Connection Science

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HDIEA: high dimensional color image encryption

architecture using five-dimensional Gauss-logistic
and Lorenz system

Bharti Ahuja, Rajesh Doriya, Sharad Salunke, Mohammad Farukh Hashmi,

Aditya Gupta & Neeraj Dhanraj Bokde

To cite this article: Bharti Ahuja, Rajesh Doriya, Sharad Salunke, Mohammad Farukh Hashmi,
Aditya Gupta & Neeraj Dhanraj Bokde (2023): HDIEA: high dimensional color image encryption
architecture using five-dimensional Gauss-logistic and Lorenz system, Connection Science,
DOI: 10.1080/09540091.2023.2175792

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/09540091.2023.2175792

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CONNECTION SCIENCE
https://doi.org/10.1080/09540091.2023.2175792

RESEARCH ARTICLE

HDIEA: high dimensional color image encryption architecture

using five-dimensional Gauss-logistic and Lorenz system
Bharti Ahuja a , Rajesh Doriyaa , Sharad Salunke b , Mohammad Farukh Hashmic ,
Aditya Gupta d and Neeraj Dhanraj Bokdee

a Department of Information Technology, National Institute of Technology Raipur, Raipur, India; b Department
of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Amity University Madhya Pradesh, Gwalior, India;
c Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, NIT Warangal, Warangal, India; d Department of
Information and Technology, University of Agder, Kristiansand, Norway; e Center for Quantitative Genetics
and Genomics, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The work presented here is a high dimensional color image encryp- Received 21 October 2022
tion architecture (HDIEA) founded on the Lorenz-Gauss-Logistic Accepted 28 January 2023
(LGL) encryption algorithm. The primary objective is to demonstrate KEYWORDS
that both the proposed novel five-dimensional (5D) Gauss-Logistic Image encryption; Gauss
and four-dimensional (4D) Lorenz system are operating in a hyper- map; logistic map; Lorenz
chaotic condition. The visual study of their most important charac- system; hyperchaotic map;
teristics, such as the sensitivity of the starting value of both maps Lyapunov exponent
and the Lyapunov exponent of the 5D Gauss Logistic map, is car-
ried out. The Runge–Kutta technique is used to discretise the Lorenz
system in order to construct a pseudo-random sequence generation
for the control parameter that has a greater degree of randomness.
The 5D Gauss-Logistic system is then selected to serve as the princi-
pal hyper-chaotic mapping scheme. The simulation results demon-
strate that the suggested image encryption method is successful
according to the NIST test and has powerful anti-attack, a larger key
space as large as 2847 , which is prone to multiple attacks, and key
sensitivity capabilities. Also, the pixel correlation reached −0.0019,
−0.0016, and −0.0069, while the information entropy was at 7.9996.
This demonstrates the excellent scrambling effect of the proposed
approach, which is capable of greatly improving the color image
security performance.

1. Introduction
More than one trillion photographs were taken in the year 2020. This is despite the fact
that the COVID-19 virus disrupted important formal and informal occasions. As of 2022,
the number of users of Instagram, a social network that focuses on the sharing of images,
has surpassed 2 billion. Banking, academia, health research, aviation, the defense and even
politics are just some of the numerous fields that are making ex use of digital images. When
we want to communicate visual information with one another, we may quickly transfer it

CONTACT Aditya Gupta [email protected] Department of Information and Technology, University of

Agder, 4604 Kristiansand, Norway
© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly
cited.
2 B. AHUJA ET AL.

over the internet using either a computer or mobile device. However, unauthorised indi-
viduals may readily get the images as well, which poses a significant risk to the information
exchange of images (Lin & Li, 2021). Unauthorised cryptanalysis also poses a risk to the
security of the images themselves. More crucially, certain images may contain issues per-
taining to national defense and violates individual’s right to privacy. For example, satellite
surveillance and bio-metric identification both fall within this category. As a result of this,
the subject of how to effectively secure the digital images during transmission has drawn a
significant amount of interest from academics and industry professionals all over the world
(Ferdush et al., 2021).
Image encryption utilises a far bigger quantity of data and a significantly higher level of
redundancy when compared to the conventional approach of encrypting text. The starting
circumstances in terms of constant numbers and distinct parameters of the chaotic system
have a major impact on the system’s sensitivity as well as its dependency on those val-
ues. As a result, numerous different chaos based approaches for image security have been
developed, one after the other (Wang et al., 2022), in an effort to make the internet a more
secure place. Image encryption based on chaos has gained popularity in past few years
due to its many advantages in cryptography, including ergodicity, unpredictable nature,
pseudo-randomness, and highly sensitive to variables and initial condition.
Fridrich was the first person to suggest applying a scrambling-diffusion structure based
on the concept of chaos (Fridrich, 1998). Except chaos, there are also other approaches,
such as those that are based on block scrambling, bit-level scrambling, the DNA rule, matrix
manipulation, and tensor theory (Hosny et al., 2021; Shahna & Mohamed, 2021; Wang et al.,
2022; Wang & Gao, 2020). Shahna et al. (Shahna & Mohamed, 2021) suggested a method
using double scrambling for image, which used dual scrambling on bit level and pixel level
as well, to provide a greater level of security during the permutation process. Matrix semi-
tensor product technique was developed by Wang et al. (Wang & Gao, 2020) as a means of
diffusing a image in order to obtain an encrypted image.
Pixel-level approaches execute encryption and decryption on pixels at the permutation
stage, i.e. an image is viewed as a collection of pixels. Different permutation methods are
utilised by different authors in the earlier literatures. Sorting algorithms, cyclic shift, pixel
switching mechanisms, and parallel permutation are examples (Ahmad & Hwang, 2016; Fu
et al., 2017; Kaur & Singh, 2021; Song et al., 2020; Song et al., 2022a; Song et al., 2023; Wang
et al., 2019). However, the pixel value and histogram statistics stay unaltered throughout the
sorting method, cyclic shift, and pixel swapping procedures (Chen et al., 2021). But parallel
permutation helps in reducing encryption time.
Many people started looking at high-dimensional (HD) chaotic attractors after the inven-
tion of chaos theory. These HD chaotic attractors include systems like 4D chaotic attractor
subsystems (Liu et al., 2019b; Yan et al., 2023) and 5D chaotic attractor subsystems (Koyuncu
et al., 2019). Fractional-order chaotic systems (Liu et al., 2019a) and hidden attractors (Goufo
& Franc, 2019) have also been the subject of substantial research in recent years. Linear or
nonlinear state feedback controllers have the potential to construct a variety of various sorts
of 4D chaotic systems in typical 3D chaotic attractors. The computational complexity of the
4D hyperchaotic system is higher, and it possesses equal to or greater than two positive
Lyapunov exponents.
In most cases, image encryption techniques relying on chaos are able to build chaotic
ciphers, which are then utilised for the purpose of swapping the locations or values of the
 CONNECTION SCIENCE 3

pixels present in the source image. A 2D Arnold chaos was utilised to build a 3D Arnold
chaos, which was subsequently employed in image encryption (Khade & Narnaware, 2012).
The findings demonstrate that the strategy is both quick and risk-free. An image cryptosys-
tem was developed by Elghandour et al. (Elghandour et al., 2022) employing a 2D piecewise
chaotic map. Here in the beginning, the simple image gets jumbled up by employing the
logistic map (confusion) and piecewise chaotic map which can yield chaotic sequences.
Ping et al. came up with the idea of applying Henon chaos to the image encryption sys-
tem, and they demonstrated that the encryption approach could withstand a selective
plaintext attack (Ping et al., 2018). An another image encryption approach based on the
3D chaotic system was also presented by Haroun et al. (Haroun & Aaron Gulliver, 2015).
The image encryption methods described above make use of chaos theory. These meth-
ods rely on low-dimensional chaotic systems (LDCS) with at most one positive Lyapunov
exponent. These types of chaotic systems have a number of benefits, including an easy-to-
implement format; few control criteria, and a straightforward design. However, LDCS are
easy to exploit because of their lack of structure. If the encryption is modified such that it
uses high-dimensional chaotic systems (HDCS) rather than LDCS, then the encryption will
be more successful in terms of security.
The 4D chaotic cryptosystem was suggested by Wang et al. (2022), and its purpose is
to construct four chaos patterns using DNA approach. A new encryption method was also
presented by Lin et al. (Lin & Li, 2021), and it was founded on the Lorenz map and RSA
algorithm. Here, the RSA technique is utilised to construct the starting values of the Lorenz
system, and the key stream is formed in an iterative manner. Then the data are masked
through the use of additive mode diffusion so that the position of the pixel as well as its
grey value may be altered. After that, the procedure for finite field diffusion is carried out
to accomplish the concealment of the image information. The said technique required to
be repeated twice to diffuse the pixel information throughout the complete cipher image
(Lin & Li, 2021). A scanning sequence approach for preserving color image relying on the
3D-Lorenzo chaotic map was presented by Jawad et al. (Jawad, 2021). Here the scan pat-
tern approach is utilised in order to generate three distinct masks, one of which is utilised
for each channel comprising the colored image. When ciphering the image, these masks
took into account the space of the shuffling pixels, which serve as input elements for the
3D-Lorenzo chaotic map.
Su et al. (Su & Wang, 2022) presented a proposal for a 4D autonomous dynamic system
and conducted an analysis of the dynamic features. Here the point of equilibrium and the
dissipation of the system is calculated first, and then proceed to the non-dynamic behaviour
of the system by using the bifurcation diagram. In the course of the investigation, it was
analysed that the presence of a wide parameter value range causes the system to remain
in a hyperchaotic condition.

1.1. Motivation
Security system or algorithms having small key space are prone to multiple attacks. Since
LDCS based methods offers small key space, this research proposed to build an image
encryption algorithm based on the HDCS i.e. HDIEA. Simultaneously, low-dimensional
chaos map architectures are considerably simpler, since there are fewer system con-
stituents. Using chaotic signal estimation techniques, system features and beginning values
4 B. AHUJA ET AL.

may also be predicted for LDCS. On the other hand, HDCS displays exceptional chaotic
behaviour as well as a complex architecture (Li et al., 2019).

1.2. Contribution
In light of the findings cited above, this article makes a suggestion about the integration
of two hyper chaotic maps for the purpose of image encryption. These maps are a novel
5D Gauss Logistic map and a 4D Lorenz system. The phrases that follow describe the most
important developments and contributions made by this work.

• With the addition of the Gauss Logistic approach, the structure becomes more compli-
cated, and the chaotic performance is significantly enhanced.
• The Lyapunov exponential spectrum is used in the analysis in order to assess the effi-
ciency of the 5D Gauss Logistic system. By doing sensitivity analysis on the starting value
of the chaotic system, the performance reveals that the system offers beneficial chaotic
features, ergodicity, and a broad hyperchaotic range.
• The correlation coefficients of the encrypted images are quite low; indicating extreme
key sensitivity towards variables and secure mechanism.
• The technique allows a significantly large key space up to 2847 , which is sufficiently
enough to resist a crypto attack. Furthermore, the suggested algorithm’s keyspace is
considerably superior to that of numerous literatures.
• For the purpose of demonstrating that the suggested method’s effectiveness, several
security and performance evaluations have been carried out including successful NIST’s
randomisation test.
• The outcomes clearly show that the LGL cryptosystem is significantly more effective and
secure than the various image cryptosystem that are currently in use, and this conclusion
was reached by comparing the relevant quality metrics of the encrypted image to the
evaluation indicators of the decrypted image.

The suggested approach HDIEA may find applications in a variety of industries, including
the protection of smart city surveillance data such as road traffic visual data, smart hospital
biological image data, in the interest of national security such as military or SAR data, bio-
metric data in personal identification, and for the variety of communication applications
available.
The following is the hierarchical organisation of the paper: Section 2 gives insights about
the 1D Gauss map, 1D logistic map and 4D Lorenz system. In Section 3, we have discussed
the suggested 5D Gauss Logistic system, as well as its Lyapunov exponent analysis, and pro-
posed encryption decryption method. Security analysis is examined in 4th section, followed
by conclusion in Section 5.

2. Preliminaries
Nonlinear dynamical systems can be subdivided further into a simpler category known
as chaotic systems. These systems may have very few interacting fragments, and those
fragments may follow relatively simple laws, but they all have a highly sensitive depen-
dency on the starting conditions. Despite their predictable simplicity, these systems are
 CONNECTION SCIENCE 5

capable of producing behaviour that is both completely unexpected and radically different
over time (chaotic). The chaotic map is type of transformation function that may be used
to visualise chaotic activity in either continuous or discrete time. It does this by plotting the
parameters against the time in either continuous or discrete form. This section examines
the theoretical foundations of the three utilised chaotic maps.

2.1. Logistic map

The logistic function is represented mathematically by a differential equation that considers
time to be a continuous variable. Instead of using a linear difference equation, the logistic
map looks at discrete time steps using a nonlinear difference equation. Because it can map
the value of the population at any given time step to the value of the population at the
subsequent time step, Logistic map is expressed as (Ahuja & Doriya, 2022).
yi+1 = a × yi × (1 − yi ) (1)
Equation (1) describes the principles that govern the system, which may also be referred to
as its dynamics: here, y stands for the population at any given time i and a stands for the
growth rate.

2.2. Gauss map

This map is a non-linear iterated function of realistic intervals that has real parameters b and
c and may be formally written as (Rahmawati & Liantoni, 2018):
yn+1 = exp(−b × yn × yn ) + c (2)
The width of the Gauss or Gaussian curve is connected to the parameter b, while the height
of the curve is related to the value c. Although the behaviour of the Gauss map is compa-
rable to that of the logistic map, the dynamics connected with the Gauss map are more
intricate due to the fact that it has two parameters. Although the majority of the attributes
of the logistic map are also found in the Gauss map. But the Logistic map does not display
some characteristics of the Gauss map, such as period un-doubling and bi-stability.

2.3. Lorenz map

A classic example of a chaotic structure is the Lorenz Hyperchaotic system (LHS), which is
characterised as follows:
⎫
dX
= a(Y − X) + W ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
dt ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
= X(c − Z) − Y ⎪
dY
⎪
⎬
dt
(3)
dZ ⎪
⎪
= XY − bZ ⎪
⎪
dt ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
dW ⎪
= −YZ + dW ⎭
dt
The variable a, b, c, and d act as the controlling parameters in Equation (3). Generally, Hyper-
chaotic behaviour will be exhibited by the system when −1.52 ≤ d ≥ 0.06. In an expanded
6 B. AHUJA ET AL.

form of the 3D differential equations, the Lorenz system can be represented by the 4D
differential chaotic equation (Bisht et al., 2020; Tang et al., 2022). Additionally discrete con-
tinuous chaotic systems like the Lorenz Hyperchaotic system often requires the use of the
Runge–Kutta technique. In the process of resolving nonlinear ordinary differential equa-
tions, this essential iterative approach is used. Equation (4) provides an illustration of the
Runge–Kutta technique for the fourth order that may be stated as follows:

h
Qi+1 = Qi + (K1 + 2K2 + 2K3 + K4 ) (4)
6

Here,

K1 = f (Pi , Qi )
 
h h
K2 = f Pi + , Qi + K1
2 2
 
h h
K3 = f Pi + , Qi + K2
2 2
K4 = f (Pi + h, Qi + hK3 )

where P, h, and Q are time, time interval and function value, respectively.

3. Proposed methodology
3.1. Gauss-Logistic map
The notion of the 5D Gauss Logistic System, which will be described further in this article,
has been built by us using the formulae that are presented further down in this para-
graph. In Equation (5), the Gauss map is represented by the first two equations, whereas
the Logistic map is described by the last three equations.
 2
⎫
xi+1 = e(−r xi ) + t + qyi 2 xi + pzi 3 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
yi+1 = e(−r yi ) + t + qzi 2 yi + pxi 3 ⎪
 2
⎬
zi+1 = rzi (1 − zi ) + qxi 2 zi + pyi 2 (5)
⎪
wi+1 = rwi (1 − wi ) + qsi 2 wi + pzi 2 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎭
si+1 = rsi (1 − si ) + qxi si + pwi
2 2

In Equation (5), r and r are control parameters and p, q, and t are constant.

3.2. Lyapunov exponent of Gauss-logistic map

The sensitive dependency on the beginning circumstances is one characteristic that
describes the quality of chaos. In chaotic systems a very little shift in the starting condi-
tion might result in significantly different results for the dynamic. A Lyapunov exponent
is a number that provides an estimate of the behaviour of a chaotic system and provides
information about how sensitive a system is. Therefore, it provides with added information
concerning the system’s butterfly effect (Su & Wang, 2022).
 CONNECTION SCIENCE 7

Figure 1. Lyapunov Exponent of proposed Gauss-logistic map. (With reference to Equation 5; The Gauss
map is represented by the first two equations with the colors green and red, whereas the Logistic map is
represented by the last three equations with the colors pink, black, and blue.)

Figure 1 provides a representation of the Lyapunov exponent for the Gauss Logistic map.
When 3.35 ≤ r or r ≤ 4.9, the system exhibits Hyperchaotic behavior, as shown in Lya-
punov Graph (see Figure 1). Figure 1 demonstrates that the maps are suitable for the task
of cryptography of data that is transferred over an unsecured network.

3.3. Sensitivity analysis of initial value of hyperchaotic system

When considering the Hyperchaotic system, it is important to keep in mind that the begin-
ning circumstances have a substantial impact on the chaotic performance. Figure 2 is
drawn when the 4D LHS uses the parameters X 0 = 1.1, Y 0 = 2.2, Z 0 = 3.3, and W 0 = 4.4
to perform the evaluation of the initial value’s sensitivity. On the other hand, Figure 3 is
drawn when the 5D Gauss-Logistic Hyperchaotic system uses the parameters x 0 = 0.3250,
y0 = 0.4250, z0 = 0.5250, w0 = 0.4350 and s0 = 0.5350.

3.4. Encryption algorithm

In order to implement a novel symmetric image encryption strategy, this algorithm makes
use of the 5D Gauss Logistic Map (refer Algorithm 1) in conjunction with Lorenz system
(refer Algorithm 2) as shown in Figure 4, it is discussed in more detail below;
Step 1: The color image that has dimensions of 3×M × N is broken down into three sub
images of PJ (J ε(R,G,B)), and each sub image has dimensions of M × N.
To perform the color image encryption operation the step 2 to step 7 will be used for
each channel (R, G, B) separately.
8 B. AHUJA ET AL.

Figure 2. Sensitivity analysis of 4D Lorenz hyperchaotic system.

Figure 3. Sensitivity analysis of 5D Gauss-logistic hyperchaotic system.

 CONNECTION SCIENCE 9

Figure 4. Proposed LGL encryption algorithm.

Step 2: By 4D Lorenz hyper chaotic system, substitute parameters X 0 , Y 0 , Z 0 , and W 0

into Equations (3) and (4) to generate pseudorandom sequence S (given by Equation 6)
and convert the generated values into the range of 0–255.

S = mod(floor((s + 100) × 1010 ), 10 × max(M, N)) + 1 (6)

Step 3: Record the plain image as P and perform the permutation operation with
sequence S and get first-level encrypted image I.
Step 4: By 5D Gauss Logistic system, substitute parameters x 0 , y0 , z0 , w0 and s0 into
Equation (5) to generate x, y, z, w, and s values and apply histogram equalisation using
Equation (7) described below;
⎫
x = ceil((x × A)mod M ⎪
⎪
y = ceil((y × B)mod M ⎪⎪
⎬
z = ceil((z × C)mod M (7)
⎪
w = ceil((w × D)mod M⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎭
s = ceil((s × E)mod M

Step 5: Select p, q, and r, random numbers. Further by using sequence generator

generates five sequences k, l, g, f and m with the help of x, y, z, w, and s.
Step 6: Record the image I, apply shuffling operation using k, l, g, and f sequences in row
and column, to obtain shuffled image.
Step 7: After that XOR the shuffle image with m sequence and get the final level
encrypted image V.
Step 8: After all three R, G and B encryption operation combine all the channels to get
the colored encrypted image VJ (J ∈ (R, G, B)).

3.5. Decryption algorithm

The image decryption procedure (refer Algorithm 3 and 4 for pseudocode) is explained
below, and Figure 5 depicts the image decryption process.
Step 1: The encrypted color image that has dimensions of 3×M × N is broken down into
three sub images of VJ (J ε(R,G,B)) and each sub image has dimensions of M × N.
10 B. AHUJA ET AL.

Figure 5. Proposed LGL decryption algorithm.

To perform the color image encryption operation the Step 2–7 will be used for each
channel (R,G,B)separately.
Step 2: By 5D Gauss Logistic system, substitute parameters x 0 , y0 , z0 , w0 and s0 into
Equations (5) to generate x, y, z, w, and s values and apply histogram equalisation using
Equation (7).
Step 3: Select p, q, and r, random numbers and using these numbers sequence generator
generates five sequences k, l, g, f and m with the help of x, y, z, w, and s.
Step 4: Read the image V, apply shuffling operation using k, l, g, and f sequences in row
and column, to obtain shuffled image.
Step 5: After that XOR the shuffle image with m sequence and get the first level
decrypted image F.
Step 6: By 4D Lorenz hyper chaotic system, substitute parameters X 0 , Y 0 , Z 0 , and W 0
into Equations (3) and (4) to generate pseudorandom sequence S (given by Equation (6))
and transform the produced numbers (0–255).
Step 7: Read the image F and implement the permutated sequence S and get final level
decrypted image H.
Step 8: After all three R, G, and B encryption operation combine the all channels to get
the colored decrypted image HJ (J ∈ (R, G, B)).

4. Analysis of simulation results

Throughout the course of this investigation, the High Dimensional Encryption method was
constructed by making use of the MATLAB 2016 software platform. In this experiment, we
employed Windows 10, Intel Core i5, and 8GB RAM configuration.
In the algorithm, 4D LHS uses the parameters X 0 = 1.1, Y 0 = 2.2, Z 0 = 3.3, and W0 =
4.4 of the initial value and controlling parameters are a = 10, b = 8/3, c = 28 and d = −1.
On the other hand, the 5D Gauss-Logistic Hyperchaotic system uses the parameters
x 0 = 0.3250, y0 = 0.4250, z0 = 0.5250, w0 = 0.4350 and s0 = 0.5350 of the initial values,
and control parameters are p = 0.0135, q = 0.0177, r = 3.75, r  = 4.9 and t = −0.58.
This section contains in-depth security assessments as well as experimental data that
may be used to assess the effectiveness of the proposed method. A series of conventional
tests are performed on a number of images collected from a recognised database (Nilsback
 CONNECTION SCIENCE 11

Algorithm 1: Pseudocode for 5D Gauss logistic encryption method.

& Zisserman, n.d.) (SIPI Image Database, n.d.). The results of these tests are explained in the
subsections that accompany.

4.1. Statistical analysis

This section is devoted to in-depth statistical analysis, such as histogram analysis, correla-
tion coefficient, and information entropy. It is essential to pay attention to the statistical
characteristics of encrypted images. If the encrypted image still reveals a certain statis-
tical rule, the adversary will probably try to crack the encryption using that rule (Song
et al., 2022b; Zheng et al., 2022). A 256 × 256 Pepper color image is being used to illus-
trate the statistical analysis. Figure 6 also shows various original and encrypted test images
for demonstration.

4.1.1. Histogram analysis

The frequency of each gray value may be finding out by looking at the histogram of the
image pixels. Since Figure 7 indicates that the pixel distribution in the plain text image fol-
lows a regular pattern, the histogram for the original image should have many peaks. Evenly
12 B. AHUJA ET AL.

Algorithm 2: Pseudocode for Lorenz encryption method.

distribution of encrypted image histogram indicates that the encryption was effective. Also,
smoother histograms reveal grey values closer to the average. The discrete image that was
encrypted using the suggested encryption technique indicates that the ciphered image has
a uniform pixel distribution even though there is no distribution parameters specified for
the image. Furthermore, the Chi-square test is used as quantitative metric to demonstrate
the attained uniformity (Ravichandran et al., 2016), and the results are shown in Table 1 for
different encrypted images.
All of the p-values for the encrypted image were found to be > 0.05 (5% significant),
demonstrating that the suggested encryption technique accepts the null hypothesis and
establishing the histogram’s uniformity. The outcomes demonstrate that the suggested
cryptosystem performs well against statistical attacks.

4.1.2. Image pixel correlation analysis

The correlation coefficient measures the degree to which neighbouring image pixels have
a linear association with one another. Ordinarily, an image has a substantial connection
 CONNECTION SCIENCE 13

Algorithm 3: Pseudocode for 5D Gauss logistic decryption method.

among adjacent pixels in horizontal, vertical, and diagonal dimensions, but in cipher
images, there must be no correlation among adjacent pixels in any direction (Veena &
Ramakrishna, 2021). The equation for the computation may be stated as (Dhopavkar et al.,
2022):
  
n xy – x y
ρ=    (8)
2
2
( n x2 − x × n y 2 – (y)2

The value of the correlation coefficient ranges from minus one to plus one. Encryption algo-
rithms work more effectively on the cipher text image when there is a weak correlation
between the pixels that are adjacent to one another. On the other hand, the encryption
technique works less effectively when there is an intense correlation between the pixels
that are adjacent to one another. The correlation between two random sequences is closer
to zero, which signifies that the impact of encryption is improved. A value of that is less
14 B. AHUJA ET AL.

Algorithm 4: Pseudocode for Lorenz decryption method.

than 1 shows the existence of differences between the original and encrypted versions of
the image.
Figure 8 shows the correlation coefficient that may be found between the encrypted
and original image (which depicts Colored Pepper). The correlation coefficients of sev-
eral images when seen in the horizontal, vertical, and diagonal orientations are calculated
and shown in Tables 2 and 3 depicts the correlation coefficient of colored Baboon, Aero-
plane and Pepper image in the RGB components. The results of the correlation coefficient
calculations for test images encrypted using various methods are compared in Table 4.
In Table 5, comparison of correlation coefficients of colored test images in the RGB compo-
nents with various methods are illustrated. The findings demonstrate that the suggested
encryption technique is capable of efficiently fending off statistical attacks and breaks the
high correlation that was present in the original image.
 CONNECTION SCIENCE 15

Figure 6. Original, encrypted, and decrypted colored test images with proposed algorithm.

4.1.3. Information entropy

The entropy of information is a crucial quantity that accurately reflects the information’s
degree of unpredictability. The information entropy of any image may be determined using
the equation (Li et al., 2022) stated below:


n
1
I(s) = p(si ) log (9)
p(si )
i=1
16 B. AHUJA ET AL.

Figure 7. Comparative histogram of HDIEA.

Table 1. Histogram uniformity eval-

uation by chi-square test.
Images p values Decision
Baboon 0.54312 Accept
Lena 0.45393 Accept
Flower 0.75234 Accept
Pepper 0.21427 Accept
Aeroplane 0.65492 Accept
Tree 0.18762 Accept
House 0.76437 Accept
Buttercup Flower 0.87641 Accept

where p(si ) is the probability of the presence of pixel and n is the number of gray levels
that the pixel contains (Gupta & Vijay, 2022). The gray level of an 8-bit image has a value
of 28 = 256, and its n value is also 256. In this scenario, the occurrence probability of all
gray levels is equal to 1/256, and the optimal information entropy I(s)is equal to 8. This is
the case if the encrypted image is perfectly uniform. The entropy values of the several test
images are shown in Table 6. In Table 7, an example of a 256 × 256 pixel Lena image is used
to illustrate how the information entropy of various types of literature varies. The findings
demonstrate that the suggested algorithm provides a high level of security.
 CONNECTION SCIENCE 17

Figure 8. The pixel distribution of different (RGB) components of pepper original and encrypted image
in horizontal, vertical and diagonal directions.

Table 2. Correlation coefficients of original and encrypted test images.

Correlation coefficients for original image Correlation coefficients for encrypted image
Images Horizontal Vertical Diagonal Horizontal Vertical Diagonal
Baboon 0.9631 0.9440 0.9213 −0.0080 −0.0116 0.0291
Lena 0.9647 0.9802 0.9463 −0.0019 −0.0016 −0.0069
Flower 0.9890 0.9913 0.9829 −0.0129 0.0069 0.0120
Pepper 0.9244 0.9733 0.9083 0.0012 −0.0122 −0.0007
Aeroplane 0.9253 0.9248 0.8910 −0.0080 0.0381 −0.0047
Tree 0.9689 0.9531 0.9434 −0.0051 0.0231 0.0379
House 0.9812 0.9514 0.9376 −0.0244 0.0196 −0.0065
Buttercup Flower 0.9963 0.9963 0.9933 −0.0098 0.0024 −0.0112

Table 3. Correlation coefficients of colored test images in the

RGB components.
Methods Correlation direction R G B
Baboon Horizontal −0.0104 0.0025 −0.0077
Vertical −0.0175 −0.0010 −0.0171
Diagonal −0.0041 −0.0040 0.0035
Aeroplane Horizontal −0.0028 −0.0131 −0.0067
Vertical −0.0383 0.0074 0.0151
Diagonal 0.0137 −0.0035 −0.0057
Pepper Horizontal 0.0072 −0.0046 0.0018
Vertical −0.0013 −0.0079 0.0243
Diagonal −0.0009 −0.0077 −0.0047

4.1.4. Local entropy

The aforementioned entropy measure, known as “global entropy” in the cryptosystem, may
sometimes mislead the true randomness of images. Extremely high entropy levels that are
close to their maximum, as evaluated by the global Shannon technique, may not always rep-
resent real randomness. This is due to the fact that two images, such as one that is random
and another that is perceptible and recognised, might have the same global entropy value.
In order to overcome the issue of the global entropy measurement, Wu et al. (2013) sug-
gested the local Shannon entropy metric for testing the randomness of cipher images. It is
18 B. AHUJA ET AL.

Table 4. Comparison of correlation coefficients of colored test images.

Correlation coefficient
Image encryption algorithms Images Horizontal Vertical Diagonal
Proposed method Lena −0.0019 −0.0016 −0.0069
Baboon −0.0080 −0.0116 0.0291
Pepper 0.0012 −0.0122 −0.0007
Ref (Jawad, 2021) Lena 0.00091 0.00082 0.00065
Baboon −0.00092 −0.00078 0.00076
Pepper −0.00081 0.00083 −0.00070
Ref (Jarjar et al., 2022) Baboon −0.0007 −0.0004 0.0001
Pepper −0.0002 0.0006 0.0002
Ref (Feixiang et al., 2021) Lena 0.0103 0.0049 0.0072
Ref (X. Wang & Yang, 2021) Lena −0.0009 −0.0003 0.0010
Ref (Khalil et al., 2021) Lena 0.0023 −0.0012 −0.0001
Ref (Khedmati et al., 2020) Lena 0.0034 0.0011 0.0012
Ref (Lin & Li, 2021) Lena −0.0328 0.0105 −0.0330
Baboon −0.0179 −0.0060 0.0181
Pepper −0.0195 −0.0101 −0.0109
Ref (Yan et al., 2023) Lena −0.0021 0.0051 0.0068

calculated by averaging the local entropy values of a random selection of non-overlapping

image blocks.
It is expressed mathematically as;

n
H(Si )
Hn,TB (s) = (10)
n
i=1

where TB is the local block size and n is the number of blocks represented by Si . The (n,
TB ) local Shannon entropy metric is highly excellent at catching local image block unpre-
dictability, which the global Shannon entropy score may often miss. In the experiment,
the parameter n is set to 30, which is the minimum number of randomly chosen non-
overlapping image segments necessary, in accordance with the advice (Wu et al., 2013) .
Local entropy results for different encrypted images are shown in Table 8.

4.2. Differential attacks

In a differential attack, in particular, two encrypted images are compared in order to investi-
gate the connection that exists between the original and encrypted image that corresponds
to it (Xu et al., 2022). Two popular measures of an object’s ability to withstand an attack are
referred to as the Number of Pixels Change Rate (NPCR) and the Unified Average Chang-
ing Intensity (UACI). Changing a pixel value in the original image allows NPCR to measure
the rate of change of pixel values in an encrypted image, while UACI examines the aver-
age changing intensity between the original and encrypted image. NPCR and UACI are
expressed as (Abdullah & Abdullah, 2019).

1 
M N
NPCR = K(i, j) × 100% (11)
M×N
i=1 j=1

1   |a1 (i, j) − a2 (i, j)|

M N
UACI = × 100% (12)
M×N 255
i=1 j=1
 CONNECTION SCIENCE 19

Table 5. Comparison of correlation coefficients of colored test images in the R G B components.

Methods Image Correlation direction R G B
Proposed method Lena Horizontal −0.0106 −0.0002 −0.0082
Vertical −0.0033 −0.0138 −0.0020
Diagonal −0.0061 0.0006 −0.0131
Baboon Horizontal −0.0104 0.0025 −0.0077
Vertical −0.0175 −0.0010 −0.0171
Diagonal −0.0041 −0.0040 0.0035
Ref (Shahna & Mohamed, 2021) Lena Horizontal 0.0005 −0.004 0.0034
Vertical 0.001 −0.001 −0.002
Diagonal 0.0005 0.0008 −0.0019
Baboon Horizontal 0.0014 0.0068 0.0006
Vertical 0.0014 −0.003 −0.005
Diagonal 0.0029 −0.0023 −0.0058
Ref (Hosny et al., 2021) Lena Horizontal 0.0064 0.0009 0.0091
Vertical 0.0160 0.0034 −0.0045
Diagonal −0.0026 0.0125 −0.0090
Baboon Horizontal −0.0213 0.0126 −0.0102
Vertical 0.0072 0.0120 0.0015
Diagonal 0.0011 −0.0133 0.0025
Ref (Wu et al., 2018) Lena Horizontal 0.0137 −0.0246 −0.0137
Vertical −0.0237 −0.0170 0.0023
Diagonal 0.0109 −0.0133 −0.0013
Ref (Girdhar & Kumar, 2018) Lena Horizontal −0.0001 −0.0011 −0.0010
Vertical 0.0026 0.0009 −0.0030
Diagonal −0.0053 0.0026 −0.0051
Baboon Horizontal −0.0017 0.0028 0.0041
Vertical −0.0007 0.0039 0.0061
Diagonal 0.0015 0.0015 0.0025
Ref (Zhang et al., 2020) Lena Horizontal 0.0014 0.0033 0.0021
Vertical 0.0048 −0.0006 0.0002
Diagonal 0.0002 0.0048 −0.0040
Baboon Horizontal 0.001391 −0.008134 −0.008891
Vertical 0.004650 0.000829 0.000056
Diagonal 0.000334 0.005334 0.001710
Ref (Chai et al., 2019) Lena Horizontal −0.0029 −0.0032 0.0040
Vertical 0.0013 −0.0032 −0.0018
Diagonal −0.0026 −0.0039 0.0012
Ref (Liu et al., 2022) Lena Horizontal −0.0046 −0.0015 0.0091
Vertical 0.0072 0.0056 −0.0076
Diagonal 0.0009 −0.0125 −0.0145
Ref (Li et al., 2022) Baboon Horizontal 0.0043 0.0019 0.0024
Vertical 0.0023 0.0033 0.0023
Diagonal 0.0029 −0.0030 0.0001

In Equation (12), a1 represents the cipher image, whereas a2 represents the modified cipher
image that results when one of the pixel values in the original image is altered. The NPCR
and UACI values for different size of the test images are shown in Table 9.
NPCR and UACI often fall around 99.95% and 33.52%, respectively. Among all possible
values, these are the ones that come closest to matching the theoretical ones. Table 10
shows a comparison between the recommended method and other algorithms found in
the literature.

4.3. Key space analysis

It is very necessary for a powerful encryption algorithm to have the ability to survive attacks
that use brute force. When the key space is greater than 2100 , it is generally acknowledged
20 B. AHUJA ET AL.

Table 6. Information entropy results for the proposed

algorithm on different test images.
Images Entropy plain image Entropy encrypted image
Baboon 7.6792 7.9982
Lena 7.7599 7.9997
Iris Flower 7.7164 7.9983
Pepper 7.6629 7.9971
Aeroplane 6.6587 7.9980
Tree 7.5371 7.9971
House 7.0686 7.9992
Buttercup flower 7.6364 7.9996

Table 7. Comparison of Information entropy with different literature.

Information entropy
Methods R G B Mean
Proposed method 7.9995 7.9997 7.9996 7.9996
Ref (ul Haq & Shah, 2021) 7.9967 7.9973 7.9970 7.9970
Ref (Liu et al., 2020) 7.9917 7.9912 7.9917 7.9915
Ref (Hosny et al., 2021) 7.9974 7.9976 7.9974 7.9975
Ref (Girdhar & Kumar, 2018) 7.9974 7.9969 7.9979 7.9974
Ref (Chai et al., 2019) 7.9973 7.9969 7.9971 7.9971
Ref (Es-Sabry et al., 2022) 7.997080 7.997886 7.997364 7.99744
Ref (Shahna & Mohamed, 2021) N/A N/A N/A 7.998967
Ref (Lin & Li, 2021) N/A N/A N/A 7.9993
Ref (Jawad, 2021) N/A N/A N/A 7.9984
N/A – not available.

Table 8. Local Entropy results for the pro-

posed algorithm on different test images.
Images Local Entropy
Baboon 7.9032
Lena 7.9014
Iris Flower 7.9021
Pepper 7.9012
Aeroplane 7.9024
Tree 7.9031
House 7.9023
Buttercup Flower 7.9027

among the community of security professionals that brute force attacks may be successfully
resisted. The starting values of the chaotic maps and the parameter of the chaotic maps
each make up one component of the key space in the method that has been proposed.
When attempting to quantify the complete keyspace with the aid of the IEEE floating-point
norm (Zefreh, 2020), Equation (13) is beneficial. Comparison is shown in Table 11 (Proposed
vs other literature).

Keyspace = 1015 × 1015 × 1015 × 1015 × 1015 × 1015 × 1015 × 1015 × 1015 × 1015
× 1015 × 1015 × 1015 × 1015 × 1015 × 1015 × 1015 = 10255 ≈ 2847 (13)
 CONNECTION SCIENCE 21

Table 9. NPCR AND UACI values of different size test images.

256× 256 512× 512 1024 × 1024
Images NPCR UACI NPCR UACI NPCR UACI
Baboon 99.61 33.32 99.66 33.39 99.66 33.44
Lena 99.63 33.35 99.65 33.42 99.66 33.45
Iris Flower 99.62 33.34 99.64 33.39 99.65 33.46
Pepper 99.65 33.38 99.66 33.40 99.66 33.47
Aeroplane 99.65 33.37 99.66 33.41 99.66 33.46
Tree 99.62 33.35 99.63 33.42 99.64 33.47
House 99.62 33.34 99.65 33.42 99.65 33.45
Buttercup Flower 99.64 33.39 99.65 33.41 99.66 33.46

Table 10. Comparison among the suggested algorithm and the algo-
rithms in literature based on NPCR and UACI.
256× 256 Lena Image 512× 512 Lena Image
Methods NPCR UACI NPCR UACI
Proposed 99.63 33.35 99.65 33.42
Ref (Yan et al., 2023) 99.6220 33.48 99.61 33.43
Ref (Shahna & Mohamed, 2021) 99.60 33.4407 N/A N/A
Ref (Dhopavkar et al., 2022) N/A N/A 99.6189 32.9215
Ref (Bhat et al., 2022) N/A N/A 99.60 33.70
Ref (Rahman et al., 2022) 99.814 0.33625 N/A N/A
N/A – not available.

Table 11. Comparison of keyspace in different literatures.

Ref Ref Ref Ref Ref Ref Ref Ref
Key (Elghandour (Ahuja & (Chai et al., (Li et al., (Hosny et al., (Jawad, (Jarjar (Yan et al.,
space Proposed et al., 2022) Doriya, 2021) 2021) 2019) 2021) 2021) et al., 2022) 2023)
2847 2500 2200 2512 2576 2116 2156 2180 2207

4.4. Key sensitivity analysis

The “key sensitivity study” compares two cipher images produced by encrypting the same
plain image with a key that has been drastically varied. If there are major differences
between the two cipher images, then the image encryption method has a high key sen-
sitivity; if there are just subtle differences, then the method has a low key sensitivity. A high
level of key sensitivity is essential for a reliable image encryption system. Even with a very
little change in the key, the method that provides a very high level of security cannot be bro-
ken. Even with a relatively little adjustment, the original image is unable to be decrypted
when the parameters of the 5D Gauss Logistic map are altered throughout the decryption
process. For this experimentation, we have examined the key sensitivity by using the Pep-
per image, with x0 = 0.2350 + 10−16 . It is observed that with a change in x0 , the decrypted
image is blurred. The results of the tests are shown in Figure 9, and it may be observed that
even a small change in the key hinders the process of successful decryption. So, it can be
shown that the proposed method of encryption is very sensitive to the key.
Additionally, to provide the desired level of security, numerous encryption images w.r.t.
one image should be created in response to slightly variable key values. A statistic known
as the cipher-text difference rate (CDR) is commonly employed to examine the sensitivity
22 B. AHUJA ET AL.

Figure 9. Key sensitivity analysis of the proposed algorithm on test images.

of secret keys (Yavuz, 2019). Table 12 shows the CDRs generated for encryptions as a result
of changing secret keys as a percentage. In general, a CDR of more than 99% is considered
adequate key sensitivity for an encryption scheme (Yavuz, 2019). Considering the data in
Table 12, we can infer that the proposed cryptosystem has sufficient key sensitivity to fulfill
the aforementioned condition. Figure 10 also displays the results of encrypting a pepper
image using a secret key that has been slightly modified. The details of the subfigures in
Figure 10 are as follows:
 CONNECTION SCIENCE 23

Table 12. CDRs estimation as a result of

changing secret keys for encryptions.
Altered secret key Slight change in CDR (%)
x0 x0 1 99.59
x0 2 99.61
y0 y0 1 99.60
y0 2 99.62
z0 z0 1 99.58
z0 2 99.61
w0 w0 1 99.61
w0 2 99.61
s0 s0 1 99.62
s0 2 99.60

Figure 10. Key sensitivity analysis for encrypted pepper image with a slight change in one of the secret
keys.

(a) The original test image.

(b) Encrypted image AC with the secret key x 0 1 = 0.235.
(c) Encrypted image with a slight difference in one of the secret keys AC  (secret key
x 0 1 = 0.2350000000000001)
(d) Absolute intensity differences (|AC-AC  |) of corresponding pixels of encrypted images
(e) The histogram of AC  image
(f) Histogram of intensity difference (|AC-AC  |).

4.5. NIST test

The unpredictability of the sequences produced by the 5D Gauss Logistic Hyperchaotic sys-
tem was examined with the help of NIST SP800-22 (see Table 13). The NIST SP800-22 test
provides information on the random qualities of the sequence. Every test result with a P
24 B. AHUJA ET AL.

value should fall anywhere between 0 and 1, which indicates that the chaotic sequence
successfully passes the evaluation (Yang et al., 2020).

4.6. Image quality analysis

Image quality is measured by the peak signal to noise ratio (PSNR). It evaluates noise
between plaintext and cipher images (Arif et al., 2022). To figure out the authenticity and
strength of the proposed algorithm, the mean square error (MSE) by Equation (12), and
PSNR by Equation (13) were calculated.

1  
M−1 N−1
MSE = [f (i, j) − f (i, j)]2 (14)
MN
i=0 j=0
 
256 × 256
PSNR = 10log10 (15)
MSE
The dimension of the image is represented in the equations described above by the product
M × N, where M is the row of the matrix and N is the column of the matrix. In other words,
the size of the image is the product of the matrix’s row and its column (Liu & Ding, 2020).
The structural similarity index, also known as the SSIM index, is another statistic that
assesses the overall quality of the image. Calculating the relationship between an original
image and a reconstructed one could well be done with the help of SSIM. It is recommended
that the SSIM be characterised as (Liu & Ding, 2020);

SSIM(p, q) = f (l(p, q)c(p, q)s(p, q))

= [l(p, q)]α [c(p, q)]β [s(p, q)]γ (16)

Brightness, contrast, and structure are all controlled by the contrast function, which is
denoted by the letters l(p, q)c(p, q)s(p, q). The equation, which adjusts the relative signifi-
cance of these three module, has the terms, α, β and γ , and all are greater than 0. Assuming
that α, β, and γ = 1.
The SSIM measurement function has a value range of [0,1] for its range of acceptable
values. If the SSIM that is computed as 1, the image distortion is going to be minimal, and the
decrypted image will then be same as original image, visually. And the suggested scheme
also passed this test (SSIM = 1). This provides more evidence that the suggested algorithm

Table 13. Randomness test for the 5D Gauss logis-

tic hyperchaotic system’s sequences.
Test P values Results
Frequency 0.5659 Pass
Block frequency 0.6514 Pass
Cumulative sums forward & reverse 0.6782 Pass
Runs 0.8475 Pass
Rank 0.3785 Pass
The discrete Fourier transform test 0.5345 Pass
Overlapping template 0.2345 Pass
Approximate entropy 0.3234 Pass
Linear complexity 0.1145 Pass
Serial 0.1454 Pass
 CONNECTION SCIENCE 25

Table 14. Test scores for the proposed

algorithm such as PSNR, SSIM, MSE.
Images PSNR SSIM MSE
Baboon ∞ 1 0
Lena ∞ 1 0
Iris Flower ∞ 1 0
Pepper ∞ 1 0
Aeroplane ∞ 1 0
Tree ∞ 1 0
House ∞ 1 0
Buttercup Flower ∞ 1 0

successfully decrypts the cipher image in its entirety, indicating that the decryption effect
is flawless. Image quality analysis through PSNR, SSIM, and MSE is shown in Table 14.

4.7. Robustness analysis

During the process of transmission, the image will be impacted by a number of different ele-
ments that cannot be avoided. In the communication system, for instance, noise may lead
to unfavorable consequences such as distortion, deterioration, and pollution. Deciphering
the noisy cipher text in order to reconstruct the original image is an additional challenge
that must be overcome. As a consequence of this, any method that is employed to encrypt
images should be adequately resistant to withstand attacks based on noise. During simu-
lation, we utilise the 256 × 256 Pepper image to practice several degrees of cropping and
noise attacks.

4.7.1. Noise attack

When evaluating the effectiveness of encryption schemes, anti-noise capability is an essen-
tial factor to take into account. The concept can be displayed in contexts of the following
equation:

EI  = EI + KN (17)

where EI is the noise-free encrypted image and EI  is noisy encrypted image, N represents
supplemental noise, and K is the noise intensity constant. The encrypted image is also
affected by noise. The following is an illustration of the notion that might be used in the
event that additional noise is responsible for the destruction of the encrypted image. In
this investigation, Salt and Pepper Noise attacks are used, and the noise intensity K for the
suggested encryption method is varied between 0.01, 0.05, 0.001, and 0.005 respectively.
Figure 11 displays the encrypted text visuals together with the decoded images that cor-
respond to those images under various noise attacks and intensities. Even if the quality of
the decrypted image is worse as the level of the noise gets higher, the technique can nev-
ertheless withstand noise attacks across a larger spectrum of intensities. In Table 15 PSNR
values of noisy encrypted images on noise attacks with different intensities are shown. As
a direct consequence of this, the proposed method of encryption is more resistant against
attacks that are based on salt and pepper noise.
26 B. AHUJA ET AL.

Figure 11. Noise attack on Pepper image.

 CONNECTION SCIENCE 27

Table 15. Noise attacks with different intensities.

Image Noise density level PSNR of the noisy encrypted image
Lena 0.001 28.476162
0.005 26.940204
0.01 25.556459
0.05 20.633339

Table 16. Cropping attacks with different data loss pixel areas.
Image Data loss of pixels area PSNR of the cropped encrypted image
Lena 32 × 32 pixels area 32.327711
64 × 64 pixels area 26.226746
96 × 96 pixels area 22.739982
128 × 128 pixels area 20.199788

4.7.2. Cropping attack

While communicating with image data, there is a high probability that some of the image
data will be lost. The image that has been encrypted, using the suggested encryption tech-
nique, kept all the vital information intact. To infer that a section of the encrypted image
has been removed during cropping, we might suppose that the corresponding pixel is
blank. The encrypted image and its matching decoded image are shown side by side in
Figure 12, after being cropped to remove data from areas of 32 × 32 pixels, 64 × 64 pix-
els, 96 × 96 pixels, and 128 × 128 pixels, respectively. In Table 16, PSNR values of cropped
encrypted images on cropping attacks with different pixels data loss are shown. Even while
the decrypted image will become hazier when the cutting rate is increased, the essential
details of the original image will still be visible that shows attacks may be easily avoided
using the encryption scheme that has been presented.

4.8. Computation time and speed analysis

In the context of security, computation time is also an important aspect. The time of the sug-
gested encryption system is evaluated for colored images. Table 17 depicts the outcomes
of the observation of computational time of encryption process with different images. Time
complexity of the proposed algorithm is calculated as  (4MN).
In this performance comparison, we not only compare the time cost, but also present the
discussion of other factors, such as the operating system, the hardware environment, the
programming language, and key space. In order to gain a better image performance evalu-
ation, we also compare encryption throughput (ET) and number of cycles (NC) in Table 18.
On comparison we observe that ET and cycle count results are not very promising but the
key space is far better and the computation time is also satisfactory. In the future, improved
speed performance with appropriate keyspace may be worked on.

4.9. Verification of performance of classification through transfer learning

In this part of the article, the performance of the classification is evaluated by deep learning
classification utilising transfer learning. The original, encrypted, and decrypted versions of
the iris images are shown in Figure 13. These images are then put through further testing
28 B. AHUJA ET AL.

Figure 12. Cropping attack on Pepper image.

 CONNECTION SCIENCE 29

Table 17. Computational time for the proposed

algorithm on different test images.
Images Computational time (s)
Baboon 0.3221
Lena 0.3021
Iris Flower 0.3234
Pepper 0.3221
Aeroplane 0.3042
Tree 0.3025
House 0.3241
Buttercup Flower 0.3123

Table 18. Comparison of computational time and Speed analysis of encryption process in different
literatures.
Methods Image CPU (GHz) Language Time Keyspace ET NC
Proposed 256 × 256 1.6 MATLAB 0.322 2847 0.115 13,853
Ref (Cun et al., 2021) 512 × 512 3 MATLAB N/A 2231 0.170 16,830
Ref (Xian et al., 2020) 256 × 256 3.2 MATLAB N/A 2156 0.275 11,089
Ref (Li et al., 2021) 512 × 512 1.4 MATLAB 0.138 2455 1.811 1682
Ref (Shahna & Mohamed, 2021) 256 × 256 2.3 MATLAB 0.2410 2384 N/A N/A
Ref (Bhat et al., 2022) 512 × 512 1.80 MATLAB 0.70 N/A N/A N/A
Ref (Rahman et al., 2022) 512 × 512 N/A MATLAB 0.45 2744 N/A N/A
Ref (Abduljabbar et al., 2022) 256 × 256 2.6 MATLAB 0.3493 2430 N/A N/A
Ref (Qian et al., 2021) 256 × 256 N/A N/A 0.8314 2600 N/A N/A
N/A-not available.

Figure 13. Original, encrypted, and decrypted Iris image.

to determine how accurately they can be classified. In this case, the simulation makes use
of the AlaxaNet framework of transfer learning that is implemented on the deep learning
designer of MATLAB 2021.
The categorisation of the iris image both before and after it was encrypted is shown
in Figure 14. In addition, it is clear from the findings that the suggested approach suc-
cessfully encrypted the images, and that the encrypted images were correctly categorised.
The graph illustrating the relationship between accuracy and iteration for the iris image is
shown in Figure 15. The accuracy of the iris image for the purpose of validation is 91.35%.
30 B. AHUJA ET AL.

Figure 14. Iris image classification before and after encryption.

Figure 15. Accuracy versus iteration graph for the Iris image.

5. Conclusion
The Lorenz-Gauss-Logistic (LGL) encryption technique is developed and demonstrated in
this work. The random key is created by the high dimensional Lorenz system, which is then
utilised to generate a randomly generated numeric pattern for the controlling parame-
ters. This pattern has a greater degree of unpredictability. Following this, the 5D Gauss-
Logistic Hyperchaotic system is chosen to act as the principal Hyperchaotic map technique.
Numerous security studies and the method’s visual effect on decryption demonstrate the
algorithm’s superiority and robustness in comparison to competing algorithms. The visual
examination of their most essential properties, such as the sensitivity of the beginning value
of both maps and the Lyapunov exponent of 5D Gauss Logistic map, is carried out which
proves the suitability of both the maps for encryption application. The simulations found
that the LGL cryptographic system’s pixel correlation attained a range of −0.0019, −0.0016,
and −0.0069, as well as 7.9996 information entropy, indicating that the HDIEA’s encryption
approach had a significant scattering effect. Further the algorithm’s UACI and NPCR scores
are so high (respectively at 99.63% and 33.35%), this also suggests that it does an excep-
tional encryption performance. Also the recovered image is found identical to the original
image which shows the accuracy of structural similarity. The visual decryption effect of the
method as well as the visible results of numerous different anti-attack tests demonstrates
 CONNECTION SCIENCE 31

that the method has a high anti-attack strength and is very resilient in comparison to other
algorithms.
High-dimensional chaotic maps feature a greater number of variables or parameters,
resulting in a wider chaotic space. However, such a complicated dynamical system may be
challenging to build for real-time applications. Although this difficulty might be overcome
by using compression methods to create a lightweight system.
We will continue to investigate and enhance the suggested model and algorithm in the
future to create it more lightweight cryptosystem. As for the next version of this cipher is
concerned, we plan to implement preferred encryption for the video surveillance problem.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

ORCID
Bharti Ahuja http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2978-6310
Sharad Salunke http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8452-5597
Aditya Gupta http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3128-2517

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