Module 2

INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE
ENGINEERING AND EARTHQUAKE-
RESISTANT DESIGN STRUCTURES

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

a) Track the chronology of building regulatory system in the Philippines

b) Know the different technical terms related in the study of earthquake
engineering.
c) Know the basic concepts and components when designing an earthquake-
resistant structure.
.

OVERVIEW
EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING can be defined as the branch of engineering devoted
to mitigating earthquake hazards. In the broad sense, earthquake engineering covers
the investigation and solution of the problems created by damaging earthquakes, and
consequently the work involved in practical application of these solutions, i.e. in
planning, designing, constructing, and managing earthquake-resistant structures and
facilities.

COURSE MATERIALS
1. 0 CHRONOLOGY OF BUILDING REGULATORY SYSTEM IN THE PHILIPPINES

Regulatory System Year Established

a) Manila Building Code 1904

b) Manila Land Use Plan 1934
c) Manila Aseismic Design Standard 1959
d) Proposed Adoption of SEAOC and ASEP 1966
e) R.A. 6541 – Act Ordaining NBC 1970
 f) National Structural Code for Building (NSBC) 1972
g) P.D. 1906 – Creation of National Building Code 1977
h) 2nd Edition of NSCP 1982
i) 3rd Edition of NSCP 1986
j) 4th Edition of NSCP 1992
k) 5th Edition of NSCP 2001
l). 6th Edition of NSCP 2010
m). 7th Edition of NSCP 2015

SEAOC – Structural Engineers Association of California

NBC – National Building Code
NSCP – National Structural Code of the Philippines
ASEP – Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines

2.0 DEFINITION OF TERMS RELATED TO (STUDY) OF EARTHQUAKE

ENGINEERING

BASE is the level at which the earthquake motions are considered to be imparted
to the structure or the level at which the structure as dynamic vibrator is supported.
BASE SHEAR, V, is the total design lateral force or shear at the base of a
structure.
BEARING WALL is any wall meeting either of the following classifications:
a. Any metal or wood stud wall that supports more than 1.45 kN/m of vertical
load in addition o its own weight.
b. Any masonry or concrete wall that supports more than 2.90 kN/m of
vertical load in addition to its own weight.
BEARING WALL SYSTEM is a structural system without a complete vertical load-
carrying space frame.(See Section 208.4.6.1)
BOUNDARY ELEMENT is an element at edges of openings or at perimeters of
shear walls or diaphragms.
BRACED FRAME is an essentially a vertical truss system of the concentric or
eccentric type which is provided to resist lateral forces.
BUILDING FRAME SYTEM is an essentially complete space frame which provides
supports for gravity loads. .(See Section 208.4.6.2)
CANTILEVERD COLUMN ELEMENT is a column element in a lateral-force-
resisting system that cantilevers from a fixed base and has a minimal moment
capacity at the top, with lateral forces applied essentially at the top
COLLECTOR is a member or an element provided to transfer lateral forces from a
portion of a structure to vertical elements of the lateral force resisting system
COMPONENT is a part or element of an architectural, electrical, mechanical or
structural system.
 CONCENTRICALLY BRACED FRAME is a braced frame in which the members
are subject primarily to axial forces.
DESIGN BASIS GROUND MOTIOM is that ground motion that has a 10 percent
chance of being exceeded in 50 years as determined by a site-specific hazard
analysis or may be determined from a hazard map. A suite of ground motion time
histories with dynamic properties representative of the site characteristics shall be
used to represent this ground motion. The dynamic effects of the Design Basis
Ground Motion may be represented by the Design Response Spectrum. (See
Section 206.6.2)
DESIGN RESPONSE SPECTRUM is an elastic response spectrum for 5 percent
equivalent viscous damping used to represent the dynamic effects of the Design
Ground Base Motion for the design in accordance with Sections 208.5 and 208.6.
This response spectrum may be either a site-specific spectrum based on geologic,
tectonic, seismological and soil characteristic associated with a specific site or may
be a spectrum constructed in accordance with the spectral shape in Figure 208-3
using the site –specific values of 𝐶𝑎 and 𝐶𝑣 and multiplied by the acceleration of
gravity, 9.815 m / sec2. (See Section 208.6.2).
DESIGN SEISMIC FORCE is the minimum total design strength base shear,
factored and distributed in accordance with Section 208.5.
DIAPHRAGM or SHEAR WALL CHORD is a horizontal or nearly horizontal
system acting to transmit lateral forces to the vertical resisting elements. The term
“diaphragm” includes horizontal bracing system.
DIAPHRAGM CHORD is the boundary element of a diaphragm or a shear wall that
is assumed to take axial stresses analogous to the flanges of a beam.
DIAPHRAGM STRUT (drug strut tie, collector) is the element of a diaphragm
parallel to the applied load which collects and transfers diaphragm shear to vertical
resisting elements or distributes loads within the diaphragm. Such members may
take axial or compression.
DRIFT or STOREY DRIFT is the displacement of one level relative to the level
above or below.
DUAL SYSTEM is a combination of moment-resisting frames and shear walls or
braced frames designed in accordance with the criteria of Section 208.4.6.4.
ECCENTRICALLY BRACED FRAME (EBF) is a steel braced frame designed in
conformance with Section 515.9.
ELASTIC RESPONSE PARAMETERS are forces and deformations determined
from an elastic dynamic analysis using an unreduced ground motion
representation, in accordance with Section 208.5.
ESSENTIAL FACILITIES are those structures that are necessary for emergency
operations subsequent to a natural disaster.
FLEXIBLE ELEMENT or system is one whose deformation under lateral load is
significantly larger than adjoining parts of the system. Limiting ratios for defining
specific flexible elements are set forth in Section 208.5.6.
HORIZONTAL BRACING SYSTEM is a horizontal truss system that serves the
same function as diaphragm.
INTERMEDIATE MOMENT-RESISTING FRAME (IMRF) is a concrete framed
designed in accordance with Section 421.10
LATERAL-FORCE-RESISTING SYSTEM is that part of the structural system
designed to resist the Design Seismic Forces.
MOMENT-RESISTING FRAME is a frame in which members and joints are
capable of resisting forces primarily by flexure.
MOMENT-RESISTING WALL FRAME (MRWF) is a masonry wall frame especially
detailed to provide ductile behavior and designed I conformance with Section
708.2.6.
NONBEARING WALL is any wall that is not a bearing wall.
ORDINARY BRACED FRAME (OBF) is a steel-braced frame designed in
accordance with the provisions of Section 515.7 or 516.5 or concrete-braced frame
designed in accordance with Section 421.
ORDINARY MOMENT-RESISTING FRAME(OMRF) is a moment-resisting frame
not meeting special detailing requirement for ductile behavior.
ORTHOGONAL EFFECTS are the earthquake load effects on structural elements
common to the lateral-force-resisting systems along two orthogonal axes.
OVERSTRENGTH is characteristic of structures where the actual strength is larger
than the design strength. The degree of overstrength is material-and-system-
dependent.
PARAPET WALL is that part of wall entirely above the roof line
𝑷∆ EFFECT is the secondary effect on shears, axial forces and moments of frame
members induced by the vertical loads acting on the laterally displaced building
system.
SHEAR WALL is a wall designed to resist lateral forces parallel to the plane of the
wall (sometime referred to as vertical diaphragm or structural wall).
SHEAR WALL-FRAME INTERACTIVE SYSTEM uses combinations of shear
walls and frames designed to resist lateral forces in proportion to their relative
rigidities, considering interaction between shear walls and frames on all levels.
SOFT STOREY is one in which the lateral stiffness is less than 70 percent of the
stiffness of the story above. See Table 208-9
SPACE FRAME is a three-dimensional structural system, without bearing walls,
composed of members interconnected so as to function as a complete self-
contained unit with or without the aid of horizontal diaphragms or floor-bracing
systems.
SPECIAL CONCENTRICALLY BRACED FRAME (SCBF) is a steel-braced frame
designed in conformance with the provisions of Section 515.8.
SPECIAL MOMENT-RESISTNG FRAME (SMRF) is a moment-resisting frame
specially detailed to provide ductile behavior and comply with yhe requirements
given in Chapter 4 & 5.
 SPECIAL TRUSS-MOMENT FRAME (STMF) is a moment-resisting frame
specially detailed to provide ductile behavior and comply with the provisions of
Section 525
STOREY is a space between two levels. Storey x is the storey below level x.
STOREY DRIFT RATIO is the storey drift divided by the storey height.
STOREY SHEAR, Vx, is the summation of design lateral forces above the storey
under consideration.
STRENGTH is the capacity of an element or a member to resist factored loads.
STRUCTURE is an assemblage of framing members designed to support gravity
loads and resist lateral forces. Structures may be categorized as building
structures or nonbuilding structures.
STRENGTH DESIGN is a method of proportioning and designed structural
members such that the computed forces produced in the members by the factored
load do not exceed the member design strength. The term design strength is used
in the design of concrete structures.
VERTICAL LOAD-CARRYING FRAME is a space frame designed to carry vertical
gravity loads.
WEAK STOREY is one in which the storey strength is less than 80 percent of the
storey above.

3.0 BASIC CONCEPTS IN THE STUDY OF EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT DESIGN

STRUCTURES

The following topic provides an introduction to the basic concepts of dynamic

structural behavior and of designing structures to resist inertia forces and related
effects due to earthquakes

The scope in the study of earthquake-resistant design structures are:

• Seismicity, Nature, Measures and Recording of Earthquakes
• Planning for Seismic Risk Assessment and Mitigation
• Analysis, Design and Construction of Earthquake Resistant Structures
• Evaluation of Buildings for Earthquake Resistance
• Retrofitting of Earthquake Damaged Structures
• Earthquake Management and Security

The Two Distinct Steps in Seismic Design

1. Determination or estimating the forces on the structures. Two general
approaches are:
a. Equivalent Static Force System
b. Dynamic Analysis Procedure
2. Design of the structure.
 The development of an adequate earthquake-resistant design for a
structure includes the following:
a. selecting a workable overall structural concept,
b. establishing member size,
c. performing structural analysis of the members to verify that stress
and deformation requirements are satisfied,
d. providing structural and non-structural details so that the building
can perform as intended.

It is essential that the responses of the structure to earthquake ground motions

are visualized and a design provided which will accommodate the distortions and
stresses which will occur in the building. In cases where these cannot be
accommodated, such elements should be isolated to reduce the detrimental
effects to the lateral force-resisting system.

4.0 BEHAVIOR OF BUILDINGS

Buildings are composed of vertical and horizontal structural elements which resist
lateral forces.
a. Vertical elements used to transfer lateral forces to the ground are:
• shear walls
• braced frames
• moment-resisting frames
b. Horizontal elements used to distribute the lateral forces to the vertical
elements are:
• diaphragms
• horizontal bracings
Horizontal forces produced by earthquake motions are proportional to the masses
of the building elements and may be considered to act at the centroid of mass of
these elements. Thus inertial forces are considered to originate from the masses on
and of the structure and are transmitted through the lateral force-resisting elements,
to the base of the structure, and finally into the ground.

The behavior of a building will have the following conditions

1) Demands of Earthquake Motion.

During the life of the structure, many small earthquakes, some moderate
earthquakes, one or more major earthquakes, and possibly a very severe
earthquake may be experienced. It is uneconomical or impractical to design the
buildings to resist forces resulting from the maximum credible earthquake within
the elastic range of stress.
For major earthquakes, most structures will experience yielding in some of
their elements. The energy-absorbing capacity of the yielding of the structure will
 limit the damage so that the buildings that are properly designed and detailed
can survive earthquake forces which are substantially greater than the design
forces that are associated with allowable stresses in the elastic range. Seismic
design concepts must consider building proportions and details for their ductility
(capacity to yield) and reserve energy-absorption capacity for surviving the
inelastic deformations that would result from a maximum expected earthquake.
Special attention must also be paid to connections which hold the force-resisting
elements together.

2) Response of Building.
A building is analyzed for its response to ground motion by representing
the structural properties in and idealized mathematical model as an assembly of
masses interconnected by spring and dampers. The tributary weight of each floor
level is lumped into a single mass, and the force-deformation characteristics of
the lateral force-resisting walls and/or frames between floor levels are
transformed into equivalent stiffness, Because of the complexity of the
calculations for methods of dynamic analysis, the use of computer program is
generally necessary. Under certain condition, however, many buildings can be
designed by the equivalent static force method.
3) Response of Elements Attached to the Building
Elements attached to the floors of the building (mechanical equipment,
piping, non-structural partitions, etc.) respond to the floor motion in much the
same manner that the building responds to ground motion. When these elements
are rigid and are rigidly attached to the structure, the forces on the elements will
be in same proportion to the mass as the forces on the forces on the structure.
But elements that are flexible and have periods close to any of the predominant
modes of the building vibration will experience forces in a proportion substantially
greater that the forces on the structure.

5.0 ELEMENTS OF SEISMIC DESIGN

The elements of seismic design are as follows:
1. Nature of Seismic Codes
2. Location of Site
3. Selection of Structural System
4. Techniques of Seismic Design
5. Alternatives To Prescribe Provisions
6. Future Expansions
7. Preparation of Project Documentation
8. Major Checkpoints

1) Nature of Seismic Codes

a. Codes and criteria are established from the performance of buildings in
the past
 earthquakes.
b. Code represents consensus of a committee
a) consensus means elements of compromise and generalized
statements
to cover uncertainties and limitations
b) codes of necessity must be short and relatively simple ( does not
account
for all the aspects of the complex phenomenon of the response of
actual
structures to actual earthquakes).
c. Purpose: of the Code is to provide public safety
d. Seismic design provisions are minimum requirements and emphasis must
be
placed on structural concepts and detailing techniques as well as on
stress
calculations.
2) Location of Site
As a general rule, site planning must consider geological, foundation and
tsunami hazards. Structures should not be sited over active geological faults, in
areas of instability subject to landslides or is areas subject to tsunami damage.
a. Seismic zones: these are regions with similar hazard factors
b. Fault zones
c. Other hazard
a) subsidence and settlement due to consolidation and compaction
b) landslide
c) liquefaction
d. Tsunami: coastlines must be separately and carefully investigated for its
tsunami-generation characteristics
3) Selection of structural system.
It is of utmost importance that careful professional scrutiny be given to the
design at the inception of the design as well as all significant stages of design
development. The proper approach to be applied in the selection of a structural
system that will achieve a reliable earthquake resistant building must be based
on performance criteria, alternative solutions and corresponding costs.
a. Objective – the objective is to produce the most economical structure
without compromising function, quality, or reliability.
b. Economic aspects – skillful planning; simple detailing and
arrangement of spaces to be compatible with repetitive modular
construction all contribute greatly to reducing total building costs.
c. Planning concepts – participation of all disciplines of the design team
in the conceptual planning and selection of basic construction
materials will ensure the optimum design at lowest construction cost
and minimize the totaldesigncost.
4) Techniques of Seismic Design
a. Layout.
The objective of a plan layout is the symmetry about both axes, not
only of the building itself but of the arrangement of wall openings, columns,
shear wall, etc.
• Structural form – building with simplest structural systems
have the
greatest chance of survival.
• Structural symmetry – buildings with unsymmetrical in plan have
greater
susceptibility to earthquake damage than symmetrical structures.
The effect of asymmetry will induce torsional oscillations of the
structure and stress concentrations at reentrant corners.
Asymmetry in plan can be eliminated or improved by separating L-,
T- and U-shaped buildings into distinct units by use of seismic joints
at junctions of the individual wings.
• Irregular buildings – geometric configuration, type of structural
members, details of connections, and materials of construction all
have profound effect on the structural-dynamic response of a
building. When a building has irregular features, such as
asymmetry in plans or vertical discontinuity, the assumptions
used in developing seismic criteria for buildings with regular
features may not apply. Therefore, it is best to avoid creating
buildings with irregular features.
b. Lateral Force-Resisting System
There are several approved systems for the resistance of lateral
forces. All of the systems rely basically on a complete, three dimensional
space frame; a coordinated system of shear wall or braced frames with
horizontal diaphragms; or a combination of two system.
c. Diaphragms
Floors and roof systems are generally used as diaphragms. It is
customary to design the floor and roof (e.g. concrete slab, wood
sheathing, metal deck) as the web of a horizontal beam and to provide for
the flange stresses of the beam with structural elements concentrated at
the edge of the floor system, i.e. edge beam or special reinforcement in
concrete slab.
d. Shear Walls
The shear wall is designed as a vertical beam. To resist tensile
stress due bending moments, structural elements are concentrated at the
vertical edges of the walls in a manner for diaphragm. These boundary
elements must be anchored into foundation which is capable of
transferring the forces into the ground.
e. Connections
 Past performance of buildings in earthquakes has shown that
connections between floor and roof diaphragms and the shear walls are
vulnerable to failure because of high stress concentrations. In order to
develop the reserve capacity of the structural elements, the design forces
for connections between lateral force-resisting elements are required to be
greater than the design forces for the elements themselves.
f. Ductility
It is the capacity of building materials, systems, or structures to
absorb energy with acceptable deformations and without failure in the
inelastic range.
g. Non-Structural Partition
For analysis and detailing, the effects of non-structural partitions,
filler walls, and stairs must be considered. The non-structural elements
that are rigidly tied to the structural system can have a substantial
influence on the magnitude and distribution of earthquake forces, causing
a shear wall like response with considerably high lateral forces and
overturning moments.
h. Foundations
The differential movement of foundations due to seismic motion is
an important cause of structural damage, especially in heavy, rigid
structures that cannot accommodate these movements. Adequate design
must minimize the possibility of relative displacement, both horizontal and
vertical, between the various parts of the foundation and between
foundation and superstructure.
i. Damage Control Features
In considering a building’s response to earthquake motions, it is
important to keep in mind the structural system and geometry of the
building in order to limit the earthquake damage which would be
expensive to repair.
j. Redundancy
This is a highly desirable characteristic for earthquake-resistant
design. When the primary element or system yields or fails, the lateral
force scan be redistributed to a secondary system to prevent progressive
failure.
5) Alternative to the prescribe provisions
Alternative to some of the seismic provisions are permitted if they can be
properly substantiated
a. Elastic Analysis
For most buildings requiring an elastic dynamic analysis procedure, a
response spectrum analysis with the modes combined by the square-root-
of-the-sum-of-the-squares (SRSS) is generally sufficient. Where data
is available, a time history analysis may be used as necessary.
• response spectrum analysis
 • SRSS
• time-history analysis where sufficient data is available
b. Inelastic Analysis
For major buildings which require added assurance so that the
building can with stand a major earthquake without collapse of with in a
limited range of damage, an elastic dynamic analysis may be used.
• time-history analysis
6) Future Expansion
When future expansion of a building is contemplated, it is generally better
to plan for horizontal expansion rather than for vertical growth because there will
be greater freedom in planning the future increment, there will be less
interruption of existing operations when additions are made, and the first
increment will not have to bear large share of cost of the second increment. For
future vertical expansion, the foundations, floor/roof system, and the structural
frame must be proportioned for both the initial and future design loadings,
including seismic forces.

7) Preparation of Project Documentation

a. Design Computations – design computations must be provided with the
final
plans. The design computations should include a structural analysis
containing, in
addition to the usual analysis for vertical load combination, an analysis for
• Seismic forces on the lateral force resisting system and the
resulting internal forces on its elements and their connections
• Resulting lateral deflection and inter-story drifts.
The structural analysis must contain:
• A description of the structural system provided for resisting lateral
forces
and a discussion for the reasons of its selection
• Full information concerning the seismic loadings used and the
assumptions that were made in carrying out the design.
b. Computer Program Output – where computerized calculations are included
in
design computations, sufficient documentation should be provided.
c. Drawing – preparation of drawings should conform with usual standards
required
in the locality where the structure will be erected with the following
additional
specific requirements for earthquake resistant construction.
a) Preliminary drawings containing a statement that earthquake
resistant
design will be incorporated
 b) Final construction drawing to include information
• Governing edition of building code
• Information used in the earthquake resistant design
• Description of lateral force resisting system
• Special construction details which provide the necessary
earthquake resistant
• Assumptions made regarding live loads and dead ;loads used
and the future additions and extensions to the structure.
c) Changes, modifications or revisions to the original earthquake
resistant
design during construction
d. Specification
• Prepare project specification in accordance with standards used in
locality where the project will be constructed
8) Major Checkpoints
In summary, the process of achieving an adequate building must start with
conceptual planning and be carried through all phases of the design and
construction program. The major checkpoints include:
a. Perform site investigation
b. Coordinate the work of the architect and engineers (structural,
mechanical, electrical and sanitary) to establish the plan, the system,
and the materials of construction
c. Establish design criteria for the specific facility
d. Identify and locate the primary structural elements
e. Determine and distribute lateral seismic forces
f. Prepare design calculations
g. Detail connection
h. Detail nonstructural parts for damage control
i. Make clear, complete contract drawings
j. Check shop drawings
k. Perform quality control inspection
l. Maintain surveillance over any changed conditions during the entire
construction period

Read : 1. Earthquake Resistant Design Structure (ASEP Guide)

2. Chapter 2 : Section 208 - Earthquake Loads
National Structural Code of the Philippines 2015
Volume 1, Seventh Edition
By Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines (ASEP)