ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Cells

Robert Hooke (July 18, 1635 – March 3, 1703). His most notable  Condenses to form dense, rodlike bodies called
discovery came in 1665 when he looked at a sliver of cork through chromosomes when the cell divides
a microscope lens and discovered cells.
The Cytoplasm
Cellular Basis of Life  The cellular material outside the
- The structural units of all living things nucleus and inside the plasma
The human body has 50 to 100 trillion cells membrane
 Site of most cellular activities9
The Cell Theory  Includes cytosol, inclusions, and
1. A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organelles
organisms  Three major components of the
2. The activity of an organism depends on the collective cytoplasm
activities of its cells 1. Cytosol: Fluid that suspends
3. According to the principle of complementarity, the other elements and contains nutrients and electrolytes
biochemical activities of cells are dictated by their structure 2. Inclusions: Chemical substances, such as stored nutrients or
(anatomy) which determines their function (physiology) cell products, that float in the cytosol
4. Continuity of life has a cellular basis 3. Organelles: Metabolic machinery of the cell that perform
4. functions for the cell
 Most cells are composed of four Macro/biomolecules:
o Many are membrane-bound, allowing for compartmentalization
elements: - Carbohydrates of their functions
1. Carbon - Lipids
2. Hydrogen - Protein
3. Oxygen - Nucleic Acid
4. Nitrogen
Cells are about 60% water

ANATOMY OF A CELL

A cell has three main regions or parts:

1. Nucleus
2. Cytoplasm
3. Plasma membrane

a. Mitochondria
 “Powerhouses” of the cell
 Mitochondrial wall consists of a double membrane
with cristae on the inner membrane
 Carry out reactions in which oxygen is used to break
down food into ATP molecules
b. Ribosomes
The Nucleus  Made of protein and ribosomal RNA
 Control center of the cell  Sites of protein synthesis in the cell
 Contains genetic material known as deoxyribonucleic acid, or  Found at two locations:
DNA  Free in the cytoplasm
o DNA is needed for building proteins  As part of the rough endoplasmic reticulum
 DNA is necessary for cell reproduction c. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
 Three regions:  Fluid-filled tunnels (or canals) that carry substances
1. Nuclear envelope (membrane) within the cell
 Consists of a double membrane that bounds the nucleus  Continuous with the nuclear membrane
 Contains nuclear pores that allow for exchange of material  Two types:
with the rest of the cell o Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Encloses the jellylike fluid called the nucleoplasm - Studded with ribosomes
2. Nucleolus - Synthesizes proteins
 Nucleus contains one or more dark-staining nucleoli - Transport vesicles move proteins within cell
 Sites of ribosome assembly - Abundant in cells that make and export proteins
 Ribosomes migrate into the cytoplasm through nuclear
pores to serve as the site of protein synthesis
3. Chromatin
 Composed of DNA wound around histones (proteins)
 Scattered throughout the nucleus and present when the
cell is not dividing

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 o Smooth ER
- Lacks ribosomes
- Functions in lipid metabolism
- Detoxification of drugs and pesticides h. Centrioles
d. Golgi Apparatus
 Rod-shaped bodies made of nine triplets of
 Appears as a stack of flattened membranes associated microtubules
with tiny vesicles
 Generate microtubules
 Modifies and packages proteins arriving from the
 Direct the formation of mitotic spindle during cell
rough ER via transport vesicles
division
 Produces different types of packages
o Secretory vesicles (pathway 1)
The Plasma Membrane
o In-house proteins and lipids (pathway 2)
 Transparent barrier for cell contents
o Lysosomes (pathway 3)
 Contains cell contents
 Separates cell contents from surrounding environment
 Fluid mosaic model is constructed of:
o Two layers of phospholipids arranged “tail to tail”
 Phospholipid arrangement in the plasma membrane
 Hydrophilic (“water loving”) polar “heads” are oriented
on the inner and outer surfaces of the membrane
 Hydrophobic (“water fearing”) nonpolar “tails” form
the center (interior) of the membrane
 This interior makes the plasma membrane relatively
impermeable to most water-soluble molecules
o Cholesterol and proteins scattered among the phospholipids
 Role of proteins: Responsible for specialized membrane
functions
e. Lysosomes  Enzymes
 Membranous “bags” that contain digestive enzymes  Receptors for hormones or other chemical messengers
 Enzymes can digest worn-out or non-usable cell  Transport as channels or carriers
structures o Sugar groups may be attached to the phospholipids, forming
 House phagocytes that dispose of bacteria and cell glycolipids
debris  Role of sugars:
f. Peroxisomes  Glycoproteins are branched sugars attached to proteins
 Membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes that abut the extracellular space
o Detoxify harmful substances such as alcohol and
 Glycocalyx is the fuzzy, sticky, sugar-rich area on the
formaldehyde
cell’s surface
o Break down free radicals (highly reactive
chemicals)
o Free radicals are converted to hydrogen peroxide
and then to water
 Replicate by pinching in half or budding from the ER
g. Cytoskeleton
 Network of protein structures that extend throughout
the cytoplasm
 Provides the cell with an internal framework that
determines cell shape, supports organelles, and
provides the machinery for intracellular transport
 Three different types of elements form the
cytoskeleton: ֎ Cell Membrane Junctions
1. Microfilaments (largest) Cells are bound together in three ways:
2. Intermediate filaments 1. Glycoproteins in the glycocalyx act as an adhesive or cellular
3. Microtubules (smallest) glue
2. Wavy contours of the membranes of adjacent cells fit together
in a tongue-and-groove fashion

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3. Special cell membrane junctions are formed, which vary

structurally depending on their roles
Main Types of Cell Junctions:
 Tight junctions
o Impermeable junctions
o Bind cells together into leakproof sheets
o Plasma membranes fuse like a zipper to prevent
substances from passing through extracellular space
between cells
 Desmosomes
o Anchoring junctions, like rivets, that prevent cells
from being pulled apart as a result of mechanical
stress
o Created by buttonlike thickenings of adjacent
plasma membranes
 Gap junctions (communicating junctions)
o Allow communication between cells
o Hollow cylinders of proteins (connexons) span the
width of the abutting membranes
o Molecules can travel directly from one cell to the
next through these channels

Summary

Cell Extensions
Surface extensions found in some cells
 Cilia move materials across the cell surface
o Located in the respiratory system to move mucus
 Flagella propel the cell
o The only flagellated cell in the human body is sperm
 Microvilli are tiny, fingerlike extensions of the plasma membrane
o Increase surface area for absorption

CELL DIVERSITY

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 The human body houses over 200 different cell types  Divides to become an embryo upon fertilization
 Cells vary in size, shape, and function b. Sperm (male)
o Cells vary in length from 1/12,000 of an inch to over  Built for swimming to the egg for fertilization
1 yard (nerve cells)  Flagellum acts as a motile whip
o Cell shape reflects its specialized function
1. Cells that connect body parts
a. Fibroblast
Cell Physiology
 Secretes cable-like fibers Cells have the ability to:
b. Erythrocyte (red blood cell) - Metabolize
 Carries oxygen in the bloodstream - Digest food
- Dispose of wastes
- Reproduce
- Grow
- Move
- Respond to a stimulus

2. Cells that cover and line body organs MEMBRANE TRANSPORT

a. Epithelial cell  Solution—homogeneous mixture of two or more components
 Packs together in sheets o Solvent—dissolving medium present in the larger quantity;
 Intermediate fibers resist the body’s main solvent is water
tearing during rubbing or o Solutes—components in smaller quantities within a solution
pulling  Intracellular fluid
o Nucleoplasm and cytosol
o Solution containing gases, nutrients, and salts dissolved in
water
3. Cells that move organs and body parts  Extracellular fluid (interstitial fluid)
a. Skeletal muscle and smooth muscle cells o Fluid on the exterior of the cell
 Contractile filaments allow cells to shorten o Contains thousands of ingredients, such as nutrients,
forcefully hormones, neurotransmitters, salts, waste products

The plasma membrane is a selectively permeable barrier. Some

materials can pass through, while others are excluded
For example:
4. Cell that stores nutrients  Nutrients can enter the cell
a. Fat cells  Undesirable substances are kept out
 Lipid droplets stored in cytoplasm
Two Basic Methods of Transport:
a. Passive Processes: substances are transported across the
membrane without any input from the cell
1. Diffusion
- Molecule movement is from high concentration to
5. Cell that fights disease
low concentration, down a concentration gradient
a. White blood cells, such as the macrophage (a
- Particles tend to distribute themselves evenly within
phagocytic cell)
a solution
 Digests infectious microorganisms
- Kinetic energy (energy of motion) causes the
molecules to move about randomly
- Size of the molecule and temperature affect the speed
of diffusion
Molecules will move by diffusion if any of the
following applies:
1. The molecules are small enough to pass through
6. Cell that gathers information and controls body functions the membrane’s pores (channels formed by
a. Nerve cell (neuron) membrane proteins)
 Receives and transmits messages to other body 2. The molecules are lipid-soluble
structures 3. The molecules are assisted by a membrane
carrier
Types of Diffusion
1. Simple Diffusion
- An unassisted process
- Solutes are lipid-soluble or
7. Cells of reproduction small enough to pass
a. Oocyte (female) through membrane pores
 Largest cell in the body

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2. Osmosis — simple diffusion of water across a selectively

permeable membrane
- Highly polar water molecules easily cross the plasma
membrane through aquaporins
- Water moves down its concentration gradient
 Isotonic solutions have the same solute and water
concentrations as cells and cause no visible
changes in the cell
 Hypertonic solutions contain more solutes than
the cells do; the cells will begin to shrink
 Hypotonic solutions contain fewer solutes (more
water) than the cells do; cells will plump
2. Vesicular Transport
- Substances are moved across the membrane “in bulk”
without actually crossing the plasma membrane
Types of Vesicular Transport
a. Exocytosis
 Mechanism cells use to actively secrete
3. Facilitated Diffusion hormones, mucus, and other products
- Transports lipid-insoluble and large substances  Material is carried in a membranous sac
- Glucose is transported via facilitated diffusion called a vesicle that migrates to and combines
- Protein membrane channels or protein molecules that with the plasma membrane
act as carriers are used  Contents of vesicle are emptied to the outside
Refer to pathway one, of the golgi apparatus
 Exocytosis docking process
o Docking proteins on the vesicles
recognize plasma membrane proteins and
bind with them
o Membranes corkscrew and Electron micrograph of a
fuse together secretory vesicle in
exocytosis (190,000×)

b. Endocytosis
 Extracellular substances are enclosed
(engulfed) in a membranous vesicle
 Vesicle detaches from the plasma membrane
and moves into the cell
 Once in the cell, the vesicle typically fuses
with a lysosome
 Contents are digested by lysosomal enzymes
 In some cases, the vesicle is released by
exocytosis on the opposite side of the cell

2. Filtration
- Water and solutes are forced through a membrane by
fluid, or hydrostatic, pressure
- A pressure gradient must exist that pushes solute-
containing fluid (filtrate) from a high-pressure area to
a lower-pressure area
- Filtration is critical for the kidneys to work properly
b. Active Processes: the cell provides the metabolic energy
(ATP) to drive the transport process
Types of Transport
1. Active Transport
- Amino acids, some sugars, and ions are transported
by protein carriers known as solute pumps
- ATP energizes solute pumps
- In most cases, substances are moved against
concentration (or electrical) gradients
Example: sodium-potassium pump
o Necessary for nerve impulses
o Sodium is transported out of the cell
o Potassium is transported into the cell

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 o Genetic material is duplicated and readies a cell for
division into two cells
o Occurs toward the end of interphase
֎ Process of DNA replication
o DNA uncoils into two nucleotide chains, and each side
serves as a template
o Nucleotides are complementary
 Adenine (A) always bonds with Thymine (T)
 Guanine (G) always bonds with Cytosine (C)
o For example, TACTGC bonds with new nucleotides in
the order ATGACG

Events of Cell Division

1. Mitosis — division of the nucleus
i. Phagocytosis – “cell-eating”  Results in the formation of two daughter nuclei
 Cell engulfs large particles such as a. Prophase
bacteria or dead body cells  Chromatin coils into chromosomes; identical strands
 Pseudopods are cytoplasmic extensions called chromatids are held together by a centromere
that separate substances (such as bacteria  Centrioles direct the assembly of
or dead body cells) from external a mitotic spindle
environment  Nuclear envelope and nucleoli
 Phagocytosis is a protective mechanism, have broken down
not a means of getting nutrients b. Metaphase
 Chromosomes are aligned in the
center of the cell on the
metaphase plate (center of the
spindle midway between the
centrioles)
 Straight line of chromosomes is
now seen
c. Anaphase
ii. Pinocytosis – “cell-drinking”  Centromere splits
 Cell “gulps” droplets of extracellular  Chromatids move slowly apart
fluid containing dissolved proteins or and toward the opposite ends of
fats the cell
 Plasma membrane forms a pit, and edges  Anaphase is over when the
fuse around droplet of fluid chromosomes stop moving
 Routine activity for most cells, such as d. Telophase
those involved in absorption (small  Reverse of prophase
intestine)  Chromosomes uncoil to become chromatin
iii. Receptor-mediated endocytosis  Spindles break down and disappear
 Method for taking up specific target  Nuclear envelope re-forms around chromatin
molecules  Nucleoli appear in each of the daughter nuclei
 Receptor proteins on the membrane 2. Cytokinesis — division of the cytoplasm
surface bind only certain substances  Begins when mitosis is near completion
 Highly selective process of taking in  Division of the cytoplasm
substances such as enzymes, some  Begins during late anaphase and completes during
hormones, cholesterol, and iron telophase
 A cleavage furrow (contractile ring of
microfilaments) forms to pinch the cells into two
parts
 Results in the formation of two daughter cells

In most cases, mitosis and cytokinesis occur together.

In some cases, the cytoplasm is not divided
CELL DIVISION ┄ Binucleate or multinucleate cells result
Cell life cycle is a series of changes the cell experiences from the ┄ Common in the liver and skeletal muscle
time it is formed until it divides
Cell life cycle has two major periods
1. Interphase (metabolic phase)
 Cell grows and carries on metabolic processes
 Longer phase of the cell cycle
2. Cell division
 Cell reproduces itself

֎ Preparations: DNA Replication

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