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Introduction to Probability
and Statistics
Twelfth Edition
Chapter 5
Describing Data with Graphs

Some graphic screen captures from Seeing Statistics ®

Some images © 2001‐(current year) www.arttoday.com Dr Ahmed Kafafy-FCI Menoufia university.

174

Variables and Data

• A variable is a characteristic that

changes or varies over time and/or for
different individuals or objects under
consideration.
• Examples: Hair color, white blood cell
count, time to failure of a computer
component.

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Definitions

• An experimental unit is the individual

or object on which a variable is
measured.
• A measurement results when a variable
is actually measured on an experimental
unit.
• A set of measurements, called data, can
be either a sample or a population.
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Example

• Variable
–Hair color
• Experimental unit
–Person
• Typical Measurements
–Brown, black, blonde, etc.
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Example

• Variable
–Time until a
light bulb burns out
• Experimental unit
–Light bulb
• Typical Measurements
–1500 hours, 1535.5 hours, etc.
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How many variables have you measured?

• Univariate data: One variable is

measured on a single experimental unit.
• Bivariate data: Two variables are
measured on a single experimental unit.
• Multivariate data: More than two
variables are measured on a single
experimental unit.

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Types of Variables

Qualitative Quantitative

Binary Nominal Ordinal Discrete Continuous

2 categories +
more categories +
order matters +
numerical +
uninterrupted
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Types of Variables

•Qualitative variables measure a quality or

characteristic on each experimental unit.
•Examples:
•Hair color (black, brown, blonde…)
•Make of car (Dodge, Honda, Ford…)
•Gender (male, female)
•State of birth (California, Arizona,….)

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Types of Variables

•Quantitative variables measure a

numerical quantity on each experimental
unit.
Discrete if it can assume only a finite or
countable number of values.
Continuous if it can assume the
infinitely many values corresponding to the
points on a line interval.
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Examples

• For each orange tree in a grove, the number

of oranges is measured.
– Quantitative discrete
• For a particular day, the number of cars
entering a college campus is measured.
– Quantitative discrete
• Time until a light bulb burns out
– Quantitative continuous
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Graphing Qualitative Variables

• Use a data distribution to describe:

– What values of the variable have
been measured
– How often each value has occurred
• “How often” can be measured 3 ways:
– Frequency
– Relative frequency = Frequency/n
– Percent = 100 x Relative frequency

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Example
• A bag of M&Ms contains 25 candies:
m m m m m m m m m m
• Raw Data:
m m m m m m m m m m
m m m m m

• Statistical Table:
Color Tally Frequency Relative Percent
Frequency
Red mmm 3 3/25 = .12 12%
Blue mmmmmm 6 6/25 = .24 24%
Green mm mm 4 4/25 = .16 16%
Orange mmmmm 5 5/25 = .20 20%
Brown mm m 3 3/25 = .12 12%
Yellow mmmm 4 4/25 = .16 16%
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Graphs
6

Bar Chart
Frequency

0
Brown Yellow Red Blue Orange Green
Color

Green Brown
16.0% 12.0%

Yellow

Pie Chart
16.0%

Orange
20.0%

Red
12.0%

Blue
24.0%

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Graphing Quantitative Variables

• A single quantitative variable measured for different

population segments or for different categories of
classification can be graphed using a pie or bar
chart.

A Big Mac hamburger 4

Cost of a Big Mac ($)

costs $4.90 in 3

Switzerland, $2.90 in
2
the U.S. and $1.86 in
South Africa. 1

0
Switzerland U.S. South Africa
Country

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• A single quantitative variable measured

over time is called a time series. It can be
graphed using a line or bar chart.
CPI: All Urban Consumers-Seasonally Adjusted
September October November December January February March
178.10 177.60 177.50 177.30 177.60 178.00 178.60

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

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Dot plots MY APPLET

• The simplest graph for quantitative data

• Plots the measurements as points on a
horizontal axis, stacking the points that
duplicate existing points.
• Example: The set 4, 5, 5, 7, 6

4 5 6 7

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Stem and Leaf Plots

• A simple graph for quantitative data
• Uses the actual numerical values of each data
point.
–Divide each measurement into two parts: the stem
and the leaf.
–List the stems in a column, with a vertical line to
their right.
–For each measurement, record the leaf portion in
the same row as its matching stem.
–Order the leaves from lowest to highest in each
stem.
–Provide a key to your coding.
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Example

The prices ($) of 18 brands of walking shoes:

90 70 70 70 75 70 65 68 60
74 70 95 75 70 68 65 40 65

4 0 4 0
Reorder
5 5

6 580855 6 055588

7 000504050 7 000000455

8 8

9 05 9 05

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Interpreting Graphs: Location and Spread

• Where is the data centered on the

horizontal axis, and how does it spread
out from the center?
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Interpreting Graphs: Shapes

Mound shaped and

symmetric (mirror images)

Skewed right: a few

unusually large
measurements
Skewed left: a few unusually
small measurements

Bimodal: two local peaks

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Interpreting Graphs: Outliers

No Outliers Outlier

• Are there any strange or unusual

measurements that stand out in
the data set?

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Example

• A quality control process measures the diameter of a

gear being made by a machine (cm). The technician
records 15 diameters, but inadvertently makes a typing
mistake on the second entry.
1.991 1.891 1.991 1.988 1.993 1.989 1.990 1.988
1.988 1.993 1.991 1.989 1.989 1.993 1.990 1.994

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Relative Frequency Histograms

• A relative frequency histogram for a

quantitative data set is a bar graph in which the
height of the bar shows “how often” (measured
as a proportion or relative frequency)
measurements fall in a particular class or
subinterval.

Create intervals Stack and draw bars

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Relative Frequency Histograms

• Divide the range of the data into 5-12

subintervals of equal length.
• Calculate the approximate width of the
subinterval as Range/number of subintervals.
• Round the approximate width up to a convenient
value.
• Use the method of left inclusion, including the
left endpoint, but not the right in your tally.
• Create a statistical table including the
subintervals, their frequencies and relative
frequencies.
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Relative Frequency Histograms

• Draw the relative frequency histogram,

plotting the subintervals on the horizontal
axis and the relative frequencies on the
vertical axis.
• The height of the bar represents
– The proportion of measurements falling in
that class or subinterval.
– The probability that a single measurement,
drawn at random from the set, will belong to
that class or subinterval.
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Example
The ages of 50 tenured faculty at a
state university.
• 34 48 70 63 52 52 35 50 37 43 53 43 52 44
• 42 31 36 48 43 26 58 62 49 34 48 53 39 45
• 34 59 34 66 40 59 36 41 35 36 62 34 38 28
• 43 50 30 43 32 44 58 53

• We choose to use 6 intervals.

• Minimum class width = (70 – 26)/6 = 7.33
• Convenient class width = 8
• Use 6 classes of length 8, starting at 25.
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Age Tally Frequency Relative Percent

Frequency
25 to < 33 1111 5 5/50 = .10 10%
33 to < 41 1111 1111 1111 14 14/50 = .28 28%
41 to < 49 1111 1111 111 13 13/50 = .26 26%
49 to < 57 1111 1111 9 9/50 = .18 18%
57 to < 65 1111 11 7 7/50 = .14 14%
65 to < 73 11 2 2/50 = .04 4%

14/50

12/50
Relative frequency

10/50

8/50

6/50

4/50

2/50

0
25 33 41 49 57 65 73
Ages

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14/50

12/50
Relative frequency

Describing the Distribution 10/50

8/50

6/50

4/50

2/50

Shape? Skewed right 0

25 33 41 49 57 65 73
Ages

Outliers? No.
What proportion of the (14 + 5)/50 = 19/50 = .38
tenured faculty are younger
than 41?
What is the probability that a (8 + 7 + 2)/50 = 17/50 = .34
randomly selected faculty
member is 49 or older?
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Key Concepts
I. How Data Are Generated
1. Experimental units, variables, measurements
2. Samples and populations
3. Univariate, bivariate, and multivariate data
II. Types of Variables
1. Qualitative or categorical
2. Quantitative
a. Discrete
b. Continuous
III. Graphs for Univariate Data Distributions
1. Qualitative or categorical data
a. Pie charts
b. Bar charts

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Key Concepts

2. Quantitative data
a. Pie and bar charts
b. Line charts
c. Dotplots
d. Stem and leaf plots
e. Relative frequency histograms
3. Describing data distributions
a. Shapes—symmetric, skewed left, skewed right,
unimodal, bimodal
b. Proportion of measurements in certain intervals
c. Outliers

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