position and Number of Cylinders of Reciprocating Engines (Fig. 1.2):

(a) Single Cylinder. Engine has one cylinder and piston connected to the crankshaft.
(b) In-Line. Cylinders are positioned in a straight line, one behind the other along the
length of the crankshaft. They can consist of 2 to 11 cylinders or possibly more. In-
line four-cylinder engines are very common for automobile and other applications.
In-line six and eight cylinders are historically common automobile engines. In-line
engines are sometimes called straight (e.g., straight six or straight eight).
(c) V Engine. Two banks of cylinders at an angle with each other along a single
crankshaft. The angle between the banks of cylinders can be anywhere from 15° to
120°, with 60°-90° being common. V engines have even numbers of cylinders
from 2 to 20 or more. V6s and V8s are common automobile engines, with V12s
and V16s (historic) found in some luxury and high-performance vehicles.
(d) Opposed Cylinder Engine. Two banks of cylinders opposite each other on a
single crankshaft (a V engine with a 180°V). These are common on small aircraft
and some automobiles with an even number of cylinders from two to eight or
more. These engines are often called flat engines (e.g., flat four).
(e) W Engine. Same as a V engine except with three banks of cylinders on the same
crankshaft. Not common, but some have been developed for racing automobiles,
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 both modern and historic. Usually 12 cylinders with about a 60° angle between each
bank.
(f) Opposed Piston Engine. Two pistons in each cylinder with the combustion
chamber in the center between the pistons. A single-combustion process causes
two power strokes at the same time, with each piston being pushed away from the
center and delivering power to a separate crankshaft at each end of the cylinder.
Engine output is either on two rotating crankshafts or on one crankshaft
incorporating complex mechanical linkage.
(g) Radial Engine. Engine with pistons positioned in a circular plane around the
central crankshaft. The connecting rods of the pistons are connected to a master
rod which, in turn, is connected to the crankshaft. A bank of cylinders on a radial
engine always has an odd number of cylinders ranging from 3 to 13 or more.
Operating on a four-stroke cycle, every other cylinder fires and has a power stroke
as the crankshaft rotates, giving a smooth operation. Many medium- and large-size
propeller-driven aircraft use radial engines. For large aircraft, two or more banks of
cylinders are mounted together, one behind the other on a single crankshaft,
making one powerful, smooth engine. Very large ship engines exist with up to 54
cylinders, six banks of 9 cylinders each.

Fig. 1.2: Engine

Classifications by cylinder
arrangement
(a) Single Cylinder
(b) In-Line or straight
(c) V Engine.
(d) Opposed Cylinder Engine
(e) W Engine
(f) Opposed Piston Engine
(g) Radial Engine

6. Air Intake Process

(a) Naturally Aspirated. No intake air pressure boost system.
(b) Supercharged. Intake air pressure increased with the compressor driven off of the
engine crankshaft.
(c) Turbocharged. Intake air pressure increased with the turbine-compressor driven
by the engine exhaust gases.
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 (d) Crankcase Compressed. Two-stroke cycle engine which uses the crankcase as the
intake air compressor. Limited development work has also been done on design
and construction of four-stroke cycle engines with crankcase compression.

7. Method of Fuel Input for SI Engines

(a) Carbureted.
(b) Multipoint Port Fuel Injection. One or more injectors at each cylinder intake.
(c) Throttle Body Fuel Injection. Injectors upstream in intake manifold.

8. Fuel Used
(a) Gasoline.
(b) Diesel Oil or Fuel Oil.
(c) Gas, Natural Gas, Methane.
(d) liquid petroleum gas (LPG).
(e) Alcohol-Ethyl, Methyl.
(f) Dual Fuel. There are a number of engines that use a combination of two or more
fuels. Some, usually large, CI engines use a combination of methane and diesel
fuel. These are attractive in developing third-world countries because of the high
cost of diesel fuel. Combined gasoline-alcohol fuels are becoming more common
as an alternative to straight gasoline automobile engine fuel.
(g) Gasohol. Common fuel consisting of 90% gasoline and 10% alcohol.

9. Application
(a) Automobile, Truck, Bus.
(b) Locomotive (a boiler and a steam engine similar to railroad cars).
(c) Stationary.
(d) Marine.
(e) Aircraft.
(f) Small Portable, Chain Saw, Model Airplane.

10. Type of Cooling

(a) Air Cooled.
(b) Liquid Cooled, Water Cooled.

Several or all of these classifications can be used at the same time to identify a given
engine. Thus, a modern engine might be called a turbocharged, reciprocating, spark
ignition, four-stroke cycle, overhead valve, water-cooled, gasoline, multipoint fuel-
injected, V8 automobile engine.

1.2 THE WORKING PRINCIPLE OF ENGINES

If an engine is to work successfully then it has to follow a cycle of operations in a
sequential manner. The sequence is quite rigid and cannot be changed. In the following
sections the working principle of both SI and CI engines is described. Even though both
engines have much in common there are certain fundamental difference.

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1.2.1 Four-Stroke Spark Ignition Engine
In a four – stroke engine, the cycle of operations is completed in four strokes of the piston
or two revolutions of the crankshaft. The idealized cycle of operation is the Otto Cycle
where combustion takes place nearly at constant volume. During the four strokes, there
are five events to be completed, viz., suction, compression, combustion, expansion and
exhaust. The cycle of operation for an ideal four stroke SI engine consists of the
following four strokes:
(i) Suction or intake stroke
(ii) Compression stroke
(iii) Expansion or power stroke
(iv) Exhaust stroke
The ideal indicator diagram, showing the p-V plot for the four – stroke SI engine is
shown in Fig .1.3a.
(i) Suction or intake stroke or intake Stroke: it starts when the piston is at the top
dead centre and about to move downwards. The inlet valve is open at this time
and the exhaust valve is closed. The fresh charge is a mixture of fuel and air
(premixed).
(ii) Compression stroke: The charge taken into the cylinder during the suction stroke
is compressed by the return stroke of the piston. During this stroke both inlet and
exhaust valves are in the closed position. The mixture which fills the entire
cylinder volume is now compressed into the clearance volume. At the end of the
compression stroke the mixture is ignited with the help of an electric spark
between the electrodes (12-35 kV). Often the ignition and combustion process
begins before the completion of the compression stroke. The number of crank
angle degrees before the piston reaches TDC on the number one piston at which
the spark occurs is called the engine timing.
(iii)Expansion or power Stroke: The high pressure of the burnt gases forces the
piston towards the BDC, with both the inlet and exhaust valves remaining closed.
Thus, power is obtained during this stroke.
(iv) Exhaust Stroke: At the end of the expansion stroke the exhaust valve opens and
the inlet valve remains closed. The pressure falls to atmospheric level as a part of
the burnt gases escape. The piston moves from the bottom dead centre to top
dead centre and sweeps the burnt gases out from the cylinder almost at
atmospheric pressure.

1.2.2 Four – Stroke Compression ignition Engine

The four – stroke CI engine is similar to the four stroke SI engine but it operates at a
much higher compression ratio. The compression ratio of an SI engine varies from 6 to
10 while for a CI engine it is from 16 to 20 to ensure auto-ignition of the fuel when
injected into the hot air.. Idealized cycle is the dual (limited pressur) cycle. Only low-
speed CIEs run on the diesel cycle.

The ideal sequence of operations for the four –stroke CI engine is as follows:
(v) Suction Stroke: Air alone is inducted during the suction stroke. During this stroke
intake valve is open and exhaust valve is closed.
(vi) Compression Stroke: Air inducted during the suction stroke is compressed into
the clearance volume. Both valves remain closed during this stroke. By the end
of compression stroke, the pressure is around 30 bar or higher.
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 (vii) Expansion stroke: fuel injection starts nearly at the end of the compression
stroke. Fuel injection pressures ranging between 80 – 600 bar are used to ensure
good atomization of fuel and fast evaporation and mixing of fuel vapor and air.
The temperature of the compressed air is higher than the self ignition
temperature of the fuel. As thus any atomized fuel enters the cylinder gets
ignited. ICE has neither a carburetor nor a spark plug. The rate of injection is
such that the combustion maintains the pressure constant in spite of the piston
movement on its expansion stroke in creasing the volume. Both the valves
remain closed during the expansion stroke.
(viii) Exhaust stroke: The piston traveling from BDC to TDC pushes out the products
of combustion. The exhaust valve is open and the intake valve is closed during
this stroke.

1.2.3 Comparison of SI and CI Engines (Table 1):

In four – stroke engines, there is one power stroke for every two revolutions of the
crankshaft. There are two non productive strokes of exhaust and suction which are
necessary for flushing the products of combustion from the cylinder and filling it with the
fresh charge. If this purpose could be served by an alternative arrangement, without the
movement of the piston, it is possible to obtain a power stroke for every revolution of the
crankshaft increasing the output of the engine. However, in both SI and CI engines
operating on four – stroke cycle, power can be obtained only in every tow revolution of
the crankshaft.

The main differences between the gasoline engine and the Diesel engine are:
 A gasoline engine intakes a mixture of gas and air, compresses it and ignites the
mixture with a spark. A Diesel engine takes in just air, compresses it and then injects
fuel into the compressed air. The heat of the compressed air lights the fuel
spontaneously.
 A Diesel engine uses a much higher compression ratio than a gasoline engine. A
gasoline engine compresses at a ratio of 8:1 to 12:1, while a Diesel engine compresses
at a ratio of 14:1 to as high as 25:1. The higher compression ratio leads to better
efficiency.
 Diesel engines use direct fuel injection, in which the Diesel fuel is injected directly
into the cylinder. Gasoline engines generally use either carburetion, where the air and
fuel is mixed long before the air enters the cylinder, or port fuel injection in which the
fuel is injected just prior to the intake valve (outside the cylinder).

Table (1) Comparison between SIE and CIE

Description SI Engine CI Engine
Basic cycle Otto cycle Diesel cycle
Fuel Gasoline, a highly volatile Diesel oil, a non- volatile fuel. Self-
fuel. Self-Ignition Ignition temperature is comparatively
temperature is high low.

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Introduction of A gaseous mixture of fuel Fuel is injected directly into the
fuel and air is introduced during combustion chamber at high pressure
the suction stroke. at the end of the compression stroke.
Load control Throttle controls the quantity Te quantity of fuel is regulated in the
of mixture introduced pump. Air quantity is not controlled.
Ignition Requires an ignition system Self-ignition occurs due to the high
with the spark plug in the temperature of air because of the
combustion chamber. high compression. Ignition system
Primary voltage is provided and spark plug are not necessary.
by a battery or a magneto
Compression ratio 6 to 11. upper limit is fixed 16 to 20. upper limit is limited by
(CR) by antiknock quality of the weight increase of the engine.
fuel
Speed Due to the light weight and Due to heavy weight and also due to
also do to homogenous heterogeneous combustion, they are
combustion, they are high low speed engines.
speed engines.
Thermal efficiency Lowe because of lower CR Higher because of higher CR

Weight Lighter due to lower peak Heavier due to higher peak pressure
pressures.

1.2.4 Actual Engines

Actual engines differ from the ideal engines because of various constraints in their
operation. The indicator diagram also differs considerably from the ideal indicator
diagrams. The details of the actual indicator diagrams for the four stroke and the two
stroke SI engines are given in Fig .1.3b.

Fig. 1.3 P-v diagrams and schematic of 4 stroke SIE

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1.2.5 Two-stroke Engine
There is a third type of engine, known as a two-stroke engine, that is commonly found in
lower-power applications. Two-stroke engines have two important advantages over four-
stroke engines. First, 2-stroke engines do not have valves which simplifies their
construction. Second, 2-stroke engines fire once every revolution (4-stroke engines fire
once every other revolution). This gives two-stroke engines a significant power boost.

Two-Stroke SI Engine Cycle

1. Combustion With the piston at TDC combustion occurs very quickly, raising the
temperature and pressure to peak values, almost at constant volume.
2. First Stroke: Expansion Stroke or Power Stroke Very high pressure created by the
combustion process forces the piston down in the power stroke. The expanding volume of
the combustion chamber causes pressure and temperature to decrease as the piston travels
towards BDC.
3. Exhaust Blowdown At about 75° bBDC, the exhaust valve opens and blowdown
occurs. The exhaust valve may be a poppet valve in the cylinder head, or it may be a slot
in the side of the cylinder which is uncovered as the piston approaches BDC. After
blowdown the cylinder remains filled with exhaust gas at lower pressure.
4. Intake and Scavenging When blowdown is nearly complete, at about 50° bBDC, the
intake slot on the side of the cylinder is uncovered and intake air-fuel enters under
pressure. Fuel is added to the air with either a carburetor or fuel injection. This incoming
mixture pushes much of the remaining exhaust gases out the open exhaust valve and fills
the cylinder with a combustible air-fuel mixture, a process called scavenging. The piston
passes BDC and very quickly covers the intake port and then the exhaust port (or the
exhaust valve closes). The higher pres sure at which the air enters the cylinder is
established in one of two ways. Large two stroke cycle engines generally have a
supercharger, while small engines will intake the air through the crankcase. On these
engines the crankcase is designed to serve as a compressor in addition to serving its
normal function.
5. Second Stroke: Compression Stroke With
all valves (or ports) closed, the piston travels
towards TDC and compresses the air-fuel
mixture to a higher pressure and temperature.
Near the end of the compression stroke, the
spark plug is fired; by the time the piston gets
to IDC, combustion occurs and the next
engine cycle begins.

Fig. 1.4: Two-Stroke SI Engine Cycle with crankcase

compression
a) power or expansion stroke
b) Exhaust blowdown
c) Cylinder scavenging
d) Compression stroke
e) Combustion

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Scavenging types of Two-stroke Engine:
As can be seen in Fig. 1.5, there are different ways to scavenge two- stroke engine.

Fig. 1.5: Scavenging types of

two stroke engine

Advantages of the Two-stroke Engine

These two advantages make two-stroke engines lighter, simpler and less expensive to
manufacture. They also have the potential to pack about twice the power into the same
space because there are twice as many power strokes per revolution. The combination
gives two-stroke engines a great power-to-weight ratio.

Disadvantages of the Two-stroke Engine

 Two-stroke engines don't last nearly as long as four-stroke engines. The lack of a
dedicated lubrication system means that the parts of a two-stroke engine wear a
lot faster.
 Two-stroke oil is expensive, and you need about 4 ounces of it per gallon of gas.
You would burn about a gallon of oil every 1,000 miles if you used a two-stroke
engine in a car.
 Two-stroke engines do not use fuel efficiently, so you would get fewer miles per
gallon.
 Two-stroke engines produce a lot of pollution. So much, in fact, that it is likely
that you won't see them around too much longer.

Table 2: Comparison of Four-stroke and Two-stroke cycle engines

Four-stroke Two-stroke
The thermodynamic cycle is The thermodynamic cycle is completed in two
completed in four strokes of the piston strokes of the piston or in one revolutions of the
or in two revolutions of the crank crank shaft. Thus, one power stroke is obtained
shaft. Thus, one power stroke is in each revolution of the crankshaft.
obtained in every two revolutions of
the crankshaft.
Because of the above, turning moment Because of the above, turning moment is more
is not so uniform and hence a heavier uniform and hence a lighter flywheel can be
flywheel is needed. used.
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Again, because of one power stroke Because of one power stroke for every
for two revolutions, power produced revolution, power produced for same size of
for same size of engine is less, or for engine is more ( theoretically twice; actually 1.3
the same power the engine is heavier times), or for the same power the engine is
and bulkier. lighter and more compact.
Because of one power stroke in two Because of one power stroke in one revolution
revolutions lesser cooling and grater cooling and lubrication requirements.
lubrication requirements. Lower rate Higher rate of wear and tear.
of wear and tear.
The 4-stroke engine contains valves s-stroke engine have no valves but only ports(
and valve actuating mechanisms to some 2-stroke engine are fitted with
open and close the valves. conventional exhaust valve ).
Because of the heavy weight and Because of the light weight and simplicity due to
complicated valve mechanism, the the absence of valve mechanism, initial cost of
initial cost of the engine is more. the engine is less.
Thermal efficiency is higher; part load Thermal efficiency is lower; part load efficiency
efficiency is better than 2-stroke cycle is poor compared to the 4-stroke cycle engine
engine
Used where efficiency is important, Used where low cost, compactness and light
viz., in cars, buses, trucks, industrial weight are important, viz., in scooters,
engine, aero planes, power generation, motorcycles, lawn mowers, marine outboard
etc… engines, etc

1.3 Parts of an Engine Cylinder (Fig. 16):

The core of the engine is the

cylinder. The piston moves
up and down inside the
cylinder. The engine
described here has one
cylinder. That is typical of
most lawn mowers, but most
cars have more than one
cylinder (four, six and eight
cylinders are common).

Fig. 16: Engine parts

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Spark plug
The spark plug supplies the spark that ignites the air/fuel mixture so that combustion can
occur. The spark must happen at just the right moment for things to work properly.

Valves
The intake and exhaust valves open at the proper time to let in air and fuel and to let out
exhaust. Note that both valves are closed during compression and combustion so that the
combustion chamber is sealed.

Piston
A piston is a cylindrical piece of metal that moves up and down inside the cylinder.

Piston rings
Piston rings provide a sliding seal between the outer edge of the piston and the
inner edge of the cylinder. The rings serve two purposes:
 They prevent the fuel/air mixture and exhaust in the combustion chamber
from leaking into the sump during compression and combustion.
 They keep oil in the sump from leaking into the combustion area, where it
would be burned and lost.
Most cars that "burn oil" and have to have a quart added every 1,000 miles are burning it
because the engine is old and the rings no longer seal things properly.
Combustion chamber
The combustion chamber is the area where compression and combustion take place. As
the piston moves up and down, you can see that the size of the combustion chamber
changes. It has some maximum volume as well as a minimum volume. The difference
between the maximum and minimum is called the displacement and is measured in liters
or CCs (Cubic Centimeters, where 1,000 cubic centimeters equals a liter). So if you have
a 4-cylinder engine and each cylinder displaces half a liter, then the entire engine is a "2.0
liter engine." If each cylinder displaces half a liter and there are six cylinders arranged in
a V configuration, you have a "3.0 liter V-6." Generally, the displacement tells you
something about how much power an engine has. A cylinder that displaces half a liter can
hold twice as much fuel/air mixture as a cylinder that displaces a quarter of a liter, and
therefore you would expect about twice as much power from the larger cylinder (if
everything else is equal). So a 2.0 liter engine is roughly half as powerful as a 4.0 liter
engine. You can get more displacement either by increasing the number of cylinders or
by making the combustion chambers of all the cylinders bigger (or both).

Connecting rod
The connecting rod connects the piston to the crankshaft. It can rotate at both ends so that
its angle can change as the piston moves and the crankshaft rotates.

Crank shaft
The crank shaft turns the piston's up and down motion into circular motion just like a
crank on a jack-in-the-box does.

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Sump
The sump surrounds the crankshaft. It contains some amount of oil, which collects in the
bottom of the sump (the oil pan).

1.4 Terminology for Reciprocating Devices

The following is some terminology we need to understand for reciprocating engines.

Direct Injection (DI): Fuel injection into the main combustion chamber of an engine.
Engines have either one main combustion chamber (open chamber) or a divided
combustion chamber made up of a main chamber and a smaller connected secondary
chamber.

Indirect Injection (IDI) Fuel injection into the secondary chamber of an engine with a
divided combustion chamber.

Smart Engine Engine with computer controls that regulate operating characteristics such
as air-fuel ratio, ignition timing, valve timing, exhaust control, intake tuning, etc.
Computer inputs come from electronic, mechanical, thermal, and chemical sensors
located throughout the engine. Computers in some automobiles are even programmed to
adjust engine operation for things like valve wear and combustion chamber deposit
buildup as the engine ages. In automobiles the same computers are used to make smart
cars by controlling the steering, brakes, exhaust system, suspension, seats, anti-theft
systems, sound-entertainment systems, shifting, doors, repair analysis, navigation, noise
suppression, environment, comfort, etc. On some systems engine speed is adjusted at the
instant when the transmission shifts gears, resulting in a smoother shifting process. At
least one automobile model even adjusts this process for transmission fluid temperature
to assure smooth shifting at cold startup.

Engine Management System (EMS) Computer and electronics used to control Wide-
Open Throttle (WOT) Engine operated with throttle valve fully open when maximum
power and/or speed is desired.

1.5 Engine Subsystems

Most modern engines have what are called overhead cams. This means that the cam
shaft is located above the valves. The cams on the shaft activate the valves directly or
through a very short linkage. Older engines used a cam shaft located in the sump near the
crankshaft. Rods linked the cam below to valve lifters above the valves. This approach
has more moving parts and also causes more lag between the cam's activation of the
valve and the valve's subsequent motion. A timing belt or timing chain links the
crankshaft to the cam shaft so that the valves are in sync with the pistons. The cam shaft
is geared to turn at one-half the rate of the crankshaft. Many high-performance engines
have four valves per cylinder (two for intake, two for exhaust), and this arrangement
requires two cam shafts per bank of cylinders, hence the phrase "dual overhead cams."

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Ignition system (Fig. 1.7)
The ignition system produces a high-voltage electrical charge and transmits it to the spark
plugs via ignition wires. The charge first flows to a distributor, which you can easily
find under the hood of most cars. The distributor has one wire going in the center and
four, six, or eight wires (depending on the number of cylinders) coming out of it. These
ignition wires send the charge to each spark plug. The engine is timed so that only one
cylinder receives a spark from the distributor at a time. This approach provides maximum
smoothness.

Figure1.7. The ignition system

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Cooling system (Fig. 1.8)
The cooling system in most cars
consists of the radiator and water
pump. Water circulates through
passages around the cylinders
and then travels through the
radiator to cool it off. In a few
cars (most notably Volkswagen
Beetles), as well as most
motorcycles and lawn mowers,
the engine is air-cooled instead
(You can tell an air-cooled
engine by the fins adorning the
outside of each cylinder to help
dissipate heat). Air-cooling
makes the engine lighter but
hotter, generally decreasing
engine life and overall
performance.
Fig. 1.8 diagram of a cooling system showing how all the
plumbing is connected.
Air intake system
Most cars are normally aspirated, which
means that air flows through an air filter and
directly into the cylinders. High-performance
engines are either turbo charged or super
charged (Fig. 1.9), which means that air
coming into the engine is first pressurized (so
that more air/fuel mixture can be squeezed
into each cylinder) to increase performance.
The amount of pressurization is called boost.
A turbo charger uses a small turbine attached
to the exhaust pipe to spin a compressing
turbine in the incoming air stream. A super charger is Fig.1.9 turbocharger
attached directly to the engine to spin the compressor.

Starting system
The starting system consists of an electric starter motor and a starter solenoid. When
you turn the ignition key, the starter motor spins the engine a few revolutions so that the
combustion process can start. It takes a powerful motor to spin a cold engine. The starter
motor must overcome:
 All of the internal friction caused by the piston rings, valves and cam shaft.
 The compression pressure of any cylinder(s) that happens to be in the
compression stroke.

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  All of the "other" things directly attached to the engine, like the water pump, oil
pump, alternator, etc.
Because so much energy is needed and because a car uses a 12-volt electrical system,
hundreds of amps of electricity must flow into the starter motor. The start solenoid is
essentially a large electronic switch that can handle that much current. When you turn the
ignition key, it activates the solenoid to power the motor.

Lubrication system
The lubrication system makes sure that every moving part in the engine gets oil so that it
can move easily. The two main parts needing oil are the pistons (so they can slide easily
in their cylinders) and any bearings that allow things like the crankshaft and cam shafts to
rotate freely. In most cars oil is sucked out of the oil pan by the oil pump, run through the
oil filter to remove any grit, and then squirted under high pressure onto bearings and the
cylinder walls. The oil then trickles down into the sump, where it is collected again and
the cycle repeats.

Fuel system
The fuel system pumps gas from the gas tank and mixes it with air so that the proper
air/fuel mixture can flow into the cylinders. Fuel is delivered in three common ways:
carburetion, port fuel injection and direct fuel injection.
 In carburetion a device called a carburetor mixes gas into air as the air flows into
the engine.
 In a fuel injected engine the right amount of fuel is injected individually into each
cylinder either right above the intake valve (port fuel injection) or directly into
the cylinder (direct fuel injection).
Exhaust system
The exhaust system includes the exhaust pipe and the muffler. Without a muffler what
you would hear is the sound of thousands of small explosions coming out your tailpipe. A
muffler dampens the sound. The exhaust system also includes a catalytic converter.
Emission control system
The emission control system in modern cars consists of a catalytic converter, a
collection of sensors and actuators, and a computer to monitor and adjust everything. For
example, the catalytic converter uses a catalyst and oxygen to burn off any unused fuel
and certain other chemicals in the exhaust. An oxygen sensor in the exhaust stream
makes sure there is enough oxygen available for the catalyst to work and adjusts things if
necessary.

Electrical system
The electrical system consists of a battery and an alternator. The alternator is connected
to the engine by a belt and generates electricity to recharge the battery. The battery makes
12-volt power available to everything in the car needing electricity (the ignition system,
radio, headlights, windshield wipers, power windows and seats, computers, etc.) through
the vehicle's wiring.

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1.6 Gas turbine
Operation:
A gas turbine is an extension on the same concept. In a gas turbine a pressurized gas
spins the turbine. In all modern gas turbine engines the engine produces its own
pressurized gas, and it does this by burning something like propane, natural gas, kerosene
or jet fuel. The heat that comes from burning the fuel expands air, and the high-speed
rush of this hot air spins the turbine.

They have 3 parts:

 A compressor to
compress the incoming
air to high pressure.
 A combustion area to
burn the fuel and
produce high pressure,
high velocity gas.
 A turbine to extract the
energy from the high
pressure, high velocity
gas flowing from the
combustion chamber.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Gas Turbine Engines

there are two big advantages
1. Gas turbine engines have a great power-to-weight ratio compared to reciprocating
engines. That is, the amount of power you get out of the engine compared to the
weight of the engine itself is very good.
2. Gas turbine engines are also smaller than their reciprocating counterparts of the
same power.
The main disadvantage of gas turbines is that, compared to a reciprocating engine of the
same size, they are expensive & use more fuel.
Terminology for Reciprocating Devices
The following is some terminology we need to understand for reciprocating engines—
typically piston-cylinder devices. Let’s look at the following figures for the definitions of
top dead center (TDC), bottom dead center (BDC), stroke, bore, intake valve, exhaust
valve, clearance volume, displacement volume, compression ratio, and mean effective
pressure.

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'-7 Engine Emissions and Air Pollution

The exhaust of automobiles is one of the major contributors to the world's air pollution
problem. Recent research and development has made major reductions in engine
emissions, but a growing population and a greater number of automobiles means that the
problem will exist for many years to come.

During the first half of the 1900s, automobile emissions were not recognized as a
problem, mainly due to the lower number of vehicles. As the number of automobiles
grew along with more power plants, home furnaces, and population in general, air
pollution became an ever-increasing problem. During the 1940s, the problem was first
seen in the Los Angeles area due to the high density of people and automobiles, as well
as unique weather conditions. By the 1970s, air pollution was recognized as a major
problem in most cities of the United States as well as in many large urban areas around
the world.

Although harmful emissions produced by engines have been reduced by over 90% since
the 1940s, they are stilI a major environmental problem. Four major emissions produced
by internal combustion engines are hydrocarbons (He), carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of
nitrogen (NOx), and solid particulates.

Hydrocarbons are fuel molecules which did not get burned and smaller nonequilibrium
particles of partially burned fuel. Carbon monoxide occurs when not enough oxygen is
present to fully react all carbon to CO2 or when incomplete air-fuel mixing occurs due to
the very short engine cycle time. Oxides of nitrogen are created in an engine when high
combustion temperatures cause some normally stable N2 to dissociate into monatomic
nitrogen N, which then combines with reacting oxygen. Solid particulates are formed in
compression ignition engines and are seen as black smoke in the exhaust of these
engines. Other emissions found in the exhaust of engines include aldehydes, sulfur, lead,
and phosphorus.

Two methods are being used to reduce harmful engine emissions. One is to improve the
technology of engines and fuels so that better combustion Occurs and fewer emissions
are generated. The second method is aftertreatment of the exhaust gases. This is done by
using thermal converters or catalytic converters that promote chemical reactions in the
exhaust flow. These chemical reactions convert the harmful emissions to acceptable CO2,
H20, and N2

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Example 1:
A four-cylinder, four-stroke, spark-ignition engine has a bore of 80 mm and stroke

of 80 mm. The compression ratio is 8. Calculate the cubic capacity of the engine and

the clearance volume of each cylinder. What type of engine is this?

Solution:
 
Swept volume, VS  d2L   82  8
4 4
 402.1 cc

Cubic capacity of the engine = Number of cylinders × V8

= 4 x 402.1
= 1608.4 cc
VS  VC V
Compression ratio, r   1 S
VC VC
 1 
Clearance volume, Vc   Vs
 r  1
1
  402.1
8 1
 57.4 cc
Since the bore and stroke are equal the engine is called a square engine.

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 PROBLEMS
1-1. List five differences between SI engines and CI engines.
1-2. A four-stroke cycle engine may or may not have a pressure boost (supercharger,
turbocharger) in the intake system. Why must a two-stroke cycle engine always have
an intake pressure boost?
1-3. List two advantages of a two-stroke cycle engine over a four-stroke cycle engine.
List two advantages of a four-stroke cycle engine over a two-stroke cycle engine.
1-4. (a) Why do most very small engines operate on a two-stroke cycle? (b) Why do most
very large engines operate on a two-stroke cycle? (c) Why do most automobile
engines operate on a four-stroke cycle? (d) Why would it be desirable to operate
automobile engines on a two-stroke cycle?
1.5. Describe the major functions of the following reciprocating engine components:
piston, connecting rod, crankshaft, cams and camshaft, valves, intake and exhaust
manifolds.
1.6. Indicate the approximate crank angle at which the following events in the four-stroke
and two-stroke internal combustion engine cycles occur on a line representing the full
cycle (7200 for the four-stroke cycle; 360' for the two-stroke cycle): bottom- and
topcenter crank positions, inlet and exhaust valve or port opening and closing, start of
combustion process, end of combustion process, maximum cylinder pressure.
1.7. The two-stroke cycle has twice as many power strokes per crank revolution as the
our-stroke cycle. However, two-stroke cycle engine power outputs per unit displaced
volume are less than twice the power output of an equivalent four-stroke cycle engine
at the same engine speed. Suggest reasons why this potential advantage of the two
stroke cycle is offset in practice.
1.8. Suggest reasons why multi cylinder engines prove more attractive than single-
cylinder engines once the total engine displaced volume exceeds a few hundred cubic
centimeters.

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