LECTURE 2: TECHNOLOGIES IN GIS

These technologies span the following mentioned

areas.
a) Data creation
Modern GIS technologies use digital
information, for which various digitized data
creation methods are used. The most common
method of data creation is digitization, where
a hard copy map or survey plan is transferred
into a digital medium through the use of a
computer-aided design program with geo-
referencing capabilities.
b) With the wide availability of rectified imagery
(both from satellite and aerial sources), heads-
up digitizing is becoming the main avenue
through which geographic data is extracted.
Heads-up digitizing involves the tracing of
geographic data directly on top of the aerial
imagery instead of through the traditional
method of tracing the geographic form on a
separate digitizing tablet.
Relating information from different
sources: If you could relate information about
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the rainfall of a state to aerial photographs of
county, you might be able to tell which
wetlands dry up at certain times of the year. A
GIS which can use information from many
different sources in many different forms, can
help with such analyses. The primary
requirement for the source data consists of
knowing the locations for the variables.
Location may be annotated by x, y, and z
coordinates of longitude, latitude, and
elevation, or by other geocode systems like
postal codes. Any variable that can be located
spatially can be fed into a GIS. Different kinds
of data in map form can be entered into a GIS.
A GIS can also convert existing digital
information, which may not yet be in map
form, into forms it can recognize and use. For
example, digital satellite images
generated through remote sensing can be
analyzed to produce a map-like layer of
digital information about vegetative covers.
Likewise, census or hydrologic tabular data

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 can be converted to map-like form, serving as
layers of thematic information in a GIS.
c) Data representation: GIS data represents real
world objects such as roads, land use,
elevation with digital data. Real world objects
can be divided into two abstractions: discrete
objects (a house) and continuous fields (rain
fall amount or elevation). There are two broad
methods used to store data in a GIS for both
abstractions: Raster and Vector.

Raster: A raster data type is, in essence, any

type of digital image. Anyone who is
familiar with digital photography will
recognize the pixel as the smallest individual
unit of an image. A combination of these
pixels will create an image, distinct from the
commonly used scalable vector graphics,
which are the basis of the vector model. While
a digital image is concerned with the output as
representation of reality, in a photograph
or art transferred to computer, the raster data
type will reflect an abstraction of reality.

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Aerial photos are one commonly used form of
raster data, with only one purpose, to
display a detailed image on a map or for the
purposes of digitization. Other raster data
sets will contain information regarding
elevation, a DEM (digital Elevation Model),
or reflectance of a particular wavelength of
light.
Raster data is stored in various formats; from a
standard file-based structure of
TIF, JPEG formats to binary large object
(BLOB) data stored directly in a relational
database management system (RDBMS)
similar to other vector-based feature classes.
Database storage, when properly indexed,
typically allows for quicker retrieval of the
raster data but can require storage of millions
of significantly sized records.

Advantages
− Continuous Data Representation: Raster
data can represent continuous phenomena,
such as elevation or temperature, more

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 effectively because it divides the area into
a grid of cells, each containing a single
value. This allows for a more precise
representation of spatial variation.

− Ability to Handle Large Datasets: Raster

data structures are well-suited for handling
large datasets covering extensive
geographic areas. They can efficiently
store and process vast amounts of data,
making them ideal for applications like
satellite imagery and remote sensing.

− Spatial Analysis: Raster data allows for

various spatial analysis techniques,
including surface analysis, proximity
analysis, and suitability analysis. These
techniques are essential for understanding
spatial relationships and making informed
decisions in fields like environmental
science, urban planning, and agriculture.

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− Interpolation: Raster data can be
interpolated to estimate values for
locations where data is missing. This
capability is particularly useful in
scenarios where data collection is
expensive or challenging, such as remote
or inaccessible areas.

− Visualization: Raster data lends itself well

to visualization techniques, such as color-
coding and shading, which can help users
interpret complex spatial patterns and
trends more easily. This is especially
valuable for communicating information
effectively to stakeholders and decision-
makers.

− Integration with Remote Sensing: Raster

data is commonly used in conjunction
with remote sensing technologies, such as
satellites and aerial imagery, allowing for
the analysis of Earth's surface over large
areas and at various spatial resolutions.
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 − Efficient Storage: Raster datasets can
often be more efficiently stored in terms of
disk space compared to vector datasets,
especially when dealing with large
continuous surfaces or regularly sampled
data.

− Compatibility with Modeling: Raster data

can be easily integrated into modeling and
simulation workflows, allowing
researchers and analysts to develop
predictive models and simulate real-world
scenarios with spatial data inputs.

− Accessibility: Many spatial datasets, such

as satellite imagery and digital elevation
models, are naturally raster datasets. This
availability and accessibility of raster data
make it a valuable resource for GIS
analysis across various domains.
Vector: A simple vector map, using each of
the vector elements: points for wells, lines
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for rivers, and a polygon for the lake. In a GIS,
geographical features are often
expressed as vectors, by considering those
features as geometrical shapes. In the
popular ESRI Arc series of programs, these
are explicitly called shape files. Different
geographical features are best expressed by
different types of geometry. This includes;
− Points: convey the least amount of
information of these file types. Mostly
used for geographical features that can
best be expressed by a single grid
reference; in other words, simple location.
For example, the locations of wells, peak
elevations, features of interest or
trailheads.
− lines or polylines: Used to express linear
features such as rivers, roads, railroads,
trails and topographic lines.
− Polygons: Used for geographical features
that cover a particular area of the earth's
surface. Such features may include lakes,
park boundaries, buildings, city
Sichangi Masara Sidney|0724204398|lecture notes adopted from different online sources
 boundaries, or land uses. Polygons convey
the most amount of information of the file
types.
Each of these geometries are linked to a
row in a database that describes their
attributes. For example, a database that
describes lakes may contain a lake's depth,
water quality, pollution level. This
information can be used to make a map to
describe a particular attribute of the
dataset. For example, lakes could be
colored depending on level of pollution.
Different geometries can also be
compared. For example, the GIS
could be used to identify all wells (point
geometry) that are within 1-mile (1.6 km)
of a lake (polygon geometry) that has a
high level of pollution.

Advantages
− High Precision: Vector data can represent
geometric features with high precision,
making it suitable for applications that

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 require accurate measurements and
delineation of boundaries, such as land
parcel management and infrastructure
planning.
− Compact Data Storage: Compared to
raster data, vector data typically requires
less storage space, especially for datasets
containing complex geometries or features
with irregular shapes. This compactness
facilitates efficient data management and
reduces storage costs.
− Scalability: Vector data can be scaled
without losing resolution, allowing users
to zoom in or out of the map seamlessly.
This scalability is particularly
advantageous for interactive mapping
applications and cartographic design.
− Efficient Editing: Vector data supports
efficient editing operations, such as
adding, deleting, or modifying features,
using standard geometric operations. This
flexibility enables users to update spatial

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 datasets easily in response to changes in
the real world.
− Network Analysis: Vector data is well-
suited for network analysis applications,
such as routing, transportation planning,
and utility network management, due to its
ability to represent linear features, nodes,
and connectivity relationships accurately.
− Symbolization Flexibility: Vector data
provides greater flexibility in
symbolization and cartographic styling,
allowing users to customize the
appearance of map features based on
attribute values or thematic criteria. This
flexibility enhances the visual
communication of spatial information.
− Query Performance: Vector data can be
indexed efficiently, enabling fast spatial
queries and spatial analysis operations.
This performance advantage is especially
valuable for interactive GIS applications
and real-time decision support systems.

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d) Data capturing:
− Refers to entering information into the
system and usually consumes much of the
time of GIS practitioners. There are a
variety of methods used to enter data into
a GIS where it is stored in a digital format.
− Existing data printed on paper or PET film
maps can be digitized or scanned to
produce digital data. A digitizer produces
vector data as an operator traces points,
lines, and polygon boundaries from a map.
Scanning a map result in raster data that
could be further processed to produce
vector data.
− Survey data can be directly entered into a
GIS from digital data collection systems
on survey instruments. Positions from a
Global Positioning System (GPS), another
survey tool, can also be directly entered
into a GIS.

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− Remotely sensed data also plays an
important role in data collection and
consist of sensors attached to a platform.
Sensors include cameras, digital scanners
and LIDAR,
− while platforms usually consist of aircraft
and satellites. Sensors include cameras,
digital scanners and LIDAR, while
platforms usually consist of aircraft and
satellites.
− The majority of digital data currently
comes from photo interpretation of aerial
photographs. Soft copy workstations are
used to digitize features directly from
stereo pairs of digital photographs. These
systems allow data to be captured in 2 and
3 dimensions, with elevations measured
directly from a stereo pair using principles
of photogrammetry. Currently, analog
aerial photos are scanned before being
entered into a soft copy system, but as
high-quality digital cameras become
cheaper this step will be skipped.
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− When data is captured, the user should
consider if the data should be captured
with either a relative accuracy or absolute
accuracy, since this could not only
influence how information will be
interpreted but also the cost of data
capture.
− In addition to collecting and entering
spatial data, attribute data is also entered
into a GIS. For vector data, this includes
additional information about the objects
represented in the system.
− After entering data into a GIS, the data
usually requires editing, to remove errors,
or further processing. For vector data it
must be made "topologically correct"
before it can be used for some advanced
analysis. For example, in a road network,
lines must connect with nodes at an
intersection. Errors such as undershoots
and overshoots must also be removed. For
scanned maps, blemishes on the source
map may need to be removed from the
Sichangi Masara Sidney|0724204398|lecture notes adopted from different online sources
 resulting raster. For example, a fleck of
dirt might connect two lines that should
not be connected.
e) Projections, coordinates systems and
registrations
− A property ownership map and a soils map
might show data at different scales. Map
information in a GIS must be manipulated
so that it registers, or fits, with
information gathered from other maps.
Before the digital data can be analyzed,
they may have to undergo other
manipulations—projection and coordinate
conversions for example, that integrate
them into a GIS.
− The earth can be represented by various
models, each of which may provide a
different set of coordinates (e.g., latitude,
longitude, elevation) for any given point
on the earth's surface. The simplest model
is to assume the earth is a perfect sphere.
− Projection is a fundamental component of
map making. A projection is mathematical
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 means of transferring information from a
model of the Earth, which represents a
three-dimensional curved surface, to a
two-dimensional medium—paper or a
computer screen. Different projections are
used for different types of maps because
each projection particularly suits certain
uses. For example, a projection that
accurately represents the shapes of the
continents will distort their relative sizes.
− Since much of the information in a GIS
comes from existing maps, a GIS uses the
processing power of the computer to
transform digital information, gathered
from sources with different projections
and/or different coordinate systems, to a
common projection and coordinate
system. For images, this process is called
rectification.

END

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