SORSOGON STATE COLLEGE | GE 7 - SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY STS

GENERAL CONCEPTS AND HISTORICAL EVENTS IN STS

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY
AND NATION-BUILDING
SUGGESTED TIME ALLOTMENT | 6 HOURS

This module focuses on the history of science and technology (S&T) in the LEARNING OUTCOMES
Philippines, government policies on (S&T), the role of S&T in nation-building,
and indigenous science and technologies. The students will be evaluating 1) Discuss the role of Science
government national S&T agenda and policies in terms of their contribution to and Technology in Philippine
nation-building; identify these S&T government agenda and policies to nation Building
appraise their impact on the development of the Filipino nation, and discuss
and do simple research on indigenous science and technologies specifically on 2) Evaluate government policies
its influences to Filipino psyche in its behavior towards scientific thinking and pertaining to science and
technology innovation. technology in terms of their
contributions to nation
building
WEEK 5-6
3) Identify actual science and
Materials and Media To do for OL/B/FLEX Expected Output technology policies of the
government and appraise
 Course Packet  Printed Copies of  At least 200 words their impact on the
Module reading materials Reflection Paper development of the Filipino
nation
 Reading Materials  Any available  Compilation of
online learning Filipino Scientists
 Journal/Article for platforms for VOCABULARY LIST
Critiquing and teaching preferred  Video (Blog/Vlog)
Reflection by the teacher HISTORY OF SCIENCE. The
accessible to  Short Qui development of science both natural
majority of and social science in the Philippines
students (user  Short Essay under the different era.
friendly)
 Pretest and FILIPINO SCIENTISTS. Famous
 Posted tasks in the Posttest scientist in the Philippines who
institutionalized (quiz/formative conduct scientific research to
LMS assessment advance knowledge in an area of
interests.
SCIENCE EDUCATION. Teaching
and learning of science to non-
scientist, such as school children,
1) Revisit the historical development of S&T in the Philippines; college students or adults within the
2) Present government policies on science and technology and explain their general public.
outcomes to the nation;
3) Discuss the role of science and technology in nation-building; and INDIGENOUS SCIENCE. It refers to
4) Propose an actual S&T program base on students locale S&T development the science knowledge of a peoples
needs; who, as participants in culture are
5) Familiarize some Filipino scientist and their contribution to S&T development; affected by interests of their home
6) Identify actual indigenous science and technologies practices and adaptation communities and homelands
in the communities. Appraise the influences of these practices to the Filipino (Snively, G. et. al., ND).
science thinking and technology innovations.

Author | ELDEN GRENCIO ORGELA Contributor | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA 1

SORSOGON STATE COLLEGE | GE 7 - SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY MODULE 3

PRETEST

MATCHING TYPE

1. Science Policy A. Birth of research development established military government

2. American Colonial B. Science education begins
3. Spanish Colonial C. Collective measures taken by a government in order to
encourage the development of scientific and technical research
4. Inclusive Nation
policy for science policy through science
D. Ang TINIG Program

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. Which of the following S&T program aims to achieve newly industrialized country status by year 2000?
a. PCHRD b. Corazon Aquino c. Ferdinand Marcos d. STMP Goal

2. PTRI means _______________.

a. Philippine Technology and Research Institute c. Industrial Technology Development Center
b. Philippine Textile Research Institute d. All of the above

3. Marked the most unproductive period in research endeavors of Bureau of Science

a. July 1, 1901 b. World War II c. Spanish Colonial Period d. COVID-19

4. A nest of iron and weapons was uncovered accidentally containing sherds and beads.
a. Ramon Administration c. Basic Research
b. Novaliches and Rizal d. Ferdinand Marcos

Author | ELDEN GRENCIO ORGELA Contributor | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA 2

 THE PHILIPPINE
GOVERNMENT S&T AGENDA

SCIENCE is the study of the nature

and behavior of natural things and
the knowledge that we obtain about
them. It is a system of acquiring
knowledge based on the scientific OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES
A HISTORY
method. It is also an organized body By: Olivia C. Caoili
of knowledge gained through
research. It is done through
INTRODUCTION
observation of natural phenomena,
and/orThe
through
needexperimentation that
to develop a country's science and technology has generally been recognized as one of the
tries to simulate of
imperatives natural processes progress in the contemporary world. This has become a widespread concern of
socioeconomic
under governments
controlled conditions.
especially since the post-world war II years.
Among Third World countries, an important dimension of this concern is the problem of dependence in science
It is from the Latin word ‘scientia’,
and technology as this is closely tied up with the integrity of their political sovereignty and economic self-
meaning "knowledge“. It is a
reliance. There exists a continuing imbalance between scientific and technological development among
systematic enterprise that builds and
contemporary states with 98 per cent of all research and development facilities located in developed countries
organizes knowledge in the form of
and almost wholly concerned with the latter's problems. Dependence or autonomy in science and technology
testable explanations and predictions
has been a salient issue in conferences sponsored by the United Nations.
about nature and the universe.
It is within the above context that this paper attempts to examine the history of science and technology in the
It is also the human
Philippines. Rather attempt to simply on a straight chronology of events, it seeks to interpret and analyze the
than focusing
understand the natural
interdependent world,of with
effects geography, colonial trade, economic and educational policies and socio-cultural
or without
factorsconcern for practical
in shaping uses of present Philippine science and technology.
the evolution
of that knowledge. The natural world
As used in this paper, science is concerned with the systematic understanding and explanation of the laws of
includes volcanoes, gravity, atoms,
nature. Scientific activity centers on research, the end result of which is the discovery or production of new
plants and animals, people, societies
knowledge. This new knowledge may or may not have any direct or immediate application.
and galaxies.
In comparison, technology has often been understood as the "systematic knowledge of the industrial arts." As
Sciencethistries to discover
knowledge facts and
was implemented by means of techniques, technology has become commonly taken to mean
relationships
both the and then tries and
knowledge to create
the means of its utilization, that is, “a body, of knowledge about techniques." Modern
theories that makes
technology alsosense of systematic
involves these research but its outcome is more concrete than science, i.e. the production
facts and
of "arelationships.
thing, a chemical, a process, something to be bought and sold."
In the past, science and technology developed separately, with the latter being largely a product of trial and
TECHNOLOGY came from two (2)
error in response to a particular human need. In modern times, however, the progresses of science and
Greek words: “techne” (skill,
technology have become intimately linked together. Many scientific discoveries have been facilitated by the
craftsmanship, art) and “logos”
development of new technology. New scientific knowledge in turn has often led to further refinement of existing
(discourse, reason). It is the skills,
technology or the invention of entirely new ones.
methods and processes used to
achieve goals. It refers to tools and
PRECOLONIAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
machines that may be used to solve
real-world
Thereproblems.
is a veryItlittle
is the humanwritten information about Philippine society, culture and technology before the
reliable
attempt
arrival of the Spaniards Itin is1521.
to change the world. a As such, one has to reconstruct a picture of this past using contemporary
humanarchaeological
activity involved with making
findings, accounts by early traders and foreign travelers, and the narratives about conditions in
and using
the of material artifacts.
archipelago which were written by the first Spanish missionaries and colonial officials. According to these
sources, there were numerous, scattered, thriving, relatively self-sufficient and autonomous communities long
Technology
before the involves tools, The early Filipinos had attained a generally simple level of technological
Spaniards arrived.
techniques and procedures
development, compared with forthose of the Chinese and Japanese, but this was sufficient for their needs at that
puttingperiod
the findings
of time. of science to
practical use.

Author | ELDEN GRENCIO ORGELA Contributor | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA 3

SORSOGON STATE COLLEGE | GE 7 - SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY MODULE 3

Archaeological findings indicate that modern men (homo sapiens) from the Asian mainland first came over-land
and across narrow channels to live in Palawan and Batangas around 50,000 years ago. For about 40,000 years,
they made simple tools or weapons of stone flakes but eventually developed techniques for sawing, drilling and
polishing hard stones. These Stone Age inhabitants, subsequently formed settlements in the major Philippine
islands such as Sulu, Mindanao (Zamboanga, and Davao), Negros, Samar, Luzon (Batangas, Laguna, Rizal,
Bulacan and the Cagayan region). By about 3,000 B.C., they were producing adzes ornaments of seashells and
pottery of various designs. The manufacture of pottery subsequently became well developed and flourished for
about 2,000 years until it came into competition with imported Chinese porcelain. Thus over time pottery making
declined. What has survived of this ancient technology is the lowest level, i.e., the present manufacture of the
ordinary cooking pot among several local communities.
Gradually, the early Filipinos learned to make metal tools and implements -- copper, gold, bronze and, later, iron.
The Iron Age is considered to have lasted from the second or third century B.C. to the tenth century A.D.
Excavations of Philippine graves and work sites have yielded iron slags. These suggest that Filipinos during this
period engaged in the actual extraction of iron from ore, smelting and refining. But it appears that the iron
industry, like the manufacture of pottery, did not survive the competition with imported cast iron from Sarawak
and much later, from China.
By the first century A.D., Filipinos were weaving cotton, smelting iron, making pottery and glass ornaments and
were also engaged in agriculture. Lowland rice was cultivated in diked fields and in the interior mountain regions
as in the Cordillera, in terraced fields which utilized spring water.
Filipinos had also learned to build boats for the coastal trade. By the tenth century A.D., this had become a highly
developed technology. In fact, the early Spanish chroniclers took note of the refined plank-built warship called
caracoa. These boats were well suited for inter-island trade raids. The Spaniards later utilized Filipino expertise in
boat-building and seamanship to fight the raiding Dutch, Portuguese, Muslims and the Chinese pirate Limahong
as well as to build and man the galleons that sailed to Mexico.
By the tenth century A.D., the inhabitants of Butuan were trading with Champa (Vietnam); those of Ma-i
(Mindoro) with China. Chinese records which have now been translated contain a lot of references to the
Philippines. These indicate that regular trade relations between the two countries had been well established
during the tenth to the fifteenth centuries. Archaeological findings (in various parts of the archipelago) of
Chinese porcelains made during this period support this contention. From the Sung (960-1278) and Yuan (1260-
1368) Dynasties, there are descriptions of trade with the Philippines, and from the Sung and Ming (1360-1644)
Dynasties there are notices of Filipino missions to Peking.
The most frequently cited Chinese account in Philippine history textbooks is that of Chao Ju-Kua in 1225. He described the
communities and trading activities in the islands of Ma-i (Mindoro) and San-hsu (literally three islands which present-day
historians think refer to the group of Palawan and Calamian Islands). The people of Ma-i and San-hsu traded beeswax,
cotton, true pearls, tortoise shell, medicinal betelnuts, yu-ta cloth (probably jute or ramie?) and coconut heart mats for
Chinese porcelain, iron pots, lead fishnet sinkers, colored glass beads, iron needles and tin. These were practically the
same commodities of trade between the islands and China which the first Spanish colonial officials recorded when they
came to the Philippines more than two centuries later.
The Filipinos in Mindanao and Sulu traded with Borneo, Malacca and parts of the Malay Peninsula. This trade
seems to have antedated those with the Chinese. By the time the Spaniards reached the archipelago, these trade
relations had been firmly established such that the alliance between the rulers of Manila and Brunei had become
strengthened by marriage. It was through these contacts that Hindu-Buddhist, Malay-Sanskrit and Arab-Muslim
Cultural and technological influences spread to the Philippines. There have also been some references (by early
travelers during the precolonial period) to trade relations between Japan and the Philippines. To date however,
Philippine historians have not found any prehispanic references to the Philippines in Japanese literature of the
period.

Author | ELDEN GRENCIO ORGELA Contributor | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA 4

SORSOGON STATE COLLEGE | GE 7 - SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY MODULE 3

By the time the Spaniards came to colonies the Philippines in 1565; they found many scattered, autonomous
village communities (called barangays) all over the archipelago. These were kinship groups or social units rather
than political units. They were essentially subsistence economies producing mainly what they needed.
These communities exhibited uneven technological development. Settlements along the coastal areas which had
been exposed to foreign trade and cultural contacts such as Manila, Mindoro, Cebu, Southern Mindanao and
Sulu, seem to have attained a more sophisticated technology. In 1570, for example, the Spaniards found the
town of Mindoro "fortified by a stone wall over fourteen feet thick," and defended by armed Moros -- "bowmen,
lancers, and some gunners, linstocks in hand." There were a "large number of culverins" all along the hillside of
the town. They found Manila similarly defended by a palisade along its front with pieces of artillery at its gate.
The house of Raja Soliman (which was burned down by Spaniards) reportedly contained valuable articles of trade
-- "money, copper, iron, porcelain, blankets, wax, cotton and wooden vats full of brandy." Next to his house was
a storehouse which contained: much iron and copper; as well as culverins and cannons which had melted. Some
small and large cannon had just begun. There were the clay and wax moulds, the largest of which was for a
cannon seventeen feet long, resembling a culverin...
These reports indicate that the Filipinos in Manila had learned to make and use modern artillery. The Spanish
colonizers noted that all over the islands, Filipinos were growing rice, vegetables and cotton; raising swine, goats
and fowls; making wine, vinegar and salt; weaving cloth and producing beeswax and honey. The Filipinos were
also mining gold in such places as Panay, Mindoro and Bicol. They wore colorful clothes, made their own gold
jewelry and even filled their teeth with gold. Their houses were made of wood or bamboo and nipa. They had
their own system of writing and weights and measures. Some communities had become renowned for their
plank-built boats. They had no calendar but counted the years by moons and from one harvest to another.
In the interior and mountain settlements, many Filipinos were still living as hunters. They gathered forest
products to trade with the lowland and coastal settlements. But they also made "Iron lance-points, daggers and
certain small tools used in transplanting."
On the whole, the pre-colonial Filipinos were still highly superstitious. The Spaniards found no temples or places
of worship. Although the Filipinos knew how to read and write in their own system, this was mainly used for
messages and letters. They seem not to have developed a written literary tradition at that time.(20) This would
have led to a more systematic accumulation and dissemination of knowledge, a condition that is necessary for
the development of science and technology. Because of the abundance of natural resources, a benign
environment and generally sparse population, there seemed to have been little pressure for invention and
innovation among the early Filipinos. As governor Francisco de Sande observed in 1575, the Filipinos do not
understand any kind of work, unless it be to do something actually necessary -- such as to build their houses,
which are made of stakes after their fashion; to fish, according to their method; to row, and perform the duties of
sailors; and to cultivate the land...

DEVELOPMENTS IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

During the Spanish Regime

The beginnings of modern science and technology in the Philippines can be traced to the Spanish regime. The
Spaniards established schools, hospitals and started scientific research and these had important consequences
for the rise of the country’s professions. But the direction and pace of development of science and technology
were greatly shaped by the role of the religious orders in the conquest and colonization of the archipelago and
by economic and trade adopted by the colonial government.
The interaction of these forces and the resulting socio-economic and political changes must, therefore, be
analyzed in presenting a history of science and technology in the Philippines.
Spanish conquest and the colonization of the archipelago were greatly facilitated by the adoption of an
essentially religious strategy which had earlier been successfully used in Latin America. Known as reduccion, it
required the consolidation of the far-flung, scattered barangay communities into fewer, larger and more

Author | ELDEN GRENCIO ORGELA Contributor | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA 5

SORSOGON STATE COLLEGE | GE 7 - SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY MODULE 3

compact settlements within the hearing distance of the church bells. This was a necessary response to the initial
shortage of Spanish missionaries in the Philippines. This policy was carried out by a combination of religious
conversion and military force.
The net result of reduccion was the creation of towns and the foundation of the present system of local
government. The precolonial ruling class, the datus and their hereditary successors, were adopted by the Spanish
colonial government into this new system to serve as the heads of the lowest level of local government; i.e. as
cabezas de barangay. The colonial authorities found the new set-up expeditious for establishing centralized
political control over the archipelago -- for the imposition and collection of the tribute tax, enforcement of
compulsory labor services among the native Filipinos, and implementation of the compulsory sale of local
products to the government.
The Filipinos naturally resisted reduccion as it took them away from their rice fields, the streams and the forests
which were their traditional sources of livelihood and also subjected them to the onerous economic exactions by
the colonial government. Thus the first century of Spanish rule brought about serious socio-economic
dislocation and a decline kin agricultural production and traditional crafts in many places. In the region
surrounding the walled city of Manila, Filipinos migrated from their barangays to the city in order to serve in the
convents and thus avoid the compulsory labor services in the shipyards and forests. Over the centuries, this
population movement would greatly contribute to the congestion of Manila and its suburbs.
The religious orders likewise played a major role in the establishment of the colonial educational system in the
Philippines. They also influenced the development of technology and promotion of scientific research. Hence,
these roles must next be examined.
Various decrees were issued in Spain calling for the establishment of a school system in the colony but these
were not effectively carried out. Primary instruction during the Spanish regime was generally taken care of by the
missionaries and parish priests in the villages and towns. Owing to the dearth of qualified teachers, textbooks
and other instructional materials, primary instruction was mainly religious education. Higher education was
provided by schools set up by the different religious orders in the urban centers, most of them in Manila. For
example, the Jesuits founded in Cebu City the Colegio de San Ildefonso (1595) and in Manila, the Colegio de San
Ignacio (1595), the Colegio de San Jose (1601) and the Ateneo de Manila (1859). The Dominicans had the
Colegio de San Juan de Letran (1640) in Manila. Access to these schools was, however, limited to the elite of the
colonial society -- the European-born and local Spaniards, the mestizos and a few native Filipinos. Courses
leading to the B.A. degree, Bachiller en Artes, were given which by the nineteenth century included science
subjects such as physics, chemistry, natural history and mathematics.
On the whole, however, higher education was pursued for the priesthood or for clerical positions in the colonial
administration. It was only during the latter part of the nineteenth century that technical/ vocational schools
were established by the Spaniards.(26)
Throughout the Spanish regime, the royal and pontifical University of Santo Tomas remained as the highest
institution of learning. Run by the Dominicans, it was established as a college in 1611 by Fray Miguel de
Benavides. It initially granted degrees in theology, philosophy and humanities. During the eighteenth century,
the faculty of jurisprudence and canonical law was established. In 1871, the schools of medicine and pharmacy
were opened. From 1871 to 1886, the University of Santo Tomas granted the degree of Licenciado en Medicina
to 62 graduates. For the doctorate degree in medicine, at least an additional year of study was required at the
Universidad Central de Madrid in Spain.
The study of pharmacy consisted of a preparatory course with subjects in natural history and general chemistry
and five years of studies in subjects such as pharmaceutical operations at the school of pharmacy. At the end of
this period of the degree of Bachiller en Farmacia was granted. The degree of licentiate in pharmacy, which was
equivalent to a master's degree, was granted after two years of practice in a pharmacy, one lof which could be
taken simultaneously with the academic courses after the second year course of study. In 1876, the university
granted the bachelor's degree in pharmacy to its first six graduates in the school of pharmacy. Among them was
Leon Ma. Guerrero, who is usually referred to as the "Father of Philippine Pharmacy" becuase of his extensive

Author | ELDEN GRENCIO ORGELA Contributor | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA 6

SORSOGON STATE COLLEGE | GE 7 - SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY MODULE 3

work on the medicinal plants of the Philippines and their uses. The total number of graduates in pharmacy
during the Spanish period was 164.
There were no schools offering engineering at that time. The few who studied engineering had to go to Europe.
There was a Nautical School created on 1 January 1820 which offered a four-year course of study (for the
profession of pilot of merchant marine) that included subjects as arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry,
physics, hydrography, meteorology, navigation and pilotage. A School of Commercial Accounting and a School
of French and English Languages were established in 1839.
In 1887, the Manila School of Agriculture was created by royal decree but it was able to open only in July 1889.
The School was designed to provide theoretical and practical education of skilled farmers and overseers and to
promote agricultural development in the Philippines by means of observation, experiment and investigation.
Agricultural stations were also established in Isabela, Ilocos, Albay, Cebu, Iloilo, Leyte and parts of Mindanao. The
professors in the School were agricultural engineers. The School was financed by the government but it appears
that its direction was also left to the priests. The certificates of completion of the course were awarded by the
University of Santo Tomas or the Ateneo Municipal. It seems that the School was not successful as Filipinos did
not show much inclination for industrial pursuits.
In 1863, the colonial authorities issued a royal decree designed to reform the existing educational system in the
country. It provided for the establishment of a system of elementary, secondary and collegiate schools, teacher-
training schools, and called for government supervision of these schools. The full implementation of this decree,
however, was interrupted by the coming of the Americans in 1898.
Higher education during the Spanish regime was generally viewed with suspicion and feared by the colonial
authorities as encouraging conspiracy and rebellion among the native Filipinos. For this reason, only the more
daring and persevering students were able to undertake advantaged studies. The attitude of the Spanish friars
towards the study of the sciences and medicine was even more discouraging. As one Rector of the University of
Santo Tomas in the 1960s said: "Medicine and the natural sciences are materialistic and impious studies." It was
not surprising, therefore, that few Filipinos ventured to study these disciplines. Those who did were poorly
trained when compared with those who had gone to European universities. Science courses at the University of
Santo Tomas were taught by the lecture/recitation method. Laboratory equipment was limited and only
displayed for visitors to see. There was little or no training in scientific research. Sir John Bowring, the British
Governor of Hongkong who made an official visit to the Philippines in the 1850s wrote:
Public instruction is in an unsatisfactory state in the Philippines--the provisions are little changed from those of
the monkish ages.
In the University of Santo Tomas... no attention is given to the natural sciences... nor have any of the educational
reforms which have penetrated most of the colleges of Europe and America found their way to the Philippines.
In spite of the small number of Filipino graduates from the UST in medicine and the sciences they still faced the
problem of unemployment. This was because the colonial government preferred to appoint Spanish and other
European-trained professionals to
At the start of the American regime, a German physician of Manila submitted a report to the authorities on the
conditions at UST's medical college. The report mentions, among others, its lack of library facilities, the use of
outdated textbooks (some published in 1845), that no female cadaver had ever been dissected and the anatomy
course was a "farce", that most graduates "never had attended even one case of confinement or seen a case of
laparotomy" and that bacteriology had been introduced only since the American occupation and "was still
taught without microscopes!" Many of these graduates later joined the revolutionary movement against Spain.
With the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 and the consequent ease in travel and communications that it
brought about, the liberal ideas and scientific knowledge of the West also reached the Philippines. The
prosperity that resulted from increased commerce between the Philippines and the rest of the world enabled
Filipino students to go to Europe for professional advanced studies. These included Jose Rizal who was able to
pursue studies in Medicine and specialize in ophthalmology in Spain and Germany; Graciano Apacible who

Author | ELDEN GRENCIO ORGELA Contributor | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA 7

SORSOGON STATE COLLEGE | GE 7 - SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY MODULE 3

studied medicine in Madrid; Antonio Luna who obtained his Ph.D. in pharmacy in Madrid and later worked with
renowned scientists in Ghent and Paris; Jose Alejandrino who took up engineering in Belgium, and others. It was
this group of students which set up the Propaganda Movement in Europe that eventually led to the Philippine
revolution against Spain.
The religious orders provided most of the teaching force and institutions of learning in the colony. This was
similar to the situation that had earlier prevailed in Europe (where they had come from) during the medieval
ages. Inevitably, members of the religious orders also took the lead in technological innovation and scientific
research. This involvement invariably arose from their need to provide for basic necessities as they went around
the archipelago to perform their missionary work of propagating the Catholic faith and to finance the colleges,
hospitals and orphanages that they had established.
The Spaniards introduced the technology of town planning and building with stones, brick and tiles. In many
places, religious (such as Bishop Salazar in Manila) personally led in these undertakings. Because of the lack of
skilled Filipinos in these occupations, the Spaniards had to import Chinese master builders, artisans and masons.
The native Filipinos were drafted, through the institution of compulsory labor services, to work on these projects.
In this manner, the construction of the walls of Manila, its churches, convents, hospitals, schools and public
buildings were completed by the seventeenth century.
Towards the end of the sixteenth century, the religious orders had established several charity hospitals in the
archipelago and in fact provided the bulk of this public service. These hospitals became the setting for
rudimentary scientific work during the Spanish regime long before the establishment of the University of Santo
Tomas (UST) college of medicine. Research in these institutions were confined to pharmacy and medicine and
concentrated on the problems of infectious diseases, their causes and possible remedies. Several Spanish
missionaries observed, catalogued and wrote about Philippine plants, particularly those with medicinal
properties. The most notable of these was Father Fernando de Sta. Maria's Manual de Medicinas Caseras
published in 1763 which was so in demand that it had undergone several editions by 1885.
By the second half of the nineteenth century, studies of infectious diseases such as smallpox, cholera, bubonic
plague, dysentery, leprosy and malaria were intensified with the participation of graduates of medicine and
pharmacy from UST.(45) At this time, native Filipinos began to participate in scientific research. In 1887, the
Laboratorio Municipal de Ciudad de Manila was created by decree. Its main functions were to conduct
biochemical analyses for public health and to undertake specimen examinations for clinical and medico-legal
cases. It had a publication called Cronica de Ciencias Medicas de Filipinas showing scientific studies being done
during that time.
There was very little development in Philippine agriculture and industry during the first two centuries of Spanish
rule. This was largely due to the dependence of the Spanish colonizers on the profits from the Galleon or Manila-
Acapulco trade, which lasted from 1565 to 1813. It was actually based on the trade with China which antedated
Spanish rule. The galleons brought to Latin America Chinese goods -- silk and other cloths, porcelain and the like
-- and brought back to Manila Mexican silver. When the Spanish and Portuguese thrones were united from 1581
to 1640, goods brought to Manila by ships from Japan and Portuguese ships from Siam, India, Malacca, Borneo
and Cambodia were also carried by the galleons to Mexico. During the time, Manila prospered as the entrepot of
the Orient.
The Filipinos hardly benefited from the Galleon trade. Direct participation in the trade was limited to Spanish
inhabitants of Manila who were given shares of lading space in the galleons. Many of them simply speculated on
these trading rights and lived off on their profits. It was the Chinese who profited most from the trade. They
acted as the trade's packers, middlemen, retailers and also provided services and other skills which the Spanish
community in Intramuros needed.
Spanish preoccupation with the Manila Galleon eventually led to the neglect of agriculture and mining and the
decline of native handicrafts and industries in the Philippines. The deleterious effects of the trade on the
archipelago's domestic economy had been pointed out by some Spanish officials as early as 1592. But this seems
to have been largely ignored by colonial policy-makers. Only the local shipbuilding industry continued to

Author | ELDEN GRENCIO ORGELA Contributor | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA 8

SORSOGON STATE COLLEGE | GE 7 - SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY MODULE 3

prosper because of necessity -- to build the galleons and other ships required for internal commerce and the
defense of the archipelago. This had become quite well developed according to a French visitor in the
nineteenth century. He observed:
In many provinces shipbuilding is entirely in the hands of the natives. The excellence of their work is proof that
they are perfectly capable of undertaking the study of abstruse sciences and that mathematical equations are by
no means beyond their comprehension....
In many provinces shipbuilding is entirely in the hands of the natives. The excellence of their work is proof that
they are perfectly capable of undertaking the study of abstruse sciences and that mathematical equations are by
no means beyond their comprehension....
Agricultural development was left to the resident Chinese and the Spanish friars. The latter saw in the cultivation
of their large estates around Manila a steady source of financial support for their churches, colleges, hospitals
and orphanages in Intramuros. The friar estates profited from the expanding domestic food market as a result of
the population growth of Manila and its suburbs. But the friars contribution in the development of existing
agricultural technology was more of quantitative than qualitative in nature. The profitability of their estates was
largely derived from the intensive exploitation of native technology and their free compulsory personal services.
Successive shipwrecks of and piratical attacks on the galleons to Mexico led to declining profits from the trade
and triggered an economic depression in Manila during the latter part of the seventeenth century. This situation
was aggravated by increasing restrictions on the goods carried by the Manila Galleon as a consequence of
opposition coming from Andalusion merchants and mercantilists in Spain.
At the beginning of the eighteenth century, the Bourbon dynasty ascended to the Spanish throne and brought
with it political and economic ideas of the French Enlightenment. This paved the way for more government
attention to the economic development of the Philippines. Enterprising Spaniards began to exploit the mineral
wealth of the islands, develop its agriculture, and establish industries. These efforts were further encouraged by
the need to promote economic recovery after the British Occupation of Manila in 1762-1764.
Research in agriculture and industry was encouraged by the founding of the Real Sociedad Economica de los
Amigos del Pais de Filipinas (Royal Economic Society of Friends of the Philippines) by Governador Jose Basco y
Vargas under authority of a royal decree of 1780. Composed of private individuals and government officials, the
Society functioned somewhat like the European learned societies during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries
and a modern National Research Council, It undertook the promotion of the cultivation of indigo, cotton,
cinnamon, and pepper and the development of the silk industry. During the nineteenth century, it was endowed
with funds which it used to provide prizes for successful experiments and inventions for the improvement of
agriculture and industry: to finance the publication of scientific and technical literature, trips of scientists from
Spain to the Philippines, professorships; and to provide scholarships to Filipinos.
In 1789, Manila was opened to Asian shipping. This inaugurated an era of increasing Philippine exports of rice,
hemp, sugar, tobacco, indigo and others and rising imports of manufactured goods. In 1814, Manila was officially
opened to world trade and commerce; subsequently other Philippine ports were opened.
Foreign capital was allowed to operate on an equal footing with Spanish merchants in 1829. By this means
agricultural production particularly of sugar and hemp, was accelerated and modernized. Local industries
flourished in Manila and its suburbs -weaving, embroidery, hatmaking, carriage, manufacture, rope-making, cigar
and cigarettes-making. Much of the finished products of these industries were exported. Yet although Philippine
exports kept rising during the nineteenth century, imports of manufactured goods also rose and foreign,
particularly English capital dominated external trade and commerce. This partly because of short-sighted Spanish
colonial trade policies and the relative inexperience and lack of capital of Spanish colonial trade policies and the
relative inexperience and lack of capital of Spanish and Filipino merchants.
The prosperity arising from expanded world trade and commerce in the nineteenth century led to Manila's rapid
development as a cosmopolitan center. Modern amenities -- a waterworks system, steam tramways, electric
lights, newspapers, a banking system -- were introduced into the city by the latter half of the nineteenth century.

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Undoubtedly, commercial needs led to the Spanish governments establishment of a Nautical School, vocational
schools and a School of Agriculture during the nineteenth century. Various offices and commissions were also
created by the Spanish government by the Spanish government to undertake studies and regulations of mines,
research on Philippine flora, agronomic research and teaching, geological research and chemical analysis of
mineral waters throughout the country. However, little is known about the accomplishments of these scientific
bodies.
Meteorological studies were promoted by Jesuits who founded the Manila Observatory in 1865. The Observatory
collected and made available typhoon and climatological observations. These observations grew in number and
importance so that by 1879, it became possible for Fr. Federico Faura to issue the first public typhoon warning.
The service was so highly appreciated by the business and scientific communities that in April 1884, a royal
decree made the Observatory an official institution run by the Jesuits, and also established a network of
meteorological stations under it. In 1901, the Observatory was made a central station of the Philippine Weather
Bureau which was set up by the American colonial authorities. It remained under the Jesuit scientists and
provided not only meteorological but also seismological and astronomical studies.
The benefits of economic development during the nineteenth century were unevenly distributed in the
archipelago. While Manila prospered and rapidly modernized, much of the countryside remained
underdeveloped and poor. The expansion of agricultural production for export exacerbated existing
socioeconomic inequality that had been cumulative consequence of the introduction of land as private property
at the beginning of Spanish rule. There was increasing concentration of wealth among the large landowners -the
Spaniards, especially the religious orders, the Spanish and Chinese mestizos, the native Principalia -and poverty
and landlessness among the masses. This inequality, coupled with abuses and injustices committed by the
Spanish friars and officials gave rise to Philippine nationalism and eventually the Revolution of 1896.
At the end of the Spanish regime, the Philippines had evolved into a primary agricultural exporting economy.
Progress in agriculture had been made possible by some government support for research and
education in this field. But it was largely the entry of foreign capital and technology which brought about the
modernization of some sectors, notably sugar and hemp production. The lack of interest and support for
research and development of native industries like weaving, for example, eventually led to their failure to survive
the competition with foreign imports. Because of necessity and the social prestige attached to university
education, medicine and pharmacy remained the most developed science-based professions during the Spanish
regime.

Science and Technology during the First Republic

There was very little development in science and technology during the short-lived Philippine Republic (1898-
1900). The government took steps to establish a secular educational system by a decree of 19 October 1898; it
created the Universidad Literaria de Filipinas as a secular, state-supported institution of higher learning. It
offered courses in law, medicine, surgery, pharmacy and notary public. During its short life, the University was
able to hold graduation exercises in Tarlac on 29 September 1899 when degrees in medicine and law were
awarded.

During the American Regime

Science and technology in the Philippines advanced rapidly during the American regime. This was made possible
by the simultaneous government encouragement and support for an extensive public education system; the
granting of scholarships for higher education in science and engineering; the organization of science research
agencies and establishment of science-based public services.
The Americans introduced a system of secularized public school education as soon as civil government was set
up in the islands. On 21 January 1901, the Philippine Commision, which acted as the executive and legislative
body for the Philippines until 1907, promulgated Act No. 74 creating a Department of Public Instruction in the
Philippines. It provided for the establishment of schools that would give free primary education, with English as
the medium of instruction. This was followed by the setting up of a Philippine Normal School to train Filipino

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teachers. Secondary schools were opened after a further enactment of the Philippine in Commission in 1902. The
Philippine Medical School was established in 1905 and was followed by other professional and technical schools.
These were later absorbed into the University of the Philippines.
The colonial authorities initially adopted a coordinated policy for the promotion of higher education in the
sciences and government research institutions and agencies performing technical functions. The University of the
Philippines was created on 18 June 1908 by Act of the Philippine Legislature. Among the first colleges to be
opened were the College of Agriculture in Los Baños, Laguna in 1909, the Colleges of Liberal Arts, Engineering
and Veterinary Medicine in 1910 and the College of Law in 1911. By 1911, the University had an enrollment of
1,400 students, Four Years later, its enrollment had almost doubled (to 2,398) and the University included two
new units, a School of Pharmacy and a Graduate School of Tropical Medicine and Public Health. In 1916, the
School of Forestry and Conservatory of Music were established; and in 1918, the College of Education was
opened.
Except in the College of Medicine, where there were already a number of Filipino physicians who were qualified
to become its faculty members when it was opened in 1907, most of the early instructors and professor in the
sciences and engineering at the University of the Philippines were Americans and other foreigners. Qualified
Filipinos were sent abroad for advanced training and by this means foreign faculty were gradually replaced by
Filipinos. For example, in 1920, Filipino Ph.D. graduates of U.S. universities took over the Department of
Agriculture Chemistry in the College of Agriculture. By December 1926, the university's enrollment in all colleges
had reached 6,464 and out of a total teaching staff of 463, only 44 were Americans and other foreigners.
Before 1910, the American colonial government encouraged young men and women to get higher professional
education as much as possible in American colleges. In 1903, the Philippine commission passed an Act to finance
the sending of 135 boys and girls of high school age to the United States to be educated as teachers, engineers,
physicians and lawyers. One third of these were chosen by the governor-general on a nation-wide basis and the
rest by the provincial authorities. In exchange for this privilege, the pensionados, as they came to be called, were
to serve in the public service for five years after their return from their studies. Between 1903 and 1912, 209 men
and women were educated under this program in American schools. After the establishment of the University of
the Philippines, scholarships for advanced studies of a scientific or technical nature in American Universities were
given only in preparation for assignment to jobs in the public service.
The Philippine Commission introduced science subjects and industrial and vocational education into the
Philippine school system but they found that industrial and vocation courses were very unpopular with the
Filipinos. When the Manila Trade School was opened in 1901, the school authorities found it difficult to get
students to enroll in these courses. Because of their almost 400 years of colonial experience under the Spaniards,
middle class Filipinos had developed a general disdain for manual work and a preference for the prestigious
professions of the time, namely, the priesthood, law and medicine. Education in these professions came to be
regarded as the means of making the best of the limited opportunities in the Spanish colonial bureaucracy and
thus of rising from one's social class. Hence, even at the newly-opened University of the Philippines, it was
difficult to get students to enroll in courses which required field work such as, for example, agriculture, veterinary
medicine, engineering and other applied science. Scholarships were thus offered by the government to attract a
sufficient number of students to enroll in courses that were needed to fill up the technical positions in the
government service.
In the field of medicine, the Philippine Commission provided for as many scholarships as there were regularly
organized provinces in the Islands. These were awarded by the school departments after competitive
examinations in the provinces. A recipient of these scholarships was required to return to the province from
whence he came and to serve as a physician for as many years as his medical education was paid for by the
government. This policy was adopted not only to assure the medical school a continuing supply of carefully
selected students but also to ensure a balanced geographical distribution of physicians in the different provinces
and to counteract their tendency to settle in the large urban areas.
Selected graduates of the schools of medicine and nursing were also sent on government scholarship to
universities in the United States for postgraduate courses and training in special fields. In 1921, the Rockefeller

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foundation provided for six fellowships for qualified Filipinos in universities in the United States and Europe, two
each in he fields of public health (preventive medicine), public health laboratory work and teacher training in
nursing education. Over several years, the Foundation provided more than thirty of these fellowships and also
financed shorter observation trips of many other health officials.
It also greatly aided in the establishment and development of the Graduate School of Public Health and Hygiene
in the University of the Philippines.
When the Bureau of Public Works was created in 1901, the Americans found that there were no competent
Filipino engineers, and American engineers had to be imported. As a consequence, a special effort was made to
attract Filipinos to pursue advanced studies leading to careers as engineers. In many cases government financial
assistance was provided to enable them to complete their professional studies in the United States. Upon
achieving their professional qualifications they were employed as junior engineers in the Bureau of Public Works.
Many of them rapidly advanced in their positions. Their career progress can be seen from the fact that whereas
in 1913 there were only 18 Filipino engineers out of a total of 145 engineers in the Bureau of Public Works, the
rest being American; by the end of 1925, out of 190 engineers in the Bureau, only 16 were Americans and 174
were Filipinos.
The establishment of the University of the Philippines satisfied the short-run needs for professionally trained
Filipinos in the colonial government's organization and programs. What the authorities did not recognize was
that by providing for an extensive public school system at the elementary and secondary levels they had
increased tremendously the social demand for professional education. The University of the Philippines remained
the only publicly-supported institutions for higher education, and, since it could not meet the increasing social
demand for universities was left to the initiative of enterprising Filipinos. For many Filipinos, private education
became the alternative for professional education.
Many of the existing private nonsectarian universities were organized during the early period of the American
regime to help meet the increasing demand for professional education and the country's need for trained
manpower. At the same time, these schools remained distinctively Filipino in orientation as they were conceived
by their founders as a means to conserve the national heritage and prevent the complete Americanization of the
Filipinos.
At the outset of the American regime, there was no definite government policy on private schools. Because of
the widespread disorganization that followed a more of these schools were set up, government regulation and
control was found necessary. The first attempt to regulate private schools was through the Corporation Law (Act
No. 1459) enacted by the Philippine Commission in 1906. In effect, it treated the schools like commercial firms or
business enterprises except that they would be under the supervision of the Department of Public Instruction
rather than the Department of Trade and Industry.
In 1917, Act No. 2076 (Private School Act) was enacted by the Philippine Legislature. The Act recognized private
schools as educational institutions and not commercial ventures. It required the Secretary of Public Instruction to
"maintain a general standard of efficiency in all private schools and colleges so that...(they shall) furnish adequate
instruction to the public..." and authorized him to "inspect and watch" these school and colleges. The supervision
of these schools was entrusted to a staff of four within the Department of Public two supervisors. Instruction -- a
superintendent, an assistant superintendent and two supervisors.
The number of private colleges increased rapidly. In 1925 a survey of the educational system of the Island was
authorized Survey which was headed by Paul Monroe made a comprehensive investigation of all public and
private institutions of learning in the country. The Monroe Survey found most private schools substandard. It
reported that most of these were physically ill equipped and with more part-time than full-time faculty members.
Among the private colleges and universities, it found out that: "The equipment of all these institutions is owefully
inadequate, the laboratory for the teaching of science being but a caricature of the real thing".
As a consequence of the findings of the Monroe Survey, the Government took steps to improve the machinery
for the supervision of private schools. The Philippine Legislature created the Office of Private Education to look
into such matters as physical plant, school facilities, libraries, laboratory equipment and student load, and

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administrative work such as enforcement of relevant government regulations, evaluating credits taken by
students, managing admission of foreign students and the like. As a result of the increased outlay for supervision
of private schools, their standards were improved.
During the American regime, the development of science gained more government support along with efforts to
establish an old extensive public school system and public health programs. The old Laboratorio Municipal was
absorbed by the Bureau of Government Laboratories created by the Philippine Commission in 1901. In 1905, the
latter was reorganized and renamed Bureau of Science. It remained the principal government research
establishment until the end of the Second World War.
It had a biological laboratory, a chemical laboratory, a serum laboratory for the production of vaccine virus,
serums and prophylactics, a library. Most of the senior scientists in the Bureau were initially Americans but as
Filipinos acquired the necessary training, they gradually took over their positions.
The Bureau of Science served as a valuable training ground for Filipino scientists. It performed the needed
chemical and biological examinations for the Philippine General Hospital and Bureau of Health and
manufactured the serums and prophylactics needed by the latter. Pioneering research was done at the Bureau of
Science on such diseases as leprosy, tuberculosis, cholera, dengue fever, malaria and beri-beri. Results of these
studies were readily available to the Bureau of Health for use in its various programs. Studies on the commercial
value of tropical products, tests of Philippine minerals and roadbuilding materials, the nutritional value of foods,
and other were similarly done at the Bureau of Science. From 1906, it published the Philippine Journal of Science
which reported not only work done in local laboratories but also scientific developments abroad which had
relevance to Philippine problems.
The American colonial authorities organized other offices which, by the nature of their operations, contributed
further to the growth of scientific research. These were the Weather Bureau (1901), the Board (later Bureau) of
Health (1898), Bureau of Mines (1900), Bureau of Forestry (1900), Bureau of Agriculture (1901), Bureau of Coast
and Geodetic Survey (1905), Bureau of Plant Industry (1929) and Bureau of Animal Industry (1929) (82) From
1927, there were proposals from professional societies for the creation of a National Medical Research Council
and a National Research Council similar to those in the United States, Canada, and Australia. The Philippine
Legislature passed an extensively emulated abroad."

Act in 1933 creating the National Research Council of the Philippine Islands (NRCP). Aside from working for the
promotion of scientific research, the NRCP actively participated in the deliberations and drafting of provisions
affecting science and industry in the 1934 Constitutional Convention.

Educational and science policy during the American regime was not coordinated with colonial economic policy.
While Filipinos were provided opportunities for higher education in the sciences and engineering, the economy
remained basically agricultural. To a great extent, Philippine economic development was determined by free
trade relations established in 1909 between the Philippines and the United States, and these continued long
after independence was achieved in 1946. As a result of this policy, the Philippine economy became tied to that
of the United States, remaining primarily an exporter of agricultural crops and raw materials and an importer of
American manufactured goods. Undoubtedly this delayed Philippine industrialization. The relative
underdevelopment of the physical sciences vis-a-vis the medical and agricultural sciences may be traced to this
policy. Basic and applied research in the medical, agricultural and related sciences received much greater
government support during the American regime than did industrial research.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

During the Commonwealth Period

In 1935, the Philippine Commonwealth was inaugurated and ushered in a period of transition to political
independence. The Constitution acknowledged the importance of promoting scientific development for the
economic development of the country by incorporating a provision (Article XIII, Section 4) declaring that "The
State shall promote scientific research and invention, Arts and Letters shall be under its patronage..."

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The government, which was by this time completely under Filipino management, continued to expand its public
school system to accommodate the increasing number of schoolchildren. The Government abolished Grade VII
as the terminal grade in the elementary curriculum and also instituted the "double-single session" plan thus
reducing the time allotment or dropping certain subjects in the elementary school. The government also enacted
Commonwealth Act No. 180 (13 November 1936) reestablishing the Office of Private Education which had been
abolished in 1932.
On the whole, higher education was provided mainly by the private sector. By 1936, there were 425 private
schools recognized by the government, 64 of which we institutions at the College level and 7 were universities.
These were Centro Escolar University, Far Easter University, National University, Philippine Women's University,
Silliman University, University of Manila and the University of Santo Tomas. Together with the University of the
Philippines these had a total of 19,575 college students in all universities in the country. The combined significant
increase in trained scientists and engineers in the Philippines before the Second World War.

The Commonwealth government worked towards the development of economic self-reliance which would be
necessary to sustain genuine political independence. It created the National Economic Council to prepare an
economic program and advise the government on economic and financial questions. Several government
corporations were reorganized and new ones were created to perform such varied functions as the exploitation
and development of natural resources (e.g., the National Power Corporation); the development and promotion
of local industries (such as the National Development Company (NDC) and its subsidiaries, the National Abaca
and Other Fibers Corporation); promotion of agricultural production and marketing; and the like. The NDC was
especially mandated to undertake the development of successful researches of government science agencies
(such as the Bureaus of Science, Animal Industry and Plant Industry) for commercial production.
The Commonwealth government likewise adopted measures to encourage and provide assistance to private
Filipino businessmen in the establishment of industries and manufacturing enterprises. For example, it created
new agencies, such as the Bureau of Mines, to provide assistance to businessmen undertaking mining
exploration and development. It also increased appropriations for the Bureaus of Science, Plant and Animal
Industry, and thereby encouraged more scientific research for industrial purposes.

In spite of all these efforts, the Commonwealth government was unable to achieve its goal of economic self-
reliance. This was primarily because foreign trade and tariff policies remained under the control of the American
government. Free trade relations also continued and thus perpetuated the preferential treatment of exports of
agricultural raw materials. Moreover, the Pacific War broke out in 1941 and the Philippines was occupied by
Japanese troops.
The occupation of the Philippines by the Japanese during the War brought educational and
scientific activities practically to a halt as able bodied citizens joined the resistance movement. Worse still, much
of the country was reduced to ruins during the battles ought for the liberation in 1944-45. Manila, which was the
center of all educational and scientific activities, was razed to the ground, destroying everything that had been
built up before. It was in this condition that the Philippines became an independent state. The government had
to contend with economic reconstruction, normalization of operations as well as the task of planning the
direction of economic development.

Science and Technology since Independence

The underlying pattern of education and training of scientists, engineers and physicians established during the
America regime, as well as the direction of government support for scientific research and development, has
basically remained unchanged since independence in 1946. State support for education continues to be
concentrated at the elementary school level; private colleges and universities provide education for the majority
of the collegiate population.

The number of state universities and colleges has been increasing since 1946. However, their growth has not
been based on a rational plan. Partisan political considerations often determined the creation, location and

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staffing of these institutions. Hence, many of them were ill-equipped and ill-prepared to provide quality higher
education particularly in the sciences and engineering. State universities and colleges vary in standards arising
largely from the uneven distribution of faculty development programs. The University of the Philippines System
remains the most developed with extensive graduate and undergraduate degree programs in the sciences and
engineering. It receives over half of the national budget for state universities and colleges.
Private universities and colleges have similarly increased in numbers since 1946. However, these vary in
standards. Most non-sectarian universities and colleges are organized and managed like business enterprises
and are heavily dependent on tuition fees. To operate profitably, they tend to concentrate on low-cost courses
like business administration, liberal arts and education, and encourage large enrollments in these. Sectarian
universities and college tend to be financially better endowed. Hence, they have been able to impose selective
admissions, lower faculty-student ratios and provide laboratory and library facilities requires for science and
engineering program. The large number of private colleges and universities to be supervised and the limited
Department of Education and Culture (now the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports) staff to do it has
hampered effective government supervision and control of their standards.
The number of college students and graduates from public and private universities and colleges has shown
tremendous increases since 1946. Nevertheless, the proportion of those in agriculture, medical and natural
sciences, and engineering has remained relatively low. There are very few graduates in the physical sciences.
Most students (and graduates) in agriculture come from state institutions while most of those in engineering and
medical sciences come from private institutions. In both, the majority of college students and graduates continue
to be in teacher training/education and commerce/business administration courses. This situation results from
the fact that students tend to enroll in courses where there are perceived employment opportunities and which
their families can afford. Engineering and science courses entail longer periods of study and have generally been
more expensive to pursue.
The rise of professional organizations of scientists and engineers followed closely the growth of higher education
in the Philippines. The earliest organizations were in medicine and pharmacy, professions which were the first to
be introduced during the colonial era. As the number of graduates in a particular discipline increased,
associations were formed to promote professional interests and regulate standards of practice and these were
modelled after their counterparts in the United States. Self-regulation by professional associations was
eventually institutionalized in government laws which established professional examining boards and licensing
procedures.
In certain cases, professional organizations initiated changes in the collegiate curriculum for their specialization
and worked for improvements in educational standards. The Philippine Medical Association (PMA) actively
worked to improve standards of medical education by limiting enrollment in medical colleges and adding
courses required for the medical degree. Academic members of the profession have led in questioning the
relevance of Western-oriented medical curriculum to Philippine conditions. This has resulted in recent
innovations in medical training such as more exposure of students to community medicine and the experimental
curriculum to produce doctors for rural areas. In the field of engineering, the Philippine Institute of Chemical
Engineers initiated a series of conference to discuss curriculum revisions for its profession. Results of these
conferences were then endorsed to the Department of Education and Culture (DEC) for official adoption. In other
branches of engineering, the government through DEC convened meetings of educators, members of
professional examining boards, representatives of professional organizations and the private sector to update
and adopt uniform core curricula for all universities and colleges to follow. These developments took place in
1973-1974.
On the whole, there has been little innovation in the education and training of scientists and engineers since
independence in 1946. This is in part due to the conservative nature of self-regulation by the professional
associations. Because of specialized training, vertical organization by disciplines and lack of liaison between
professions, professional associations have been unable to perceive the dynamic relationship between science,
technology and society and the relevance of their training to Philippine conditions.

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Paralleling the increasing number of state colleges and universities has been a rise in government science
agencies since 1946. In 1947, the Bureau of Science was reorganized into an Institute of Science.(95) In the same
year, an Instituter of Nutrition, and in 1952, the Science Foundation of the Philippines (SFP) were created and
placed (along with the Institute of Science) under the Office of the President.(96) The Institute of Nutrition was to
perform research, advisory and extension functions while the Science Foundation was to stimulate research in
the sciences and engineering and promote science consciousness among the people. In 1952, the Commission
on Volcanology was also created and placed under the National Research Council of the Philippines (NRCP). Its
function was primarily basic research on volcanology.
Scientific work in government suffered from a lack of support, planning and coordination during the early
postwar years. The U.S. Economic Survey Mission to the Philippines in 1950, noted in its Report the dearth of
basic information needed by industries of the country, the neglect of experimental work and the meager
appropriation in the national budget for scientific research, including the low salaries of government scientists.
The Bell Mission recommended, among other things, the systematic exploration of the country's natural
resources to determine their potentialities for economic development.
Following the Bell Mission's Report, the Institute of Science was reorganized in 1951. Renamed Institute of
Science and Technology, it acquired the status of a government-owned corporation and was placed under the
office of Economic Coordination. Added to its former functions of resources survey, testing and standardization,
were the responsibility for improving industrial processes and stimulating technological development.
In 1957, a report was submitted to the President pointing out the deterioration of Philippine science since the
early years of the American regime. The report analyzed the causes of this decline -- the lack of government
support; dearth of scientists of high training and ability; low morale of scientists and a lack of public awareness
of Science. It made several recommendations towards a long-range development of science in the country.
Consequently, Congress enacted the Science Act of 1958.
The Science Act created the National Science Development Board (NSDB) to formulate policies for the
development of science and coordinate the work of science agencies. The Act also created the Philippine Atomic
Energy Commission (PAEC) and the National Institute of Science and Technology (NIST) and placed these, along
with the are actually the former organic and attached agencies of NSDB which have themselves been
reorganized. NRCP, under the NSDB.
In the 1960s additional science agencies were created by law which thereby expanded NSDB's organization and
functions. These were the Philippine Inventors Commission (1964), Philippine Coconut Research Institute (1964),
Philippine Textile Research Institute (1967), and Forest Products Research and Industries Development
Commission (1969).(102) Several existing agencies were also attached to NSDB for policy coordination -- the
NRCP, Metals Industry Research and Development Center (MIRDC), the SFP, Philippine Science High School
(PSHS) and Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research (PCARR).
The creation of these science agencies undoubtedly shows increasing government concern and support for the
development of Philippine science and technology. In 1974, a national science
In 1982, NSDB was further reorganized into a National Science and Technology Authority (NSTA) composed of
four research and Development Councils; Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research and
Development; Philippine Council for Industry and Energy Research Development; Philippine Council for Health
Research and Development and the NRCP. NSTA has also eight research and development institutes and
support agencies under it. These
The expanding number of science agencies has given rise to a demand for high calibre scientists and engineers
to undertake research and staff universities and colleges. Hence, measures have also been taken towards the
improvement of the country’s science and manpower. In March 1983, Executive Order No. 889 was issued by the
President which provided for the establishment of a national network of centers of excellence in basic sciences.
As a consequence, six new institutes were created: The National Institutes of Physics, Geological Sciences,
Natural Sciences Research, Chemistry, Biology and Mathematical Sciences. Related to this efforts was the
establishment of a Scientific Career System in the Civil Service by Presidential Decree No. 901 on 19 July 1983.

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This is designed to attract more qualified scientists to work in government and encourage young people to
pursue science degrees and careers.

Summary and Conclusion

This paper has shown that the development of science and technology in the Philippines has been greatly
influenced by its historical experience as a colony of Spain and the United States. Colonial policies, particularly
those on economic development and external trade, have over the centuries fostered a primarily agricultural,
export-oriented economy dependent on the outside world as market for its products and a source of
manufactured goods. This has led to a neglect and lack of support for industrialization.
This problem of colonial development has effected the historical development of Philippine science and
technology. The agricultural science generally tended to receive more funding and support compared to the
physical sciences. This pattern of support persisted despite the introduction of the other sciences into the
country's educational system during the American regime.
The continuing dependence of the Philippine economy on the United States even after independence in 1946, as
a result of the free trade relations and the virtual imposition of the "parity" amendment to the Philippine
Constitution by the US Congress has perpetuated the predominantly agricultural and rural character of
Philippine economy and society. This dependent development of Philippine society and economy has had
serious repercussions for the advancement of Philippine science and technology. Increasing social demand for
higher education has led to the growth of highly-trained professional manpower, particularly scientists,
engineers and physicians. However, because of the underdeveloped state of the economy, many of these
science-based professionals have either been unemployed or underemployed. Consequently, many of them have
been forced to migrate to developed countries, thus creating a "brain drain" or loss of valuable human resources
for the Philippines. (108) Worse still, this "brain drain" helps to perpetuate Philippine dependent development as
many of those who leave are highly educated and better trained professionals who are needed in the country's
development efforts. There is thus a need for the government to critically reexamine the interrelations between
past and present education and science policies with those of its economic development policies in order to be
able to redirect these towards the goal of attaining a strong, self-reliant economy and society. A well-developed
national science and technology is a critical factor in the achievement of this goal.

Author | ELDEN GRENCIO ORGELA Contributor | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA 17

SORSOGON STATE COLLEGE | GE 7 - SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY MODULE 3

THINK ABOUT THESE QUESTIONS

1. What are the significant contributions of the Spaniards and Americans to the development of
science and technology in the Philippines?

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2. What can you say about the state of science and technology during the Spanish and American
period?

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3. How does school science shape science and technology in the country?

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Author | ELDEN GRENCIO ORGELA Contributor | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA 18

 GOVERNMENT POLICIES ON
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The Philippine government introduced and implemented several programs,

SCIENCE is the study of the nature projects, and policies to boost the area of science and technology. The goal is
and behavior of natural things and to prepare the whole country and its people to meet the demands of a
the knowledge that we obtain about technologically driven world and capacitate the people to live in the world
them. It is a system of acquiring driven by science.
knowledge based on the scientific Padilla-Concepcion (2015) reported that in 2015, in response to the ASEAN
method. It is also an organized body 2015 Agenda, the government, particularly the Department of Science and
of knowledge gained through Technology (DOST), has sought the expertise of the National Research Council
research. It is done through of the Philippines to consult various sectors in the society to study how the
observation of natural phenomena, Philippines can prepare itself in meeting the ASEAN 2015 Goals. As a result of
and/or through experimentation that the consultation, the NCRP is expected to recommend policies and programs
tries to simulate natural processes that will improve the competitiveness of the Philippines in the ASEAN Region.
under controlled conditions.
The NCRP clustered these policies into four, namely:
It is from the Latin word ‘scientia’, 1. Social Sciences, Humanities, Education,
meaning "knowledge“. It is a International Policies, and Governance
systematic enterprise that builds and  Integrating ASEAN awareness in basic education without adding to
organizes knowledge in the form of the curriculum
testable explanations and predictions  Emphasizing teaching in the mother tongue
about nature and the universe.  Developing school infrastructure and providing for ICT broadband
 Local food security
It is also the human attempt to
understand the natural world, with 2. Physics, Engineering and Industrial Research,
or without concern for practical uses Earth and Space Sciences, and Mathematics
of that knowledge. The natural world  Emphasizing degrees, licenses, and employment opportunities
includes volcanoes, gravity, atoms,  Outrights grants for RA 9184
plants and animals, people, societies  Harnessing science and technology as an independent mover of
and galaxies. development
3. Medical, Chemical, and Pharmaceutical Sciences
Science tries to discover facts and  Ensuring compliance of drug-manufacturing firms with ASEAN-
relationships and then tries to create harmonized standards by full implementation of the Food and Drug
theories that makes sense of these Administration
facts and relationships.  Creating and education council dedicated to standardization of
pharmaceutical services and care
TECHNOLOGY came from two (2)  Empowering food and drug agencies to conduct evidence-based
Greek words: “techne” (skill, research as pool of information
craftsmanship, art) and “logos”  Allocating two percent of the GDP to research
(discourse, reason). It is the skills,  Legislating a law supporting human genome projects
methods and processes used to
achieve goals. It refers to tools and 4. Biological Sciences, Agriculture, and Forestry
machines that may be used to solve  Protecting and conserving biodiversity by full implementation of
real-world problems. It is the human existing law
attempt to change the world. It is a  Use of biosafety and standard model by ASEAN countries
human activity involved with making  Promoting indigenous knowledge systems and indigenous people’s
and using of material artifacts. conservation
 Formulation of common food and safety standards
Technology involves tools,
There are also other existing programs supported by the Philippine
techniques and procedures for
government through DOST.
putting the findings of science to
practical use. 1. Providing funds for basic research and patents related to S&T. The
government funds basic and applied researches. Funding of these
research and projects are also from the Overseas Development Aid (ODA)
from different countries.

Author | ELDEN GRENCIO ORGELA Contributor | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA 19

SORSOGON STATE COLLEGE | GE 7 - SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY MODULE 3

2. Providing scholarships for undergraduate and graduate studies of

students in the field of S&T. Saloma (2015) pointed out that the country
needs to produce more doctoral graduates in the field of S&T, and
produce more research in these fields, including engineering
3. Establishing more branches of the Philippine Science High School System
SCIENCE is the study of the nature for training young Filipinos in the field of S&T.
and behavior of natural things and 4. Creating S&T parks to encourage academe and industry partnerships.
the knowledge that we obtain about 5. Balik Scientist Program to encourage Filipino scientists abroad to come
them. It is a system of acquiring home and work in the Philippines or conduct research and projects in
knowledge based on the scientific collaboration with Philippine-based scientists.
method. It is also an organized body
of knowledge gained through In the field of education, several science-related programs and projects were
research. It is done through created to develop the scientific literacy of the country. Special science classes
observation of natural phenomena, were organized and special science elementary schools were established in
and/or through experimentation that different regions. Aside from these, science, and mathematics in basic education
tries to simulate natural processes were continuously improved.
under controlled conditions.
The current K to 12 education program included Science, Technology,
It is from the Latin word ‘scientia’, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) as one of its major tracks in the senior
meaning "knowledge“. It is a high school program to encourage more students to enroll in science-related
systematic enterprise that builds and fields in college. The commission on Higher Education launched its Philippine-
organizes knowledge in the form of California Advanced Research Institutes (PICARI) project to allow several higher
testable explanations and predictions education institutions in the Philippines and some US-based laboratories,
about nature and the universe. research institutes, and universities to work on research and projects related to
science, agriculture, engineering, health and technology.
It is also the human attempt to Other areas and fields that the country is looking forward to embark various
understand the natural world, with research projects.
or without concern for practical uses
of that knowledge. The natural world  Use of alternative and safe energy
includes volcanoes, gravity, atoms,  Harnessing mineral resources
plants and animals, people, societies  Finding cure for various diseases and illness
and galaxies.  Increasing food production
 Preservation of natural resources
Science tries to discover facts and  Coping with natural disaster and calamities
relationships and then tries to create  Infrastructure development
theories that makes sense of these
facts and relationships.

TECHNOLOGY came from two (2)

Greek words: “techne” (skill,
craftsmanship, art) and “logos”
(discourse, reason). It is the skills,
methods and processes used to
achieve goals. It refers to tools and
machines that may be used to solve
real-world problems. It is the human
attempt to change the world. It is a Figure 1. Development of Science and
Technology Policies in the Philippines
human activity involved with making
and using of material artifacts.
As shown in the diagram, the development of policies in science and
Technology involves tools, technology is shaped or influenced by several variables: policies need to be
techniques and procedures for aligned to national goals, consider international commitments based on legal
putting the findings of science to frameworks, and respond to various social needs, issues and problems. Science
practical use. and technology policies ensure that the whole country and all people will
experience the progress that science can bring. Policies are guides to direct all
efforts to a goal of developing a scientifically advanced country.

Author | ELDEN GRENCIO ORGELA Contributor | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA 20

 FAMOUS FILIPINOS IN
THE FIELD OF SCIENCE

Beyond the policy level, it is also the work of committed individuals—the

SCIENCE is the study of the nature thinkers, doers and problem-solvers—that make all the difference in the world.
and behavior of natural things and Here, we profile eight Filipino scientists who are, in their own capacity, leading
the knowledge that we obtain about the way.
them. It is a system of acquiring
knowledge based on the scientific 1. ANGEL ALCALA
method. It is also an organized body He was named a National Scientist of the Philippines in 2014 for his
of knowledge gained through research into Philippine amphibians and reptiles, as well as the
research. It is done through conservation of marine-protected areas.
observation of natural phenomena,
2. RAMON CABANOS BARBA
and/or through experimentation that
He was named a National Scientist of the Philippines in 2014 for inventing
tries to simulate natural processes
a way to induce flowering in mango trees regardless of season, boosting
under controlled conditions.
the local mango industry.
It is from the Latin word ‘scientia’, 3. CRUZ-CAPELLAN
meaning "knowledge“. It is a The CEO of Philippine renewable energy provider SunAsia Energy Inc. and
systematic enterprise that builds and founder of the Philippine Solar Power Alliance, hopes to grow the solar
organizes knowledge in the form of power industry in the Philippines. She first became acquainted with solar
testable explanations and predictions power as the country director of a rural electrification project funded by
about nature and the universe. the USAID.
It is also the human attempt to 4. EDGARDO GOMEZ
understand the natural world, with Led the world’s first national-scale assessment of damage to coral reefs,
or without concern for practical uses work which led to him being conferred the title of National Scientist of
of that knowledge. The natural world the Philippines in 2014.
includes volcanoes, gravity, atoms,
plants and animals, people, societies 5. ALFREDO M. LAGMAY,
and galaxies. A professor at the National Institute of Geological Sciences, University of
the Philippines Diliman, received the 2015 Plinius Medal from the
Science tries to discover facts and European Geosciences Union for his research into natural hazards and
relationships and then tries to create disasters in the Philippines, in particular volcanic hazards, earthquakes,
theories that makes sense of these typhoons, landslides and floods. He is also executive director of the
facts and relationships. Department of Science and Technology Nationwide Operational
Assessment of Hazards (NOAH), a flagship program for disaster risk
TECHNOLOGY came from two (2) reduction and management in the Philippines.
Greek words: “techne” (skill,
craftsmanship, art) and “logos” 6. AISA MIJENO
(discourse, reason). It is the skills, A professor of engineering at De La Salle University—Lipa in the
methods and processes used to Philippines. Together with her brother Ralph, she co-founded Sustainable
achieve goals. It refers to tools and Alternative Lighting (SALt), a social enterprise that is developing an LED
machines that may be used to solve lamp that runs on just table salt and water.
real-world problems. It is the human
7. REINA REYES
attempt to change the world. It is a
Has been called “The Filipina who proved Einstein right” after her work
human activity involved with making
confirming Albert Einstein’s Theory of Relativity on a cosmic scale in 2010
and using of material artifacts.
during her Ph.D. studies in the United States. Reyes currently works as an
independent data scientist consulting for private companies.
Technology involves tools,
techniques and procedures for 8. GAVINO C. TRONO JR.
putting the findings of science to Was conferred the honor of National Scientist of the Philippines in 2014
practical use. for his research into tropical marine phycology with a focus on seaweed
biodiversity.

Author | ELDEN GRENCIO ORGELA Contributor | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA 21

 SELECTED INDIGENOUS
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGIES

INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS AND PRACTICES (IKSPs)

IN THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE
Xylene Grail Donato-Kinomis

ABSTRACT

Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Practices (IKSPs) are local knowledge developed over centuries of
experimentation and are passed orally from generations to generation. It was found to be an important catalyst
to sustainable development due to their direct connection to resource management and conservation. However,
these knowledge, systems and practices are at escalating rate of deterioration due to consistent assimilation that
resulted from the continuing loss of interest of these practices from young people. Thus, empirical evidence to
showcase importance to environmental protection and cultural preservation are encouraged. Likewise, studies
connecting these indigenous knowledge and practices to academic curriculum are highly regarded to be
influential in their preservation. Moreover, this paper seeks to find out the relevance of indigenous knowledge
systems and practices in the teaching of science among secondary public science teachers in Baguio City.
This study aimed to investigate the Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Practices (IKSPs) used in the teaching of
science among secondary public science teachers in Baguio City and to determine their extent of effectiveness in
achieving the objectives of the subjects and the problems that they encounter from using it.

Introduction

Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Practices (IKSPs) are local knowledge developed over centuries of
experimentation by our ancestors and are passed orally from generation to generation. It was proven to be a
perfect scaffold to sustainable development connecting the past, the present and the future. However, these
knowledge, systems and practices are at escalating rate of deterioration due to consistent assimilation that
resulted from the continuing loss of interest of these practices from young people. Thus, empirical evidence to
showcase importance to environmental protection and cultural preservation are encouraged. Likewise, studies
connecting these indigenous knowledge and practices to academic curriculum are highly regarded to be
influential in their preservation. According to Baguilat (2009), IKSPs cover a broader scope that included all
traditional skills, laws, philosophy, rituals, livelihood, sciences and technologies of the community.
IKSPs were incorporated in several public secondary subjects, e.g. Music Arts and Physical Education (MAPEH),
Filipino, Science and Araling Panlipunan. For Science, it has always been connected to history and to philosophy
with several observations, theories and facts developed. Several educators and most students had proven that
teaching and learning science should be made with a touch of technology as part of the Science and Technology
(S&T) development. However, indigenous knowledge should not be disregarded with the context of these
subjects, because without it, advancement in S&T would not be possible.
The Cordillera Administrative Region has always been known for having a rich or vast coverage of IKSPs. It is
composed of the six provinces of Apayao, Kalinga, Abra, Mountain Province, Ifugao, and Benguet, plus the
chartered city of Baguio. Collectively, the people are popularly known as Igorot, which are grouped into a
number of ethnic or ethno-linguistic identities, such as Apayao or Isneg, Tinggian, Kalinga, Bontoc, Kankanaey,
Ibaloy, Ifugao, and Bago.
With this background, this paper seeked to identify the relevance of indigenous knowledge systems and
practices in the teaching of science among secondary public science teachers in Baguio City where teachers
experience multicultural students.

Author | ELDEN GRENCIO ORGELA Contributor | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA 22

SORSOGON STATE COLLEGE | GE 7 - SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY MODULE 3

This study determined the Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Practices (IKSPs) used by teachers and the extent
of effectiveness in the teaching of Integrated Science, Integrated Biology, Chemistry, Physics; and the problems
encountered by teachers in the teaching of Science while integrating IKSPs.
This study adopted the descriptive survey method of research in determining the IKSPs used and the extent of
effectiveness as well as the problems encountered by teachers while incorporating it in the teaching of science
subjects. Seventy-one (71) science teachers were respondents in the study. These respondents were asked to
identify which among the list of IKSPs identified from the questionnaire are incorporated during science
discussions. Mean was used to represent the extent of effectiveness of these IKSPs in teaching science subjects,
while frequency and percentage were used to present the dominant IKSPs used as well the problems
encountered in incorporating these IKSPs in teaching science subjects. One way analysis of variance was used to
determine the statistical difference of the effectiveness of the IKSPs in teaching the subjects. The Scheffe’s test
was used to further investigate the difference between the subjects. Data were analyzed using the Statistical
Package for Social Studies for accuracy and precision of results. Statistical values were testes at 0.05 level of
significance.

Findings

The top three ranked IKSPs used by teachers in Integrated Science are traditional ways of measuring; the use of
herbal, botanical plants and insects as medicine; knowing and preparing native wines / beverages as well as
indigenous health practices. On the other hand, Integrated Biology teachers made use of IKSPs that concerns the
naming and characterization of trees, shrubs and other plants found on land even the use of herbal, botanical
plants and insects as medicine as well as maternal and childcare; making of indigenous or native recipes and
knowing and preparing native wines or beverages; and naming and characterization of birds and other animals
found on air and in land. In Chemistry, the top three ranked IKSPs used are knowing and preparing native wines
or beverages; traditional measuring and making of indigenous or native recipes as well as uses of herbal,
botanical plants and insects for medicine. Lastly, in Physics, the top three ranked IKSPs used by teachers are
traditional ways of measuring, musical instruments from natural resources, and indigenous people practices on
their communal forests.
The IKSPs identified were found to be effective in teaching the different Science subjects. However, post hoc test
shows that IKSPs are more effective and applicable in the teaching of Integrated Biology and Integrated Science
than that of Chemistry and Physics. This is supported by Orno (1996) where he stated that biological and
physical systems are the core considerations of IKSPs.
The top three problems encountered by teachers teaching Integrated Science are first, the limited sources of
IKSPs from books, internet and other sources in the library; second, the lack of sufficient evidences, visual aids
and other resources during discussions; and third is tied up with the students not having interest most especially
those who cannot relate to the ideas of the IKSPs with that of the concepts of science and current policies on
science are situated in Western cultural definitions, thus marginalizing indigenous knowledge which is
misconceived as irrational and illogical.
On the other hand, the top three problems encountered by teachers teaching Integrated Biology are first, the
limited sources of IKSPs from books, internet and other sources in the library; second, students not having
interest most especially those who cannot relate to the ideas of the IKSPs with that of the concepts of science;
and third, is tied up with teachers giving inappropriate knowledge on facts about IKSPs and the lack of sufficient
evidences, visual aids and other resources during discussions.
Chemistry teachers however considered the lack of sufficient evidences, visual aids and other resources during
discussions as their ranked one problem followed by students not having interest most especially those who
cannot relate to the ideas of the IKSPs with that of the concepts of science; and lastly, teacher difficulty in
motivating students to understand the IKSPs being mentioned during lectures.
Lastly, Physics teachers think that the lack of sufficient evidence, visual aids and other resources during the
discussion is one of the problems they have encountered together with teachers relaying inappropriate

Author | ELDEN GRENCIO ORGELA Contributor | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA 23

SORSOGON STATE COLLEGE | GE 7 - SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY MODULE 3

knowledge on facts about IKSPs and limited sources of IKSPs from books, internet and other sources in the
library.
Overall, the top two ranked identified problems in incorporating IKSPs in science subjects are limited books,
internet and other possible sources of IKSPs as well as the lack of sufficient evidences, visual aids and other
resources during discussions.

Conclusions

Based from the findings, it is concluded that secondary science teachers use several concepts on Indigenous
Knowledge Systems and Practices (IKSPs) to elaborate, explain and help connect the students understanding on
science to the local and traditional knowledge that is present in their surroundings. Moreover, comprehension
on the similarities and connections of indigenous knowledge to modern science is determined by both parties to
further explain the concepts discussed in the classroom.
Furthermore, the IKSPs identified differ in its effectiveness when incorporated in the teaching of different science
subjects. Several IKSPs were found to be appropriate and highly effective as well as effective in specific subjects
and moderately effective on other subjects. This then states that not all IKSPs can be used in one, two or all of
the science subject topics as examples.
Lastly, the problems encountered by teachers rooted specifically from the system. Teachers only hold on to what
the authority places on the table, impeding the willingness to grow and preserve their indigenous knowledge.
With this, it is passed on to the younger generation producing students who are at the same time becoming
gatekeepers.

Recommendations

It is therefore recommended that teachers should continue and add more Indigenous Knowledge Systems and
Practices (IKSPs) during science discussions making sure that the concepts of the IKSPs being used to relate to
the topic are appropriate while taking into consideration the different methods, strategies and learning
competencies. Explaining the relevance of the IKSPs examples to the students will further boost their interest to
the subject and to indigenous knowledge.
Public secondary science teachers should have a solid understanding of IKSP, being able to explain, expound and
deliver it effectively to the students. Requiring further readings, and personal experiences for teachers to
undertake.
Educators should be more resourceful and responsible in a way that they have to make use of several
interventions like interviewing Indigenous People (IP) they know who can share ideas on IKSPs or government
units that are applicable, for example, National Government Units such as National Commission for Indigenous
Peoples (NCIP).

Other Recommendations

a. Teachers should take into consideration the interest of their students in learning. They need to expose
students in several areas to better explain to them the relationship of science topics discussed with that of
the IKSP. These may include the use of pictures and motion pictures, and/or documentary experiences,
lectures with activities, dra wings, etc. This intervention can eliminate gatekeepers and promote better
comprehension.
b. Schools and teachers should collect resources or make their own researches on the IKSP that has been
observed on the olden days to present from their provinces or community which can be used during
classroom discussions.

Author | ELDEN GRENCIO ORGELA Contributor | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA 24

SORSOGON STATE COLLEGE | GE 7 - SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY MODULE 3

c. Education sector can have IKSPs as mandated area of the subjects by including it in the curriculum; making
it a part of the syllabus. This will help preserve the systems and practices that are still present as well as for
sustainable development.
d. Seminars, trainings, symposiums and other gatherings that can add to and improve the knowledge of
students and teachers regarding IKSP can also be taken into consideration for schools to apply.
e. School contests and the like regarding IKSP during science fairs for teachers and students to interact with
each other, not just to improve their knowledge on IKSP and its relationship to science.
f. Development of a manual inclusive of indigenization of materials or products for all science subjects
covered under K to 12, specifically from Grades 7 to 11;
g. With the help of project proposals, manuals and other programs initiated by educators and students, make
use of a Pilot study to identify the success and problems that are encountered from the absence and the
use of IKSP to further develop improvement;
h. In depth comparative research on the problems encountered by teachers as well as students.
i. DepEd supervisors as well as its research department can come up with a project study that will involve all
principals together with their teachers and students. These can either be practiced in school, division,
regional as well as national level. Making projects by school and having competitions where students can
also be involved. Promoting service learning, where students from indigenous places would share and
interact with students from the cities and municipalities which are away from indigenous practices.

Author | ELDEN GRENCIO ORGELA Contributor | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA 25

SORSOGON STATE COLLEGE | GE 7 - SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY MODULE 3

THINK ABOUT THESE QUESTIONS

1. What is your understanding of indigenous knowledge?

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2. Give at least 5 examples of indigenous science practiced in your barangay.

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3. From your point of view, why do some people believe in indigenous science?
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3. What is the role of indigenous science in the development of science and technology?
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Author | ELDEN GRENCIO ORGELA Contributor | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA 26

SORSOGON STATE COLLEGE | GE 7 - SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY MODULE 3

1. Draft S&T development program based on the perceived needs of your local community by identifying
specific technology (or R&D) and why such is needed in your locality for its economic development and
for improving quality of life.

2. Compile at least five biographies of Filipino scientists based on your S&T interest.

3. Make a video blog or Vlog about indigenous knowledge and practices in your local community
emphasizing S&T integration and scientific connection.

Author | ELDEN GRENCIO ORGELA Contributor | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA 27

SORSOGON STATE COLLEGE | GE 7 - SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY MODULE 3

SCORING RUBRIC FOR ESSAY WRITING

Needs
Excellent Very Good Average Unacceptable
CRITERIA Improvement
(5) (4) (3) (1)
(2)

As yet, the
idea has no
The idea is The writer is clear sense of
clear and beginning to purpose or
The idea is Topic is not
focused. define the central theme.
mostly focused, well-defined
Relevant topic, even The reader
Ideas and has some and/or there
details and though must make
good details are too many
quotes enrich development is inferences
and quotes. topics.
the central still basic or based on
theme. general. sketchy or
missing
details.

Sentences are
The reader
well built, with
The writing The text hums has to practice
strong and The text seems
mostly flows, along with a quite a bit in
Sentence varied choppy and is
and usually steady beat, order to give
Fluency structure that not easy to
invites oral but tends to be this paper a fair
invites read orally.
reading. flowery. interpretive
expressive
reading.
oral reading.

The form and The reader

presentation receives a
The format
of the text The writer's garbled
only has a few
enhances the The writer's message is only message due
mistakes and is
ability for the message is understandable to problems
Presentation generally easy
reader to understandable occasionally, relating to the
to read and
understand in this format. and paper is presentation
pleasing to the
and connect messily written. of the text,
eye.
with the and is not
message. typed.

Author | ELDEN GRENCIO ORGELA Contributor | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA 28

SORSOGON STATE COLLEGE | GE 7 - SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY MODULE 3

PRETEST

Matching Type:
1. C
2. A
3. B
4. D

Multiple Choice:
1. STMP Goal
2. Philippine Textile Research Institute
3. World War II
4. Novaliches and Rizal

Caoli, Olivia. “A History of Science and Technology of the Philippines,” in nalysis of Conditions for National
Scientific and Technological Self-Reliance: The Philippine Situation, Quezon City: University of the Philippines,
1986.

Kinomis, X.G.D., 2016. INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS AND PRACTICES (IKSPs) IN THE TEACHING OF
SCIENCE. Human Resource Development Section, Department of Education – Baguio City

https://prezi.com/uofzaimiiqic/science-education-in-the- philippine-society/

https://www.asianscientist.com/2016/05/features/8-scientists-philippines-research-and-development-stem/

Sefarica, J.P.J., et. al. 2017. Science, Technology, and Society. First Edition. Rex Book Store, Inc. (RBSI), 856 Nicanor
Reyes Sr., Sampaloc, Manila/Tel.

Author | ELDEN GRENCIO ORGELA Contributor | ERWIN CAPSA ESTREMERA 29