HISTORICAL TIMELINE

RADIO WAVES CELLULAR THE ADVENT THE ERA OF

TECHNOLOGY OF WI-FI 4G & 5G
1895: Guglielmo 1947: The concept of 1997: The first version of 2009: The introduction
Marconi developed the cellular telephony was the Wi-Fi standard of 4G networks brought
first practical radio introduced (802.11) was released download speeds of up
system 1973: Martin Cooper, 2003: 802.11g standard to 100 Mbps
1901: Marconi made the world's first were introduced, 2018: The deployment of
successfully transmitted handheld cellular phone offering speeds up to 54 5G networks began,
the first transatlantic call. Mbps. promising speeds up to
signal 1981: Nordic Mobile 2009: The 802.11n 10 Gbps, ultra-low
1906: The first radio Telephone (NMT), the standard were latency, and enhanced
broadcast was made first fully operational introduced, allowing capacity for a wide range
cellular network, was speeds of up to 600 of applications.
launched. Mbps.
 HISTORICAL TIMELINE

KEY TAKEAWAYS

• The development of radio waves laid the foundation for

wireless communication systems, transforming the way
information is transmitted.
• The introduction of cellular networks enabled mobile
communication, making it possible to connect with
others while on the move.
 HISTORICAL TIMELINE

KEY TAKEAWAYS

• Wi-Fi technology revolutionized internet connectivity,

allowing users to access the web wirelessly from various
devices.
• 4G and 5G networks have opened up new possibilities
for high-speed connectivity, enabling advanced
applications and services.
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
✓ Understand the theory of electromagnetic energy
radiation principles
✓ Calculate power density, characteristic impedance of free
space, and field strength
✓ Differentiate wave attenuation and wave absorption
✓ Describe the optical properties of radio wave
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
✓ Calculate free-space path loss and fade margin
✓ Define fading and describe the different types of fading
✓ Describe the characteristics of ground waves, sky waves,
space waves, and other propagation modes
 Radio Wave Propagation

It was predicted
mathematically by
James C. Maxwell in
1865 but was first
demonstrated
experimentally by
Heinrich R. Hertz in
1867.
 Radio Wave Propagation

Free-space propagation of electromagnetic waves is often

called radio-frequency (RF) propagation or simply radio
propagation.

Radio waves are electromagnetic waves, like light, that

propagates through free space in a straight line with a
velocity of approximately same as speed of light.
 Radio Wave Propagation

• Once a radio signal has been radiated by an antenna, it

travels or propagates through space and ultimately
reaches the receiving antenna.
• The energy level of the signal decreases rapidly with
distance from the transmitting antenna.
• The electromagnetic wave is affected by objects that it
encounters along the way such as trees, buildings, and
other large structures.
 Radio Wave Propagation

• The path that an electromagnetic signal takes to a

receiving antenna depends upon many factors, including
the frequency of the signal, atmospheric conditions, and
time of day.
Properties of
Electromagnetic Wave
 Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
• is an electrical energy that has escaped into free space.
Electromagnetic radiation, as the name implies,
involves the creation of electric and magnetic fields in
free space or in some physical medium.
• The waves that propagate are known as transverse
electromagnetic waves (TEM).
 Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

TRANSVERSE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE

• characteristically means that the electric field, the
magnetic field and the direction of propagation of the
wave are all mutually perpendicular.

• The essential properties of radio waves are frequency,

intensity, direction of travel, propagation velocity,
and plane of polarization.
Properties of Electromagnetic Waves
 Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

POLARIZATION
• The polarization of a plane electromagnetic wave is
simply the orientation of the electric field vector in respect
to the surface of the earth (looking at the horizon).
• If the polarization remains constant, it is described as
Linear Polarization.
 Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

POLARIZATION
• The two forms of linear polarization are horizontal and
vertical.
• If the electric field is propagating parallel to the Earth’s
surface, the wave is said to be horizontally polarized.
• If the electric field is propagating perpendicular to the
Earth’s surface, the wave is said to be vertically
polarized.
 Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

POLARIZATION
• If the polarization vector rotates 360˚ as the wave moves
one wave length through space and the field strength is
equal at all angles of polarization, the wave is described
as having Circular Polarization.
• When the field strength varies with changes in
polarization, this described as Elliptical Polarization.
 Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

PROPAGATION VELOCITY
• The speed of propagation of radio waves in free space is
the same as that of light, approximately 300 x 106 m/s. In
other media, the velocity is lower. The propagation
velocity is given by
𝒄
𝒗𝒑 =
𝝐𝒓
where:
𝒄 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚
𝝐𝒓 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑖𝑚
 Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

PROPAGATION VELOCITY
• Relative permittivity (dielectric constant) is the ratio
of permittivity of the material and the permittivity of air
or free space. The permittivity of air is approximately 8.85
x 10-12 F/m
𝝐
𝝐𝒓 =
𝝐𝒐
 Sample Problem

1. For a given length of RG 8A/U coaxial cable using a

material with a permittivity of 20.3646 x 10-12 F/m as
dielectric, determine the velocity of propagation of the
wave travelling through it.

ANS. 1.99 x 108 m/s

 Sample Problem

1. Find the wave’s velocity in a coaxial cable using a solid

polyethylene with a dielectric constant of 5.3.

2. Find the propagation velocity of radio waves in glass

with a relative permittivity of 7.8.
 Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

POWER DENSITY
• The simplest source of electromagnetic waves would be a
point in space.
• Waves would radiate equally from this source in all
directions. A wavefront, that is, a surface on which all the
waves have the same phase, would be the surface of a
sphere.
• Such a source is called an isotropic radiator
Properties of Electromagnetic Waves
 Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

POWER DENSITY
• There is no loss of energy as radio waves propagate in
free space, but there is attenuation due to the spreading
of the waves.
• The energy would be spread over a larger surface as the
distance from the source increased.
 Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

POWER DENSITY
• Since an isotropic radiator radiates equally in all
directions, the power density, in watts per square meter,
is simply the total power divided by the surface area of
the sphere.
𝑷𝒕
𝑷𝑫 =
𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐
where:
𝑷𝒕 = 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑊
r = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
 Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

POWER DENSITY
• As the wavefront moves further from the source, the
smaller the power density. It is seen that power density is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance from
the source. This is the inverse-square law, which applies
universally to all forms of radiation in free space.
 Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

POWER DENSITY
• Power density is also the rate at which the energy passes
through a given surface area in free space

𝑷𝑫 = 𝜺𝓗
where:
𝑉
𝜺 = 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ( )
𝑚
𝓗 = 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟)
 Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE OF FREE SPACE

• The strength of the electric field, 𝜺 (in volts per meter), at a
distance r from a point source is given by
𝟑𝟎𝑷𝒕
𝜺=
𝒓
• Power density and the electric field are related to impedance
in the same way that power and voltage relate in an electric
circuit.
𝜺𝟐
𝑷𝑫 =
𝒁𝒐
 Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE OF FREE SPACE

• Characteristic Impedance of a lossless transmission medium
is equal to the square root of the ration of its magnetic
permeability to its electric permittivity.
𝝁
𝒁𝒐 =
𝝐

• Therefore, the characteristic impedance of free space is 377Ω

 Sample Problem

1. For an isotropic antenna radiating 100 W of power,

determine: (a) power density 1000m from the source and
(b) power density 2000m from the source
ANS. (a) 7.96 µW/m2 (b) 1.99 µW/m2
2. The dielectric strength of air is about 3MV/m. arcing is
likely to take place at field strengths greater than that. What
is the maximum power density of an electromagnetic wave
in air? ANS. 23.9 GW/m2
Wave Attenuation and
Absorption
 Wave Attenuation and Absorption

ATTENUATION
• Free space is a vacuum, so no loss of energy as a wave
propagates through it. As waves propagates through free
space, however, they spread out, resulting in a reduction
in power density. The reduction in power density with
distance is equivalent to a power loss and is commonly
called wave attenuation.
 Wave Attenuation and Absorption

ATTENUATION
• Because the attenuation is due to the spherical spreading
of the wave, it is sometimes called space attenuation.
• Wave attenuation is generally expressed in terms of the
common logarithm of the power density ratio.

𝑷𝑫𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝟐
𝜶 = 𝟏𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈 = 𝟏𝟎𝐥𝐨𝐠( )
𝑷𝑫𝟐 𝒓𝟏
 Wave Attenuation and Absorption

ABSORPTION
• Earth’s atmosphere is not a vacuum, it contains particles
that can absorb electromagnetic energy. As an
electromagnetic wave passes through the atmosphere, it
interchanges energy with free electrons and ions. This
type of reduction of power is called absorption loss.
 Wave Attenuation and Absorption

ABSORPTION
• If the ions do not collide with gas molecules or other
ions, all the energy is converted back into
electromagnetic energy, and the wave continues
propagating with no loss of intensity.
• However, if the ions collide with other particles, they
dissipate the energy that they have acquired from the
electromagnetic wave, resulting in absorption of the
energy.
 Wave Attenuation and Absorption

ABSORPTION
• Since the absorption of energy is dependent on the
collision of particles, the greater the particle density, the
greater the possibility of collisions and the greater the
absorption
• The electromagnetic energy is absorbed and scattered by
the raindrops and this effect becomes more pronounced
when the length of the wave approaches the size of the
rain drop.
 Wave Attenuation and Absorption

• In short, the reduction in power density due to inverse

square law presumes free-space propagation is called
wave attenuation. The reduction in power density due
to non free-space propagation is called absorption.
Wave Attenuation and Absorption
 Wave Attenuation and Absorption

• The figure shows atmospheric absorption split into its

two major components, with absorption due to the water
vapor content of the atmosphere taken for a standard
value of humidity.
• If humidity is increased or if there is fog, rain or snow,
then this form of absorption is increased tremendously,
and reflection from rainwater drops may even take place.
• Precipitation causes severe absorption at microwave
frequencies
Optical Properties of
Radio Wave
 Optical Properties of Radio Wave

• In Earth’s atmosphere, ray-wavefront propagation may

be altered from free-space behavior by optical effects
such as refraction, reflection, diffraction and
interference.
• Using rather unscientific terminology, refraction can be
thought of as bending, reflection as bouncing,
diffraction as scattering and interference as colliding.
 Optical Properties of Radio Wave

REFRACTION
• It is sometimes referred to as the bending of the radio-
wave path. However, the ray does not actually bend.
• Electromagnetic refraction is actually the changing of
direction of an electromagnetic ray as it passes obliquely
from one medium into another with different velocities
of propagation.
 Optical Properties of Radio Wave

REFRACTION
• The velocity of propagation at which an electromagnetic
wave propagates is inversely proportional to the density
of the medium in which it is propagating.
• Refraction of electromagnetic waves can be expressed in
terms of refractive index of the atmosphere it is passing
through. Mathematically, it is the square root of the
dielectric constant.
𝒏 = 𝝐𝒓
Optical Properties of Radio Wave
 Optical Properties of Radio Wave

REFRACTION
• The amount of bending or refraction that occurs at the
interface of the two materials of different densities
depends on the refractive index of the two materials.
• The refractive index is simply the ratio of the velocity of
propagation of a light ray in free space to the velocity of
propagation of a light ray in a given material.
Mathematically,
𝒄
𝒏=
𝒗𝒑
Optical Properties of Radio Wave
 Optical Properties of Radio Wave

REFRACTION
• The relationship between the angles and the indices of
refraction is given by a formula known as Snell’s law:

𝒏𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒊 = 𝒏𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒓
where:
𝒏𝟏 = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
𝒏𝟐 = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝜽𝒊 = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝜽𝒓 = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
 Optical Properties of Radio Wave

REFRACTION
• And because the refractive index of a material is equal to
the square root of its dielectric constant

𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒊 𝝐𝒓
=
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒓 𝝐𝒊
 Optical Properties of Radio Wave

REFRACTION
• In extreme cases, where the angle of incidence is large
the wave travels into a region of considerably lower
dielectric constant, the angle of refraction can be greater
that 90˚, so that the wave comes out of the second
medium and back into first.
• For these, refraction becomes a form of reflection called
total internal reflection.
 Optical Properties of Radio Wave

REFRACTION
• Critical angle is the angle of incidence that results in an
angle of refraction of exactly 90˚ and it is given by
𝒏
−𝟏 𝟐
𝜽𝒄 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝒏𝟏
 Sample Problem

1. A radio signal moves from air to glass. The angle of

incidence is 20˚. Calculate the angle of refraction.
ANS. 13.1839º
2. Find the critical angle when a wave passes from glass,
into air.
ANS. 41.8245º
 Optical Properties of Radio Wave

REFLECTION
• Electromagnetic reflection occurs when an incident
wave strikes a boundary of two media and some or all of
the incident power does not enter the second material.
The waves that do not penetrate the second medium are
reflected.
 Optical Properties of Radio Wave

REFLECTION
• Saying all the reflected waves remain in medium 1, the
velocity of the reflected and incident waves are equal.
The angle of reflection equals to the angle of incidence.
• However, the reflected voltage intensities is less than the
incident voltage field intensity.
 Optical Properties of Radio Wave

REFLECTION
• The ratio of the reflected and incident power densities is
called reflection coefficient (Γ)
• The portion of the total incident power that is not
reflected is called the power transmission coefficient
(T). For a perfect conductor, T = 0.
• The fraction of power that penetrates medium 2 is called
absorption coefficient.
 Optical Properties of Radio Wave

REFLECTION
• When an incident wavefront strikes an irregular surface, it
is randomly scattered in many directions. Such condition
is called diffused reflection
• Whereas reflection from a perfectly smooth surface is
called specular (mirrorlike) reflection.
• Surface that fall between smooth and irregular is called
semi-rough surfaces.
 Optical Properties of Radio Wave

REFLECTION
• Rayleigh criterion states that a semi-rough surface will
reflect as if it were a smooth surface whenever the cosine
of angle of incidence is greater than 𝛌/8d, where d is the
depth of irregularity.
𝝀
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝒊 ≥
𝟖𝒅
 Optical Properties of Radio Wave

DIFFRACTION
• Diffraction is the bending of waves around an object.
• Diffraction is defined as the modulation or redistribution
of energy within a wavefront when it passes near the
edge of an opaque object.
• Diffraction is the phenomenon that allows light or radio
waves to propagate (peek) around corners.
 Optical Properties of Radio Wave

DIFFRACTION
• Diffraction is explained by Huygen’s principle presented
by Dutch astronomer, Christian Huygens, the founder of
the wave theory of light.
• Huygen’s principle states that every point on a given
spherical wavefront can be considered as a secondary
point source of electromagnetic waves from which the
other secondary waves are radiated outward.
 Optical Properties of Radio Wave

DIFFRACTION
• When the waves encounter an obstacle, they pass around
it, above it, and on either side.
• As the wave front passes the object, the point sources of
waves at the edge of the obstacle create additional
spherical waves that penetrate and fill in the shadow
zone. This phenomenon, sometimes called, knife-edge
diffraction.
Optical Properties of Radio Wave
 Optical Properties of Radio Wave

INTERFERENCE
• Interferences result from the superposition of
oscillations or waves of same nature and equal
frequency.
• These interferences can be either constructive when the
different paths arrive in phase, leading to a signal
reinforcement, or destructive, causing in this case a
fading of the signal.
 Optical Properties of Radio Wave

INTERFERENCE
• After a wave has been emitted, a wave may follow
different paths between the emitter and the receiver.
• This results in a multitude of elementary paths. Each such
path is characterized at receiver level by an attenuation, a
delay and a specific phase difference.
• This mode of propagation is referred to as a multipath
propagation. The different waves propagated along
such multiple paths interfere at the reception.
 Heat Check!

Which of the following statements about a wave is the law

of reflection?

a. The angle of incidence is equal to the refracted wave

b. The angle of incidence is not equal to the refracted wave
c. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
d. The angle of incidence is not equal to the angle of
reflection
 Heat Check!

If a wave passes first through a dense medium and then

through a less dense medium, which of the following angle
of refraction conditions exists?
a. The angle of refraction is greater than the angle of
incidence
b. The angle of refraction is less than the angle of incidence
c. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
d. The wave will pass through in a straight line
 Heat Check!

The electric field and magnetic field combine to form which

of the following types of waves?

a. Spherical wave
b. Elliptical wave
c. Electromagnetic wave
d. Kamehameha wave
 Heat Check!

The “attenuation of free space” is due to:

a. Losses in characteristics impedance of free space

b. Losses due to absorption in the upper atmosphere
c. The decrease in energy per square meter due to
expansion of the wavefront
d. The decrease in energy per square meter due to
absorption of the wavefront
 Heat Check!

Diffraction of electromagnetic waves

a. is caused by reflections from the ground

b. arises only with spherical wavefronts
c. will occur when the waves pass through a large slot
d. may occur around the edge of a sharp obstacle
 Heat Check!

1. At 20 km in free space from a point source, the power

density is 200 μW/m2. What is the power density
25 km away from this source? ANS. 128 µW/m2
2. An isotropic source radiates 100 W of power in free
space. At a distance of 15 km from the source, calculate the
power density and the electric field intensity.

ANS. 35.37 nW/m2

 Heat Check!

1. Light travels from air into an optical fiber with an index of

refraction of 1.44. If the angle of incidence on the end of
the fiber is 22º, what is the angle of refraction inside the
fiber?

ANS. 15.12º
Free Space Path Loss
and Fade Margin
 Free Space Path Loss and Fade Margin

FADING
• Fading is a general term applied to the reduction in
signal strength at the input to a receiver.
• It applies to propagation variables in the physical radio
path that affect changes in the path loss between
transmit and receive antennas.
• Fading typically makes the received signal smaller.
 Free Space Path Loss and Fade Margin

FADING
• Fading is caused by four factors:
1. Variation in distance between transmitter and receiver.
2. Changes in the environmental characteristics of the signal path.
3. The presence of multiple signal paths.
4. Relative motion between the transmitter and receiver.

• Fading is also caused by objects coming between the

transmitter and receiver known as shadow fading.
 Free Space Path Loss and Fade Margin

FADING
• To overcome fading, most communication systems have
a built-in fading margin. That is, they have a high enough
transmitter power and sufficient receiver sensitivity to
ensure that the weaker reflective signals do not degrade
the direct signal as much.
• Multipath fading can also be greatly minimized by using
highly directive antennas, either at the transmitter or at
the receiver or at both.
 Free Space Path Loss and Fade Margin

FREE-SPACE PATH LOSS

• It is a fabricated engineering quantity that evolved from
manipulating communications system link budget
equations
• It is often defined as the loss incurred by an
electromagnetic wave as it propagates in a straight line
through vacuum with no absorption or reflection of
energy from nearby objects.
 Free Space Path Loss and Fade Margin

FREE-SPACE PATH LOSS

• The manipulation of antenna gain terms results is a
distance and frequency-dependent term called free-space
path loss.
• Free-space path loss assumes ideal atmospheric
conditions, so no electromagnetic energy is actually lost
or dissipated—it merely spreads out as it propagates
away from the source, resulting in lower relative power
densities.
 Free Space Path Loss and Fade Margin

FREE-SPACE PATH LOSS

• Mathematically, free-space path loss is equal to
𝟒𝝅𝑫 𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝒇𝑫 𝟐
𝑳𝒑 = ( ) = ( )
𝝀 𝒄

where:
𝜆 = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠)
𝑫 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠)
𝒇 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧)
𝑳𝒑 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 − 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 (𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠)
 Free Space Path Loss and Fade Margin

FREE-SPACE PATH LOSS

• Mathematically, free-space path loss expressed in dB
𝟒𝝅
𝑳𝒑 = 𝟐𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈( 𝒄 ) + 𝟐𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒇(𝑯𝒛) + 𝟐𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈𝑫(𝒎)
𝑳𝒑 = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟒 + 𝟐𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒇(𝑴𝑯𝒛) + 𝟐𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈𝑫(𝒌𝒎)
𝑳𝒑 = 𝟗𝟐. 𝟒 + 𝟐𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒇(𝑮𝑯𝒛) + 𝟐𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈𝑫(𝒌𝒎)
𝑳𝒑 = 𝟗𝟔. 𝟔 + 𝟐𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒇(𝑮𝑯𝒛) + 𝟐𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈𝑫(𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒔)
 Sample Problem

1. Determine the path loss for the following frequencies

and distances:

ANS. 72.4 dB
ANS. 88.52 dB
ANS. 115.92 dB
ANS. 126.38 dB
ANS. 138.42 dB
ANS. 137.51 dB
 Free Space Path Loss and Fade Margin

FADE MARGIN
• Fade margin (sometimes called link margin) is essentially
a “fudge factor” included in system gain equations that
considers the nonideal and less predictable characteristics
of radio wave propagation, such as multipath
propagation (multipath loss) and terrain sensitivity.
• Fade margin also considers system reliability
objectives.
 Free Space Path Loss and Fade Margin

FADE MARGIN
• These characteristics cause temporary, abnormal
atmospheric conditions that alter the free space loss and
are usually detrimental to the overall system
performance.
• Fade margin is included in system gain equations as a
loss.
 Free Space Path Loss and Fade Margin

FADE MARGIN
• Solving the reliability equations for a specified annual
system availability for an unprotected, non-diversity
system yields the following expression:

𝑭𝒎 = 𝟑𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈𝑫 + 𝟏𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟔𝑨𝑩𝒇 − 𝟏𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏 − 𝑹 − 𝟕𝟎

 Free Space Path Loss and Fade Margin

FADE MARGIN

where:
𝑭𝒎 = 𝑓𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 (𝑑𝐵)
𝑫 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠)
𝒇 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝑔𝑖𝑔𝑎ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧)
𝑹 = 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝟏 − 𝑹 = 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑜𝑛𝑒 − 𝑤𝑎𝑦 400𝑘𝑚 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒
 Free Space Path Loss and Fade Margin

FADE MARGIN
 Sample Problem

1. Consider a space-diversity microwave radio system operating

at an RF carrier frequency of 1.8 GHz. Each station has a 2.4-
m-diameter parabolic antenna that is fed by 100 m of air-
filled coaxial cable. The terrain is smooth, and the area has a
humid climate. The distance between stations is 40 km. A
reliability objective of 99.99% is desired. Determine the
amount of free space path loss and the fade margin being
consider in computing for the system gain.
ANS. Fm = 31.4 dB, Lp = 129.55 dB
Terrestrial Propagation
 Terrestrial Propagation

• Electromagnetic waves traveling within Earth’s

atmosphere are called terrestrial waves and
communications between two or more points on Earth is
called terrestrial radio communications.
• Three ways of propagating EM waves within earth’s
atmosphere:
1. Ground Wave Propagation
2. Sky Wave Propagation
3. Space Wave Propagation
 Terrestrial Propagation

• Each of the three propagation modes exists in every

radio system; however, some are negligible in certain
frequency ranges or over a particular type of terrain.
• At frequencies below approx. 2MHz, ground waves
provide the best coverage because ground losses
increases rapidly with frequency.
• Sky waves are used for high-frequency applications and
space waves are used for very high frequencies and
above.
 Terrestrial Propagation

• Each of the three propagation modes exists in every

radio system; however, some are negligible in certain
frequency ranges or over a particular type of terrain.
• At frequencies below approx. 2MHz, ground waves
provide the best coverage because ground losses
increases rapidly with frequency.
• Sky waves are used for high-frequency applications and
space waves are used for very high frequencies and
above.
 Terrestrial Propagation

GROUND WAVE PROPAGATION

• A ground-wave or surface wave is an Earth-guided
electromagnetic wave that travels over the surface of
Earth.
• Ground waves actually follow the curvature of the earth
and can travel at distances beyond the horizon.
• Ground waves must have vertical polarization to be
propagated from an antenna.
 Terrestrial Propagation

GROUND WAVE PROPAGATION

 Terrestrial Propagation

GROUND WAVE PROPAGATION

• Earth’s surface also has dielectric losses. Therefore,
surface waves are attenuated as they propagate.
• This phenomenon produces a slight forward tilt toward
the horizontal increasing losses as the distance from the
transmitter increase.
• Attenuation of the surface wave due to absorption
depends on the conductivity of the Earth’s surface and the
frequency of the EM waves.
 Terrestrial Propagation

GROUND WAVE PROPAGATION

• Surface wave propagation is commonly used for ship-to-
ship and ship-to-shore communications, for radio
navigation and for maritime mobile communications.
• The international navigation system called LORAN-C
operates at 100 kHz and of course the standard AM
broadcast band relies mainly on ground wave
propagation.
 Terrestrial Propagation

Advantages of GROUND WAVE PROPAGATION

• Given enough transmit power, ground waves can be used
to communicate between any two locations in the world
• Ground waves are relatively unaffected by changing
atmospheric conditions
 Terrestrial Propagation

Disadvantages of GROUND WAVE PROPAGATION

• Ground waves requires relatively high transmission
power
• Ground waves are limited to very low, low and medium
frequencies requiring large antennas
• Ground losses vary considerably with surface material
and composition
 Terrestrial Propagation

SKY WAVE PROPAGATION

• Sky-wave signals are radiated by the antenna into the
upper atmosphere, where they are bent back to earth.
• Sky waves are radiated toward the sky where they are
either reflected or refracted back to Earth by the
ionosphere. Because of this, sky wave propagation is
sometimes called ionospheric propagation.
 Terrestrial Propagation

SKY WAVE PROPAGATION

• The ionosphere is the region of space located
approximately 50 km to 400 km (30 mi to 250 mi)
above Earth’s surface.
• The ionosphere is the upper portion of Earth’s
atmosphere. Therefore it absorbs large quantities of the
sun’s radiant energy, which ionizes the air molecules,
creating free electrons.
 Terrestrial Propagation

SKY WAVE PROPAGATION

• When a radio signal goes into the ionosphere, the
different levels of ionization cause the radio waves to
be gradually bent.
• The smaller the angle with respect to the earth, the more
likely it is that the waves will be refracted and sent back
to earth.
• The higher the frequency, the smaller the radiation angle
required for refraction to occur.
Terrestrial Propagation
 Terrestrial Propagation

SKY WAVE PROPAGATION

• Essentially, three layers make up the ionosphere (the D, E
and F layer). It can be seen that all three layers of the
ionosphere vary in location and in ionization density with
the time of day.
• They also fluctuate in a cyclic pattern throughout the
year and according to the 11 year cycle known as
sunspot cycle.
 Terrestrial Propagation

D Layer
• It is the lowest layer of the ionosphere and is located
approximately between 30 mi and 60 mi (50 km to 100
km) above Earth’s surface.
• Because it is the layer farthest from the sun, there is little
ionization and it disappears at night.
• The D layer reflects VLF and LF and absorbs MF and HF
waves.
 Terrestrial Propagation

E Layer
• The E layer is located approximately between 60 mi to
85 mi (100 km to 140 km) above Earth’s surface.
• The E layer sometimes called the Kennelly-Heaviside
Layer after the two scientist who discovered it.
• Its maximum density at approx. 70 mi at noon, when the
sun is at its highest point.
• The E layer aids MF surface wave propagation and
reflects HF waves somewhat during daytime.
 Terrestrial Propagation

E Layer
• The upper portion of E layer is sometimes considered
separately and is called sporadic E layer because it
seems to come and go rather unpredictably.
• The sporadic E layer is caused by solar flares and
sunspot activity. The sporadic E layer is a thin layer with
a very high ionization density.
 Terrestrial Propagation

F Layer
• The F layer is actually made up of two layers, the F1 and
F2 layers.
• During daytime the F1 layer is located between 85 mi
and 155 mi (140 km to 250 km) above Earth’s surface;
• F2 layer is located 85 mi to 185 mi (140 to 300 km)
above Earth’s surface during winter and 155 mi to 220
mi (250 km to 350 km) in the summer.
 Terrestrial Propagation

F Layer
• During the night, F1 layer combines with the F2 layer to
form a single layer.
• The F1 absorbs and attenuates some HF waves, although
most of the waves pass through to the F2 layer, where
they are refracted back to Earth.
 Terrestrial Propagation

SKY WAVE PROPAGATION

• Critical frequency (fc) is defined as the highest
frequency that can be propagated directly upward and
still be returned to Earth by the ionosphere.
• The critical frequency depends on the ionization density
and, therefore, varies with the time of day and season.
Mathematically,
𝒇𝒄 = 𝟖𝟏𝑵𝒎𝒂𝒙
where:
𝑵𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟)
 Terrestrial Propagation

SKY WAVE PROPAGATION

• However, every frequency has a maximum vertical angle
at which it can be propagated and still be refracted back
by the ionosphere. This angle is called the critical angle.
• Ionospheric sounding is sometimes used to determine
the critical frequency. A signal is propagated straight up
from the Earth’s surface and gradually increased in
frequency.
 Terrestrial Propagation

SKY WAVE PROPAGATION

 Terrestrial Propagation

SKY WAVE PROPAGATION

• Maximum usable frequency (MUF) is the highest
frequency that can be used for sky wave propagation
between two specific points on Earth’s surface.

𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 (𝒇𝒄 )

𝑴𝑼𝑭 =
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽𝒊
 Terrestrial Propagation

SKY WAVE PROPAGATION

• MUF, as with the critical frequency, is a limiting frequency
for sky wave at propagation.
• Because of the general instability of the ionosphere, It
has been proven that operating a frequency 85% of the
MUF provides more reliable communications.
• This frequency is sometimes called optimum working
frequency.
 Sample Problem

1. The critical frequency at a particular time is 11.6 MHz. What is

the MUF for a transmitting station if the required angle of
incidence for propagation to a desired destination is 70˚?
ANS. 33.9 MHz
2. Suppose a ray is incident normally in the ionosphere region
with electron density 36x1010/m3, then the critical frequency
is?
ANS. 5.4 MHz
 Terrestrial Propagation

SKY WAVE PROPAGATION

• Virtual height is the height
above Earth’s surface from
which a refracted wave appears
to been reflected. The
maximum height that is
hypothetical reflected wave
would have reached.
 Terrestrial Propagation

SKY WAVE PROPAGATION

• Skip distance (ds) is defined as the minimum distance
from a transmit antenna that a sky wave at a given
frequency will be returned to Earth.
• The area between where the surface waves are
completely dissipated and the point where the first sky
wave returns to Earth is called the quiet or skip zone
because in this area there is no reception.
 Terrestrial Propagation

SKY WAVE PROPAGATION

 Terrestrial Propagation

SPACE WAVE PROPAGATION

• Space wave propagation of electromagnetic energy
includes radiated energy that travels in the lower few
miles of Earth’s atmosphere.
• Space waves include both direct and ground-reflected
waves.
• Direct or space waves are not refracted, nor do they
follow the curvature of the earth
 Terrestrial Propagation

SPACE WAVE PROPAGATION

• Direct waves travel essentially in a straight line between
the transmit and receive antenna. Space wave
propagation with direct waves is commonly called line-
of-sight (LOS) transmission.

• Ground-reflected waves are waves reflected by Earth’s

surface as they propagate between the transmit and
receive antennas.
 Terrestrial Propagation

SPACE WAVE PROPAGATION

 Terrestrial Propagation

SPACE WAVE PROPAGATION

• Because of their straight-line nature, direct wave signals
travel horizontally from the transmitting antenna until
they reach the horizon, at which point they are blocked.
• Thus, the antenna height and the curvature of the
earth are the limiting factors.
• Because of atmospheric refraction, the radio horizon is
𝟒
approx. 𝟑 that of the optical horizon for the common
standard atmosphere.
 Terrestrial Propagation

SPACE WAVE PROPAGATION

𝒅= 𝟐𝒉𝒕
𝑫= 𝟐𝒉𝒕 + 𝟐𝒉𝒓

where:
𝒅 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑖
𝑫 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝑚𝑖)
𝒉𝒕 = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎 (𝑓𝑡)
 Terrestrial Propagation

SPACE WAVE PROPAGATION

𝒅= 𝟏𝟕𝒉𝒕
𝑫= 𝟏𝟕𝒉𝒕 + 𝟏𝟕𝒉𝒓

where:
𝒅 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛 𝑘𝑚
𝑫 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑚)
𝒉𝒕 = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎 (𝑚)
 Sample Problem

1. A taxi company uses a central dispatcher, with an

antenna at the top of a 15 m tower to communicate
with taxicabs. The taxi antennas are on the roofs of the
car, approximately 1.5 m above the ground. Calculate
the maximum communication distance: (a) between the
dispatcher and a taxi (b) between two taxis
ANS. (a) 21 km, (b) 10.1 km
 Terrestrial Propagation

Path Clearance
• The path between transmit and receive antennas to provide an
optical line-of-sight transmission path that should have
adequate clearance with respect to surrounding objects.
• This clearance is necessary to ensure that the path loss under
normal atmospheric conditions does not deviate from its
nominal free-space value and to reduce the effects of severe
fading that could occur during abnormal conditions.
 Terrestrial Propagation

Path Clearance
• If there are reflective surfaces along the path, such as
bodies of water or smooth terrain, the radio waves
reflecting off those surfaces may arrive either out of
phase or in phase with the signals that travel directly to
the receiver.
 Terrestrial Propagation

Path Clearance
• The amount of clearance is generally described in terms
of Fresnel (pronounced “franell”) zones. All points from
which a wave could be reflected with an additional path
length of one-half wavelength form an ellipse that
defines the first Fresnel zone.
 Terrestrial Propagation

Path Clearance
• Waves that reflect off of surfaces within an even Fresnel
zone are out of phase with the direct-path wave and
reduce the power of the received signal.
• Waves that reflect off of surfaces within an odd Fresnel
zone are in phase with the direct-path wave and can
enhance the power of the received signal.
Terrestrial Propagation
 Terrestrial Propagation

Path Clearance
• The general equation for calculating the Fresnel zone
radius at any point in between the endpoints of the link

𝒏𝝀𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐
𝑭𝒏 =
𝒅 𝟏 + 𝒅𝟐

where:
𝑵𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟)
 Terrestrial Propagation

Path Clearance
• To achieve a normal transmission loss approximately
equal to the free-space path loss, the transmission path
should pass over all obstacles with a clearance of at least
0.6 times the distance of the first Fresnel zone and
preferably by a distance equal to or greater than the first
Fresnel zone distance.
 Sample Problem

1. Calculate the maximum radius of the 1st Fresnel Zone of

a 500m link operating at 5.5GHz. If the antennas for the
two devices were located 10m above ground (assuming
that both locations were the same height above sea
level) calculate the maximum height of any obstruction
between the devices.
ANS. 2.61 m, 8.434 m
 Terrestrial Propagation

Path Clearance
• For links that are travelling over long distances (especially
over 1km) the curvature of the Earth should be taken into
account.
• As the Earth's surface curves, the bulge in between the
two links becomes a Fresnel Zone obstacle within its own
right and can impede upon the Fresnel Zones even if
there are no other apparent obstacles.
 Terrestrial Propagation

Path Clearance
• The formula for calculating the effect of the Earth's radius
is as follows:
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑫𝟐
𝑯=
𝟖𝑬𝒓
where:
𝑯 = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ′ 𝑠 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑑 − 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 (𝑚)
𝑫 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 (𝑘𝑚)
𝑬𝒓 = 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑘𝑚 = 𝟖, 𝟓𝟎𝟒 𝑘𝑚
 Terrestrial Propagation

SPACE WAVE PROPAGATION

• Repeater stations extend the communication distance at
VHF, UHF, and microwave frequencies.
• A repeater is a combination of a receiver and a
transmitter operating on separate frequencies.
• The receiver picks up a signal from a remote transmitter,
amplifies it, and retransmits it (on another frequency) to
a remote receiver.
Terrestrial Propagation
 Terrestrial Propagation

SPACE WAVE PROPAGATION

• In a trunked repeater system, multiple repeaters are
under the control of a computer system that can transfer
a user from an assigned but busy repeater to another,
available repeater, thus spreading the communication
load.
• Communication satellites act as fixed repeater stations.
• The receiver-transmitter combination within the satellite
is known as a transponder.
“You can go from failure to success but
you can’t go from excuses to success.
Do more than what anyone else would
ever expect out from you”

- John C. Maxwell