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2 Syntax

This document provides an overview of syntax and grammar concepts including: 1. It defines syntax and discusses the difference between syntax and grammar. 2. It examines word classes like nouns and adjectives, and describes their characteristics and how they can be used and modified in sentences. 3. It introduces diagramming sentences using dependency arrows to show the relationship between words. Several examples of diagrammed phrases and sentences are provided. 4. Key learning points are summarized at the end, such as the patterns for nouns and adjectives, and compound adjectives.

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13 views54 pages

2 Syntax

This document provides an overview of syntax and grammar concepts including: 1. It defines syntax and discusses the difference between syntax and grammar. 2. It examines word classes like nouns and adjectives, and describes their characteristics and how they can be used and modified in sentences. 3. It introduces diagramming sentences using dependency arrows to show the relationship between words. Several examples of diagrammed phrases and sentences are provided. 4. Key learning points are summarized at the end, such as the patterns for nouns and adjectives, and compound adjectives.

Uploaded by

ahmed313.175
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Syntax

Second Session
(Spring 2024)
General Instructions
• It is important to take down notes and
answer exercises in class (virtual or physical)
because this presentation only includes the
main points of the lesson.
Specific Revision Points to Consider:
• 1- What is meant by Syntax?
• 2- What are some of the important facts
about the systems of language?
• 3- What is meant by mental grammar?
• 4- What is the difference between Syntax and
Grammar?
• 5- Mention the types of word
classes, form classes, and
structure classes.
Word Classes and Noun Expansions
Some of the characteristics of nouns:
• A noun can be either a subject, object, or a
possessive {-s ps}.

• A noun can be pluralized {-s pl}

• A noun can have a derivational suffix to


indicate the meanings of “state, condition,
quality, act of, doer, or agent”.
Noun Expansions
• It is possible for a noun to modify another
noun (e.g., a joke book).

• When a noun (or an adjective) modifies


another noun, this is called: a noun phrase or
a noun expansion.
Some of the characteristics of adjectives:
• An adjective can be used, with the same
meaning, after the verb ‘be’.

• An adjective can be characterized by its


capacity for modification by qualifier such as
very, rather, quite, and by more {-er cp} and
most {-est sp}. [Revise: gradable adjectives vs.
non-gradable adjectives]
Adjectives as Modifiers
• Adjectives can be used to modify nouns.

• An adjective can be attributive (when it comes


before a noun) or predicative (when it comes
after a noun).

• Some adjectives can be put before/after the


word. They are called peripheral.
Adjectives as Modifiers (Cont’d)
• Adjectives can never modify one another.

• An adverb modifies the adjective next to it


(e.g., exceptionally good)
An Exercise
Exercise 2.1: In the blanks, label the
underlined word as adjective or noun:
• 1- the light plane

• 2- the night plane

• 3- a strange idea

• 4- a glass vase

• 5- his steel file


Exercise 2.1: In the blanks, label the underlined
word as adjective or noun: (cont’d)
• 6- that clay pot

• 7- her red coat

• 8- a dull volume

• 9- a sound conclusion

• 10- my close friend


The Diagramming System:
Dependency Arrows
• As we learnt before, in order to keep track of
different parts of the sentence, we need to
draw connections between words.

• Let’s begin with the “phrase”. A phrase is less


than a full sentence but often more than a
single word.
The Diagramming System:
Dependency Arrows

nice book
J N
(dependent) (head)
Rules of Dependency Arrows:
• 1- Words generally combine on unequal terms.

• 2- The word that provides the basic meaning is the


head of the combination, and the other is its
dependent.

• 3- We use arrows because the two ends of the arrow


(sharp and blunt) are unequal, like the two words they
relate.

• 4- Every word has one arrow head.


Rules of Dependency Arrows:
• 5- All arrows are pointing downwards, like the one that
points at the head; this will remind you that it points at
the “lower” word.

• 6- Dependency arrows do not tangle (one exceptional


case).

• 7- We write the label and then draw the arrows.

• 8- The head is the least informative word in the


structure.
Example (1)

Priceless old illustrated royal recipe book


J J J J N N
Example (2)

mysterious little murder puzzle


J J N N
Example (2)
Wrong Diagram

mysterious little murder puzzle


J J N N
Example (3)

lovely home-made jam


J J N
(dependent) (dependent) (head)
Compound Adjectives
• In compound adjectives (or hyphenated nouns), the first
word depends on the second. There are many examples
for compound adjectives such as:

• Narrow-minded
• Old-fashioned
• Short-haired
• Well-behaved old-French book
• Well-educated
• Densely-populated
• highly-respected
• deeply-rooted
Example (4) (Ambiguous Cases)

old French grammar book


J J N N

[Meaning: An old French book about grammar]


Examples (4) (Ambiguous Cases)

old French grammar book


J J N N

[Meaning: An old book about French grammar]


Examples (4) (Ambiguous Cases)

old French grammar book


J J N N

[Meaning: A book about old French grammar]


Example (5)

Lunchtime weather-forecast
N N N
In this session, you should have
learnt:

• 1- A word may have a number of dependents,


which combine with it as an ‘expansion’ which
makes its meaning more precise. It is called
expansion head, the other words being its
‘dependents’.

• 2- No-tangling Principle: arrows must not


tangle. Every word has one arrow head.
In this session, you should have learnt
(cont’d):
• 3- The main patters discovered today are:
(a) N N
(b) J N

• 4- Adjectives never modify each other.

• 5- There can be ambiguity in noun expansions modified


by adjectives.
• 6- In compound adjectives (or hyphenated nouns), the
first word depends on the second.
References:

• Department of Linguistics (2016). Language Files 12. Ohio State


University Press.

• Hudson, R. (1998). English Grammar. London; New York: Routledge.

• Stageberg, N, & Goodman, R. (1999). An Introductory English


Grammar. Cengage Learning

• https://www.englishbix.com/compound-adjectives-list-with-
examples/#:~:text=Examples%20of%20Compound%20Adjectives%2
0%20%20Narrow-minded%20,%20%20far-
reaching%20%204%20more%20rows

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