UMaT Geomatic Engineering

GM 376 - ADVANCED GEODESY

Compiled by
Y. Y. Ziggah (PhD)

Department of Geomatic Engineering

University of Mines and Technology
Tarkwa

January, 2020
UMaT Geomatic Engineering

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My first and greatest appreciation goes to the God Almighty, the creator of the universe for
granting me wisdom, knowledge, understanding and protection throughout my life. Without
Him I would not have gotten to this far. May His glorious name be praised!

I am also indebted to Assoc Prof Dr. Bernard Kumi-Boateng for guiding me on lecture note
preparation, teaching and setting examinations questions at the University. His scholarly
guidance, constructive comments and critical revision of the drafts made it possible for me
to complete this lecture note. I also want to thank Dr Mrs. Cynthia Boye and Dr. Issaka
Yakubu for their useful comments and invaluable suggestions during the review of the drafts.

Finally, my appreciation goes to my family for their prayers, love and encouragement when
the going was tough. God bless you all.

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UMaT Geomatic Engineering

COURSE DESCRIPTION
Credit Hours: 2

Content: Geodetic Datum Transformation, Methods of Measurement in Geodesy, Height

Systems, Gravimetry (Gravity Measurement, Establishing Gravity Datum, Earth Gravity
Field (Terrestrial and Satellite) and Gravity Anomaly)

References:
1. Geodesy: The Concept by Petr Vanicek and Edward J. Krakiwsky
2. Geodesy by Wofgang Torge
3. Geodesy: Introduction to Geodetic Datums and Geodetic Systems by Zhiping Lu,
Yunying Qu and Shubo Qiao
4. Brief Outline of the Molodenskij Theory by Petr Vanicek
5. Motions, Gravity Field and Figure of the Earth by Oldrich Novotny

Grading: Assignment, Quizzes, Class Attendance and Field Work 40%

Final Exam 60%

Assessment of Lecturer: At the end of the course each student will be required to assess
the course and the lecturer’s performance by answering a questionnaire specifically
prepared to obtain the views and opinions of the student about the course and lecturer.

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UMaT Geomatic Engineering

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i

COURSE DESCRIPTION ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

CHAPTER ONE 1

1. GEODETIC DATUM TRANSFORMATION 1

1.1. INTRODUCTION 1

1.2. GEOCENTRIC TRANSLATION MODEL 3

1.3. 2D CONFORMAL COORDINATE TRANSFORMATION 5

1.4. 2D AFFINE TRANSFORMATION 7

1.5. 2D PROJECTIVE TRANSFORMATION MODEL 8

1.6. POLYNOMIAL TRANSFORMATION MODEL 10

1.7. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF THE DERIVED PARAMETERS 11

1.8 REVIEW AND STUDY QUESTIONS 11

CHAPTER TWO 13

2. HEIGHT SYSTEMS 13

2.1. INTRODUCTION 13

2.2. NON-UNIQUENESS OF LEVELLED HEIGHT 14

2.6. DYNAMIC HEIGHTS 20

2.6. DETERMINATION OF HEIGHT ANOMALY 21

2.7. REVIEW AND STUDY QUESTIONS 23

CHAPTER THREE 26

3. SPACE GEODETIC METHODS OF MEASUREMENT IN GEODESY 26

3.1. Astronomic Measurement 26

3.2. Terrestrial Geodetic Measurement 27

3.3. Space Geodetic Measurement 27

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UMaT Geomatic Engineering

3.3.1. Satellite Laser Ranging 28

3.3.2. Very Long Baseline Interferometry 29

3.3.4. Gravimetry 32

CHAPTER FOUR 35

3. GRAVIMETRY 35

3.1. INTRODUCTION 35

3.2. PURPOSES OF GRAVITY MEASUREMENTS 36

3.3. PRINCIPLES OF GRAVITY MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENT TYPES 36

3.4. ABSOLUTE GRAVIMETRY 37

3.4.1. Pendulum 37

3.4.2. Free-Fall Method 38

3.4.3. Rise and Fall Method 40

3.5. RELATIVE GRAVIMETRY 41

3.6. AIRBORNE GRAVIMETRY Error! Bookmark not defined.

CHAPTER FOUR 43

4. GRAVITY REDUCTIONS AND ANALYSIS 43

4.1. INTRODUCTION 43

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 CHAPTER ONE
1. GEODETIC DATUM TRANSFORMATION
1.1. INTRODUCTION
Transformation of points from one coordinate system to another is a common problem
encountered by geospatial and non-geospatial professionals in their related activities.
Since the inception of the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) such as Global
Positioning System (GPS), many land surveyors, management agencies, regional
departments of surveying and mapping, and others have struggled with the problem of
converting their multitudes of stations to the defined global and local datums. This is
because before the advent of GPS local geodetic datums that are non-geocentric in
nature and established based on classical surveying methods like triangulation,
trilateration, traverse and astronomical observation were used for surveying and
mapping purposes. Therefore, to be able to apply GPS positional measurement based
on a geocentric datum known as the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84) within the
local system (non-geocentric) will require the determination of transformation
parameters. These determined parameters are in turn used to transform coordinates
between the global and local datums. To determine the transformation parameters
requires common points in both reference frames. Common points are those points
whose coordinates are known in both geodetic reference systems. Actually, the accuracy
of the common point coordinates and other factors such as the number and geometric
distribution of the common points all exert an influence on the solution of transformation
parameters. Thus, in practical cases, there is the need to choose a certain number of
common points with relatively high accuracy and with even distribution and wide
coverage.

Transformation of coordinate can therefore be defined as the mathematical procedures

that are applied when two or more horizontal and vertical systems are used in the same
geographic area and one wishes to transfer the coordinates of points within the area
from one system to another. Coordinate transformation can be three-dimensional (3D),
2D or even 1D depending on the given requirement.

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With the advancement in satellite positioning technology, several new procedures have
been put forth to carry out coordinate transformation with the primary objective of
improving transformation accuracy. The conventional transformation methods can be
grouped into conformal, affine, projective and Euclidean. These methods are usually
applied by using least squares to determine transformation parameters. In practice, the
most common alternatives could be categorised into Artificial Intelligence (AI) technology,
partitioning methods, Ill-posed approach, quaternions approach, dynamic datum
transformation approach, Procrustes algorithm to mention but a few. It must be known
that coordinate transformation has been chiefly dominated by the mentioned methods
due to their achievable accuracy. These methods are able to describe the functional
relationships between pairs of two- or three-dimensional coordinates. The methods differ
from each other in several ways, including a prior condition, the type of coordinates
used and the interpretation of results.

Coordinate transformations are used extensively in GNSS surveying and in the field of
photogrammetry and remote sensing. In geodesy, the three-dimensional (3D)
transformations are used to convert coordinates related to the World Geodetic System
1984 (WGS 84) datum to a local datum. For example, in Ghana, this 3D transformation
is use to convert WGS 84 coordinates to its Accra datum. However, in photogrammetry,
they are used in the interior and exterior orientation of digital images of structures and
aerial photographs. In surveying engineering, they form part of the monitoring and
control systems used in large manufacturing projects such as the construction of
hydroelectric dams (for example, the three gorges dam in China, Akosombo dam and
Bui dam in Ghana), refineries (gold and oil) and tunneling operations among others.
The two-dimensional (2D) transformations are used; for example in the cadastral surveys
for re-establishments or when converting separate surveys into a common reference
coordinate system.

The choice of the most appropriate transformation model is influenced by factors such as:
1. Whether the model is to be applied to a small area or over a large region.
2. Whether one or both networks have significant distortions.

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 3. Whether the networks are three-dimensional (3D) in nature, two-dimensional (2D)
or even one-dimensional (1D).
4. The accuracy required.

In order to ascertain the precision of the derived transformation parameters, the

reference standard deviation, reference adjustment variance and the individual standard
deviations of the parameters determined are used. Moreover, the parameters determined
must be uncorrelated as possible when looking at the magnitudes and standard
deviations of the different parameters. Thus, the standard deviations of the individual
parameters must not be equal to or larger than the parameters determined otherwise
there is strong justification to remove the parameters. Statistical techniques such as the
horizontal positional error, Root Mean Square Error of the horizontal positional error,
standard deviation of the horizontal positional error, maximum and minimum horizontal
positional error are some of the indicators used to evaluate the transformation models
performance.

In this chapter, a 3D and three 2D transformation models that have been applied to
transform coordinates in the Ghana geodetic reference network is considered. The 3D
transformation model considered is the Geocentric Translation Model also known as the
three-parameter similarity model. The 2D transformation models include conformal,
affine, projective and polynomial. The application of least squares to determine the
transformation parameters of the models will be demonstrated in the class by using
computer programming language, specifically MATLAB.

1.2. GEOCENTRIC TRANSLATION MODEL

Geocentric Translation Model (GTM) also known as the three-parameter model was
developed by the then Defence and Mapping Agency (DMA) now National Geospatial-
Intelligence Agency (NGA), USA. The GTM only applies the three-dimensional origin
shift (translation parameters) with no regard for rotations and scale changes between the
reference systems. That is, the GTM considers only the displacement vectors between the
origins of two reference systems.

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Because of that, low transformation accuracy is usually produced by GTM as compared
to other 3D coordinate transformation models. Moreover, the heterogeneous nature of
local geodetic networks contributes to the inability of the GTM to achieve higher
transformation accuracy. This is because the local geodetic networks have not been
adjusted and were established through classical surveying techniques of triangulation,
traverse, and astronomical observations. Hence, unwanted distortions are introduced
into the local geodetic network which could not be handled efficiently by the GTM.

Nevertheless, GTM could be applied in situations where higher accuracy is not

paramount. For instance, in field surveying works such as recce, the GTM parameters
could be applied just by using a calculator which overcomes the complexity of the
similarity formulas; in GIS data collection for geodatabase generation; and small scale
topographic mapping surveys. Also, it could be used to transform thematic type data
such as vegetation, soil type and geology where the accuracy is not critical.

Generally, the translation parameters used by the GTM are mainly obtained from
Abridged Molodensky, Bursa-Wolf, and Molodensky-Badekas model. However,
Featherstone (1997) argued that GTM which solely depends on the translation
parameters would produce inconsistent results due to different translation values
obtained from the similarity models. Alternatively, the simple arithmetic mean has been
widely adopted as a technique that could represent the characteristics of the datasets
more appropriately in the estimation of GTM parameters. The GTM is defined as:

X   X   x 
Y    Y    y 
 
 Z  global  Z   z  local

The (X,Y,Z)global and (x,y,z)local are coordinates related to the global datum (e.g. WGS84)
and local datum (Ghana War Office 1926 or Clark 1880). ∆X, ∆Y, and ∆Z are the
translation parameters. In the GTM, ∆X, ∆Y, and ∆Z are estimated in (X, Y, Z) cartesian
coordinates by assuming a centric value of (0, 0, 0) for one datum and defining the other
datum centre by the translation vectors. These displacement parameters represent the
shifts in origin between two geodetic datums. Generally, the arithmetic mean is used to
compute the unknown translation parameters.

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EXAMPLE 1
A multinational company has awarded you a contract to determine transformation
parameters applicable to their working area using the Three Parameter Transformation
Model. The following data sets were provided by the client and to be used for the
parameter determination.

WAR OFFICE 1926 WGS84

POINT ID WAR_LONG WAR_LAT War_h WGS_LONG WGS_LAT WGS_h
CFP 109 -0.42385 5.4573 82.06617 -0.42356 5.46009 78.2744
CFP 200 -0.5596 5.62302 307.9119 -0.55932 5.6258 304.9379
CFP 225 -1.50135 5.45227 279.5252 -1.5011 5.45509 275.1437
GCS 102 -0.73468 5.27996 88.3693 -0.73441 5.28274 83.4515
CFP 155 -0.12229 5.93625 525.5954 -0.122 5.93903 524.5492
GCS 179 -1.03357 6.36934 491.7309 -1.03331 6.37212 492.5083
CFP 180R -1.28646 6.05101 438.75487 -0.72970 5.94311 311.09260
CFP 217 -0.72998 5.94033 312.45340 -0.76557 6.57580 782.20840

As a geodesist:
i. Apply the three parameter similarity transformation model to determine the
parameters;
ii. Assess the precision of the transformation parameters determined;
iii. Test the transformation model formulated; and
iv. Perform statistical analysis on the transformation results to check the accuracy of
the transformation model.

1.3. 2D CONFORMAL COORDINATE TRANSFORMATION

The two-dimensional conformal coordinate transformation, also known as the four-
parameter similarity transformation or the bi-dimensional transformation model, has the
characteristic that true shape is retained after transformation. It is used typically in
surveying when converting separate surveys into a common reference coordinate
system. An example of this is the procedure used in much commercial software to
convert satellite-derived coordinates into a local reference frame through a process
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known as localization. For example, this procedure is used to convert GPS-derived WGS
84 coordinates into the Ghana National coordinate system. The two-dimensional
conformal coordinate transformation can be thought of as a three-step process that
involves:

1. Scaling to create equal dimensions in the two coordinate systems.

2. Rotation to make the reference axes of the two systems parallel.
3. Translations to create a common origin for the two coordinate systems.

Scaling and rotation are each defined by one parameter. The translations involve two
parameters. Thus, there are a total of four parameters in this transformation. To
determine the four transformation parameters (scale, rotations and translations) requires
common points in both cartesian systems. Common points are those points whose
coordinates are known in both cartesian systems and each common point will yield two
equations; one equation linking X-coordinates in both systems and one equation linking
Y-coordinates. The 2D conformal transformation requires a minimum of two control
points to determine the four parameters uniquely. If more than two control points are
available, a least squares adjustment is possible. After determining values for the
transformation parameters, any points in the original system can be transformed into the
second system.

The observation equations for the 2D conformal transformation are

X  S cos  x  S sin  y  Tx
Y  S sin  x  S cos  y  Ty

Now letting S cos  a, S sin  b, Tx  c, and Ty and adding residuals to make

redundant equations consistent, the resulting equation can be written as

ax  by  c  X
bx  ay  d  Y
EXAMPLE 3
A survey conducted in an arbitrary xy coordinate system produced station coordinates
for A, B, and C as well as for stations 1 through 4. Stations A, B, and C also have known
state plane coordinates, labeled E and N. It is required to derive the state plane
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coordinates of stations 1 through 4 using the 2D conformal transformation model.
Develop a computational program in MATLAB to do the same as the above.

The table below has a tabulation of the arbitrary coordinates and state plane
coordinates.
POINT E N x y
A 1049422.400 51089.200 121.622 −128.066
B 1049413.950 49659.300 141.228 187.718
C 1049244.950 49884.950 175.802 135.728
1 174.148 −120.262
2 513.520 −192.130
3 754.444 −67.706
4 972.788 120.994

1.4. 2D AFFINE TRANSFORMATION

The two-dimensional affine coordinate transformation is also known as the six parameter
transformation. It is a slight variation from the two-dimensional conformal
transformation. In the affine transformation there is the additional allowance for two
different scale factors; one in the x direction and the other in the y direction. This
transformation is commonly used in photogrammetry for interior orientation. That is, it is
used to transform photo coordinates from an arbitrary measurement photo coordinate
system to the camera fiducial coordinate system, and thus account for the differential
shrinkages that occur in the x and y directions. As in the conformal transformation, the
affine transformation also applies two translations of the origin, and a rotation about the
origin, plus a small nonorthogonality correction between the x and y axes. This results in
a total of six unknowns. The observation equations for the affine transformation are
ax  by  c  X  VX
dx  ey  f  Y  VY

These equations are linear and can be solved uniquely when three control points exist
since each control point results in an equation set in the form of the equations as shown

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above. Thus, three points yield six equations involving six unknowns. If more than three
control points are available, a least squares solution can be obtained.

EXAMPLE 4
Photo coordinates, which have been measured using a digitizer, must be transformed
into the camera’s fiducial coordinate system. The four fiducial points and the additional
points were observed in the digitizer’s xy coordinate system and are listed in the table
below together with the known camera XY fiducial coordinates.
a. Use the 2D Affine coordinate transformation model to determine the unknown values
by manual calculations.
b. Develop a computational program in MATLAB to do the same as the above.
POINT X Y x y SX SY
1 -113.000 0.003 0.764 5.960 0.104 0.112
3 0.001 112.993 5.062 10.541 0.096 0.12
5 112.998 0.003 9.663 6.243 0.112 0.088
7 0.001 -112.999 5.350 1.654 0.096 0.104
306 1.746 9.354
307 5.329 9.463

1.5. 2D PROJECTIVE TRANSFORMATION MODEL

A projective transformation also known as projectivity is a transformation used in
projective geometry: it is the composition of a pair of perspective projections. Levy
(1995) emphasized that a transformation that maps lines to lines but does not necessarily
preserve parallelism is a projective transformation. This transformation describes what
happens to the perceived positions (perspective projection) of observed objects when the
point of view of the observer (center of the projection) changes. Projective
transformation projects every figure into a projectively equivalent figure, leaving all its
projective properties invariants. This transformation does not preserve distances, sizes or
angles but do preserve incidence and cross-ratio: two properties, which are important in
projective geometry. A common example of a projective transformation is giving by a
perspective transformation. This gives a transformation from one plane to another, but if

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the two planes are identified by fixing a cartesian system in each, we get a projective
transformation from the plane to itself.

A projective transformation can be in one-dimensional projective line, a two-dimensional

projective plane and three-dimensional projective space. In this chapter, the two-
dimensional projective transformation will be considered.

The two-dimensional projective transformations is a type of automorphism (a symmetry

of the objects and a way of mapping to itself while preserving all of its structure) of the
projective plane onto itself. This type of transformation is also known as the eight-
parameter transformation. It is appropriate to use when one two-dimensional coordinate
system is projected onto another nonparallel system. This transformation is commonly
used in photogrammetry and remote sensing and can also be used to transform
coordinates between local horizontal datums.

The two- dimensional projective transformation shown below without derivations is

given as:
a x  b1 y  c a x  b2 y  c
X 1 ,Y 2
d1x  d2 y  1 d1x  d2 y  1

where X and Y are target datum coordinates while, x, y are source datum coordinate.
Upon inspection it is evident from the equation that if d 1=d2=0 then an affine
transformation in two-dimensions are formed. With eight unknowns, this transformation
requires a minimum of 4 common control points. If there are more than four common
control points, least squares technique must be applied. Since the projective
transformation equation is nonlinear in their unknowns, the solution to this equation
requires linearization using Taylor’s theorem. The application of this approach to
linearise the projective equation will be demonstrated in class.

EXAMPLE 5
Given the data in the table, determine the best-fit projective transformation parameters
and use them to transform the remaining points into the XY coordinate system.

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 POINT X Y X y SX SY
1 1420.407 895.362 90.0 90.0 0.3 0.3
2 895.887 351.398 50.0 40.0 0.3 0.3
3 -944.926 641.434 -30.0 20.0 0.3 0.3
4 968.084 -1384.138 50.0 -40.0 0.3 0.3
5 1993.262 2367.511 110.0 -80.0 0.3 0.3
6 -3382.284 3487.762 -100 80.0 0.3 0.3
7 -60.0 20.0 0.3 0.3
8 -100.0 -100.0 0.3 0.3

1.6. POLYNOMIAL TRANSFORMATION MODEL

Generally, it is believed that contemporary datums should be geocentric due to many
advantages of the geocentric systems over local geodetic system. For example,
geocentric datums have a physically meaningful and unambiguous definition of the
origin and an immediate relation with the global systems such as those provided by the
GPS. However, most national geodetic networks are referenced to non-geocentric
datums. To transform coordinates of a geodetic network referenced to non-geocentric
datum to a geocentric datum (global datum) and vice versa, it is necessary to know the
relation between the two datums via a simple and accurate datum transformation
technique. The polynomial model is one of the transformation models implemented in
cases where one or both of the coordinate reference systems exhibits lack of
homogeneity (distortions) in orientation and scale. These small distortions are then
approximated by the polynomial functions in latitude and longitude or in Easting and
Northing. Depending on the degree of variability in the distortions, approximation may
be carried out using polynomials of degree 2, 3, 4, or higher.

The general form of the polynomial model is given as

an x n  an 1x n 1  ...  a2 x 2  a1x  a0

where a0 ,..., an are constants and x is the indeterminate.

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1.7. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF THE DERIVED PARAMETERS
Numerous methods exist for determining datum transformation parameters, which in
return are used to transform coordinates on different datums. However, caution should
be exercised when applying the resulting parameters since the parameters could be
statistically insignificant. As an example, when using a two-dimensional conformal
coordinate transformation with a data set having four control points, non-zero residuals
would be expected. Moreover, if a projective transformation was used, this data set
would yield a unique solution and thus, the residual would be zero. Is the projective a
more appropriate transformation for this data set? Is this truly a better fit? Guidance to
the answers of these questions can be obtained by checking the statistical validity of the
parameters.

The adjusted parameters divided by their standard deviations represent a t statistic with v
degrees of freedom. If a parameter is to be judged as statistically different from zero, and
thus significant, the computed t-value (the test statistic) must be greater than t 2,v  .

parameter
Simply stated, the test statistic is t 
SD

1.8 REVIEW AND STUDY QUESTIONS

1. What is the difference between coordinate conversion and coordinate transformation?
Is there any similarity or similarities between them? Give reason or reasons for your
answer.
2. Give a brief account about the concept of coordinate transformation.

3. State the factors that influence the choice of transformation model for a specific area.

4. State the three significance of coordinate transformation in geodesy.

5. Points A, B, C, D, and E have their coordinates known in both an XY system and a xy

system. Points F and G have their coordinates known only in the xy system. These
coordinates are shown in the table below. Using a two-dimensional conformal
coordinate transformation, determine:
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 a. the transformation parameters and their standard deviations.
b. the most probable coordinates and their standard deviations for F and G in the
XY coordinate system.
c. the rotation angle and scale factor.

Point X Y x y Sx SY
A 535802.071 245462.419 1221.350 1031.870 0.104 0.088
B 544118.703 252826.247 4607.030 1046.020 0.095 0.081
C 539001.505 256629.861 4200.130 2946.310 0.092 0.097
D 541979.517 252118.983 3974.840 1314.280 0.107 0.111
E 539287.964 253248.381 3585.500 2114.280 0.105 0.111
F 2767.730 1621.580 0.091 0.098
G 2596.550 2693.000 0.108 0.099

6. Do parts (a), (b) and (c) in Question 5 using a two-dimensional affine coordinate
transformation.

7. Develop a computational program in MATLAB that calculates the coefficient and

constants matrix for each of the transformation methods below. Use data provided in
Question 5.
a. Two-dimensional conformal coordinate transformation
b. Two-dimensional affine transformation
c. Polynomial coordinate transformation model

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 CHAPTER TWO
2. HEIGHT SYSTEMS
2.1. INTRODUCTION
Modern trends ·in geodesy demand an increased accuracy of relative heights and height
changes. Precise spirit levelling is known to be the most accurate method available to
meet such requirements. It is also known that unique height determination can be made
only by taking into account the convergence and irregularities of the equipotential
surfaces of the earth's actual gravity field. In the context of levelling, this is accomplished
by supplementing the spirit levelling with actual gravity values observed along levelling
routes.

The height of a point on the Earth’s surface can be determined by leveling, trigonometric
leveling, and GPS measurement. Whichever method is used, a reference surface (zero-
elevation surface) and reference line (the line along which the height is measured) will be
involved. The height of a point on the Earth’s surface is geometrically defined as the
distance from the point along the reference line to the reference surface. Different
reference lines or reference surfaces for heights will constitute different height systems.
Obviously, the height of the same Earth’s surface point in different height systems also
varies.

For the height system to be chosen, the following requirements need to be fulfilled:
1. To represent the position of a point, the height of the point is required to be
unambiguous and independent of the leveling path.
2. In practice, when converted to the adopted height system, the corrections to the
measured height differences for points in a limited area should be very small so that they
can possibly be ignored while dealing with low-order leveling data.
3. From the geometric problem-solving perspective, the ellipsoidal height is the sum of
the measured height and the geoid height; thus it requires that the adopted height
system should make the method for determining the difference between the geoid and

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the reference ellipsoid (normal ellipsoid) sufficiently rigorous and convenient, as well as
practical.
4. From the physical problem-solving perspective, the chosen height system is also
required to ensure that the height of each point on the same level surface be equivalent
as much as possible. This is because the leveling data is actually used to determine the
physical problem of the relative position of the Earth’s natural surface and the level
surface of the real gravity field, which is essential in avoiding the “water runs uphill”
phenomenon in engineering application.

2.2. NON-UNIQUENESS OF LEVELLED HEIGHT

The principle of levelling is based on the fact that level surfaces are parallel to each other.
In relatively small areas, the level surfaces on which the fore and back rod are placed are
viewed as parallel to each other. The measured distance between the two level surface s
is the height difference between the two points. It is known that level surfaces are not
generally parallel. When the levelling lines are of greater lengths in larger measured areas,
the level surfaces cannot be considered as parallel, meaning that the influence of non-
parallel level surfaces on levelled heights must be consider ed.

As shown in Figure 2.1, suppose that the connecting surface between points O, E, and C
is the geoid (reference surface for heights); then the observed height of point B can be
derived by summing the measured height differences Δh1, Δh2, . . . along the leveling
line OAB at each station:
B
HM  h1  h2     h . (1)
OAB

The subscript M indicates measured height. The height of point B can also be calculated

by summing the leveled height differences h1' , h2' , along levelling line ONB:

 B  h1  h2   
HM  h . (2)
ONB

Due to the unparallel nature of level surfaces, the corresponding height differences h

and h are not equal; thus H M

B
 B are not equal either.
and H M

In Figure 2.1, OABNO is a closed leveling loop, and obviously:

Advanced Geodesy 14 Ziggah, January 2020

  h   h, (3)
OAB BNO

 h   h  w  0. (4)
OAB BNO

So, similarly to errorless leveling, the error of closure of leveling loops w still cannot be
zero. Such closing error of leveling loops caused by unparallel level surfaces is called
theoretical misclosure. The height of a point should be single-valued and be independent
of the leveling routes. So, in dealing with leveling results, the properties of the theory of
the Earth’s shape must be taken into consideration; the height system must be defined
reasonably and corrections applied. These corrections should be very small so that they
could be neglected in dealing with low-order leveling results.

Figure 2.1 Effects of non-parallel level surface on leveling

2.3. GEOPOTENTIAL NUMBERS

Let O be a point at sea level, that is, on the geoid; usually a suitable point on the sea
shore is taken. Let A be another point, connected to O by leveling line. Then, the
potential difference between A and O can be determined using the relation

Advanced Geodesy 15 Ziggah, January 2020

 A
C  Wo  W A   g dh (5)
o

Where; C is the geopotential number, OA is the level line, dh is the difference in height
measured during each setup of leveling, and g is the mean value of gravity along the
leveling lines. Hence, geopotential number can be defined as the difference between the
potential at the geoid and the potential at point A. It is worth stating that leveling
combined with gravity measurements furnishes potential differences.

With the geoid as the reference surface, geopotential numbers are not measured in
meters but in potential differences in kGal m (105 cm2/s2). As a potential difference, the
geopotential number C is independent of the particular leveling line used for relating the
point to sea level. It is the same for all points of a level surface because the potential W is
a function of position only; therefore, to every point there corresponds a unique value W.
Thus, on the same level surface, the geopotential number of every point is equal and its

value can be obtained by multiplying dh by the mean value of gravity (g) for the setup.
The leveling results expressed by geopotential numbers can be conveniently converted
to the orthometric height, normal height, and the dynamic height. The geopotential
number C is measured in geopotential units (g.p.u), where 1 g.p.u = 1 kgal m = 1000
gal m.

The geopotential number is positive above the geoid, negative below it, constant
everywhere on the same geopotential surface and equals zero for the geoid. The reason
for such choice is to make the numerical value of the geopotential numbers
approximately equal to the heights of the corresponding points above sea level in metres.
Although the geopotential number does not have the dimension of a length, it can be
considered as a natural measure for height. Using g  0.98 kgal in C, we have
C  g H  0.98 H , (6)
so that the geopotential numbers in g.p.u are almost equal to the height above sea level
in meters. It is worth mentioning that the geopotential numbers were adopted at a
meeting of a Sub commission of the International Association of Geodesy (IAG) at
Florence in 1955.

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2.4. ORTHOMETRIC HEIGHTS
One of the most interesting and challenging tasks in the field of geodetic surveying is the
accurate determination of orthometric heights from GPS measurements taking into
account leveling data and additional gravity field information. Rigorous determination of
orthometric heights requires knowledge of gravity, not only along the level line at the
earth’s surface, but also beneath the earth’s surface, along the plumb lines extending
from benchmark to the geoid.
Referenced to the geoid, the orthometric height (HO) is the length between the geoid
(reference surface) and a point on the Earth’s surface measured along the plumb line. As
shown in Figure 2.1, the height differences between each level surface measured from

point B along the plumb line is expressed by ΔH, then H OB , the orthometric height of

point B is:

H OB  1   2        d . (7)
CB

Since the level surface is an equipotential surface, the potential energy difference
between two infinite close level surfaces in Figure 2.1 is given by

gdh  g B d
g , (8)
d  B dh
g
where g is the gravity at dh along the leveling line and gB is the gravity at dH along the
plumb line from point B. Substituting the dH (Equation 8) into the orthometric height
(Equation 7) gives:
g
H OB   d   B
dh . (9)
CB OAB g

The gravity along the plumb line, gB, varies with depth. Let their average be g mB ; then:

1
H OB 
g mB
 gdh , (10)
OAB

where g mB is a certain value relative to a certain surface point.  gdh , independent of the
levelling path, is the potential energy difference between the level surface passing
through point B and the geoid. So, the orthometric height is a unique value. However,

Advanced Geodesy 17 Ziggah, January 2020

g mB is the average gravity at depth and we cannot know for sure the subsurface mass

density distribution, g mB therefore can neither be measured nor precisely calculated.

Thus, the orthometric height of a point can only be approximately evaluated.

2.5. NORMAL HEIGHTS

The theory of normal heights, their practical advantages, precise computations and
freedom from any hypothesis concerning the actual density distribution within the earth
crust have excited great scientific and practical interests among geodesists in different
countries. The concept of normal heights was formulated by the Russian geodesist M.S.
Molodensky in 1945.

The normal height H NA of a terrain point A based on actual gravity is defined as

1
H NA 
 mB
 g dh (11)
OAB

Where g can be measured through gravimetry along the level line, dh can be measured

by leveling, and  mB can be calculated by the normal gravity formulae given as


 o   a 1   sin 2   1 sin 2 2  (12)

where
 a is the value of gravity at the equator,  is the geodetic latitude of the

computation point, and coefficients  , 1 . The equatorial gravity  a is given by:

GM  3 3 125 2 
a  1  m  mf  mf 
ab  2 7 294 
5 17 15
   f  m  mf  m 2 (13)
2 14 4
1 5
1   f 2  mf
8 8

 2 a 2b
where m  , b denotes the semi-minor axis of the ellipsoid.
GM

If the normal height of each surface point is HN, measuring HN downward along the
normal gravity line (plumb line) results in the corresponding points of each surface point.
A continuous curved surface as the reference surface for normal heights can be formed
by connecting these corresponding points. It is also called the quasi-geoid because of its

Advanced Geodesy 18 Ziggah, January 2020

close approximation to the geoid. Therefore, the so-called normal height system is the
height system with the quasi-geoid as its reference surface. The normal height of a
surface point is the distance from this point to the quasi-geoid along the normal gravity
line.

As an auxiliary surface for calculation, the quasi-geoid approximates, but does not equal,
the geoid. It has no strict geometric or physical meanings. The difference between the
quasi-geoid and the geoid (i.e., the difference between the orthometric height and the
normal height) is associated with the height of a point and the mass distribution inside
the Earth. Neglecting the sea surface topography, at mean sea level the observed height
difference dh  0, so H N  H p  0 ; that is, the quasi-geoid coincides with the geoid on the

oceans. Hence, the height origin as the reference surface for heights is applicable to both
the quasi-geoid and the geoid. In plain areas, the difference between the quasi-geoid
and the geoid is a few centimeters whereas in mountainous regions it can reach values of
about 3 m.

In real applications, using equation (13) to calculate the normal height is not convenient.
Considering that the actually measured gravity value is made up of two components, the
normal gravity  and the gravity anomaly g    , the corresponding normal height can
be calculated by adding the observed height difference for each segment of leveling and
the correction to non-parallel spheropotential surfaces and the gravity anomaly
correction. Omitting derivation, the result is:

   g   dh
1 1
H NA   dh 
 mB OAB
o   oB dh 
 mB OAB
(14)
OAB

where the meanings of each term on the right side of the equation are as follows:
The first term is the leveled height difference. In the second term, γ0 is the normal gravity
of each point along the leveling line OAB. Since the spheropotential surfaces are also not

parallel and vary with latitude,  o   oB , this term is called the correction to the non-

parallel spheropotential surface. In the third term, (g - γ) is the gravity anomaly, resulting
from the inconsistency between the spheropotential surface (spherops) and the
geopotential surface (geops).

Advanced Geodesy 19 Ziggah, January 2020

2.6. DYNAMIC HEIGHTS
A level surface is equipotential, on which the gravity potential of each point is equal, but
the orthometric height and normal height of each point can be different. This would
cause inconvenience to the design and construction of large-scale water conservancy
projects. A new height system is therefore needed to make “the height of each point on
the same level surface equal.” Hence, a dynamic height system is usually adopted in a
water conservancy project. The dynamic height system is a system where the dynamic
height of each point is represented by the normal height (HN) of the point at 450 latitude.

The dynamic heights H dyn is defined by

C
H dyn  (15)
o
where  o is normal gravity for an arbitrary standard latitude, usually 450:

 45  9.806199203ms 2  980.6199203 gal

0

for the GRS 1980. In other words, dynamic heights are geopotential numbers scaled by
a particular constant value chosen in 1984 to be normal gravity at 45 0 latitude on the
GRS80 reference ellipsoid. Just note and keep in mind that 1 gal = 10-2 ms-2 and,
accordingly, 1 mgal = 10-5 ms-2.

The dynamic height differs from the geopotential number only in the scale or the unit:
The division by the constant  o in the dynamic height merely converts a geopotential

number into a length. However, the dynamic height has no geometrical meaning
whatsoever, so that the division by an arbitrary  o somehow obscures the true physical

meaning of a potential difference. Hence, the geopotential numbers are, for reasons of
theory and for practically establishing a national or continental height system, preferable
to the dynamic heights. In practice the dynamic height is usually referred to as the
dynamic number. The reference surface (height datum) for the dynamic system of
heights is the geoid.

Advanced Geodesy 20 Ziggah, January 2020

Dynamic Correction
B B
It is sometimes convenient to convert the measured height difference  n AB  n   dn ,
A A

into a difference of dynamic height by adding a small correction. Using equations (1)
and (3) gives
A
H AB
dyn
 H Bdyn  H Adyn 
1
CB  C A  1
 g dn (16)
o o B

which may be rewritten as

g o
B B B
1
g   o   o dn   dn  
o 
H AB
dyn
 dn , (17)
A A A
o

So that

H AB
dyn
 n AB  DC AB , (18)

where

g o g o
B B
DC AB   dn   n (19)
A
o A o

is the dynamic correction.

As a matter of fact, the dynamic correction may also be used for computing differences
of geopotential numbers. We at once obtain
C B  C A   o n AB   o C AB (20)

2.6. DETERMINATION OF HEIGHT ANOMALY

As pointed out previously, the geodetic height of a surface point consists of the normal
height and the height anomaly. Given the geodetic height and the normal height of a
point, the height anomaly can be computed from the difference between the two,
namely
H  H N 
(21)
  H  H N

where H N is the normal height, H is the geodetic height and  is the distance from the

quasi-geoid to the reference ellipsoid, called the height anomaly. Figure 2.2 shows the

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relationship between the reference ellipsoid, the geoid, and the quasi-geoid and their
corresponding geodetic height, orthometric height, and normal height.

Figure 2.2: Reference Ellipsoid, geoid, and quasi-geoid

Using GPS measurements, the geodetic longitude  and latitude  and the geodetic

height h of a surface point can be determined precisely. If leveling is also carried out on
the GPS point (this point is called the GPS-leveling point), then the normal height HN of
this point can be calculated and the height anomaly of this point can be determined by
using equation (17).

By setting a few GPS-leveling points in a certain region, several discrete ζ values of this
region can be determined, and thus the quasi-geoid of this region can be fitted through a
mathematical method (i.e., deducing the height anomaly of an unknown point). Such a
method for deducing the height anomaly is called the GPS leveling method. A variety of
mathematical methods are used in GPS leveling, such as the polynomial fitting method,
polyhedral function fitting, the moving surface method, the weighted average method,
the collocation method, etc. In real applications, GPS leveling and gravity data are
usually used for a combined solution. Here, we will only present the basics of GPS
leveling rather than provide a thorough review of the good and bad points of each
method.

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2.7. REVIEW AND STUDY QUESTIONS
1. Explain with formulae the concepts of orthometric heights and normal heights.

2. State three requirements for selecting height systems.

3. Briefly elaborate on the concept of the following height systems by stating clearly the
conditions under which each is applied.
 Dynamic heights
 Orthometric Heights
 Normal Heights
 Height Anomaly

4. University of Mines and Technology geodetic survey Benchmark station, TSM89/A

has a geopotential number of 1660.419936 g.p.u. If the normal gravity value of
TSM89/A is 980.6199203 gal, determine the dynamic height of TSM89/A.

5. Calculate the geodetic and geocentric latitudes of a point P on the ellipsoid whose
radius vector is 6370.031 km, given that m = 3.4425×10-3, GM = 39.86005 × 1013
m3/s2, and 6356.742 km is the polar radius. Determine J2 and ß.

6. Taking the first-order approximation, let two points of the ellipsoid at 45 0 N and 300 S
be situated at distances of 6367.444 km and 6372.790 km from the centre, respectively.
If the normal gravity values are 9.806193 ms-2 for the first and 9.793242 ms-2 for the
second, calculate: the flattening, gravity flattening, coefficient m, equatorial radius, polar
radius, dynamic form factor, and the Earth’s mass.

7. P is a point of the terrestrial ellipsoid at latitude 60 0 S and distance to the centre of

6362.121 km. The Earth’s mass is 5.9761×1024 kg and the ratio between the polar and
equatorial semi-axes is 0.9966. Taking the first-order approximation, calculate:
(a) The flattening and the coefficient J2.
(b) The value of normal gravity in mGal at P.
Calculate also the radius vector of this point and the gravitational potential.

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8. Taking the first-order approximation, calculate the Earth’s flattening α, gravity
flattening ß, dynamic form factor J2, and polar radius c, given that:
 e  978.032 Gal (normal gravity at the equator)
α = 6378.136 km (equatorial radius)
GM = 39.8603 × 1013 m3/s2
and that for a point on the ellipsoid at latitude 60 ºN the normal gravity value is 981 921
mGal. Calculate also the radius vector of this point and the gravitational potential.

9. Let a point A have a value of gravity of 9793 626.8 gu and a geopotential number of
32.614 gpu. Calculate the gravity at a point B, knowing that the increments in dynamic
and Helmert height over point A are 271.116 m and 271.456 m, respectively.

Take  45  9.806 2940 ms -2 . Give the units for each parameter.

10. Calculate the value of gravity in gravimetric units and mGal of a point on the Earth’s
surface whose orthometric (Helmert) and dynamic heights are 678.612 m and 679.919

m, respectively, taking  45  9.806 2940 ms -2 .

11. If at a point on the surface of the Earth of Helmert height 1000 m one observes a
value of gravity of 9.796 235 m/s2, calculate the average value of gravity between that
point and the geoid along the direction of the plumb-line, and the point’s geopotential
number.

12. (a) A, B, and C are points connected by a geometric levelling line. Given that the
normal gravity at a latitude of 45º is 9.806 294 ms-2, complete the following table:

Station Gravity Height Geopotential Dynamic Helmert

(Gal) Increment Number Height (m) Height (m)
(m) (gpu)
A 979.88696 - 664.982 ? ?
B ? -0.541 ? 677.577 ?
C 979.88665 ? ? ? 657.134

Advanced Geodesy 24 Ziggah, January 2020

13. For two points A and B belonging to a gravity measurement levelling line, one
obtained:
gA = 9.801 137 ms-2
CA = 933.316 gpu

Gross increment elevation: h AB  20.340

Increment in dynamic height: H DA  H DB   20.340 m .

Given that the normal gravity at 450 latitude is 9806 294 gu, calculate the Helmert
height of point B.

Advanced Geodesy 25 Ziggah, January 2020

 CHAPTER THREE

3. SPACE GEODETIC METHODS OF MEASUREMENT IN

GEODESY
In order to accomplish the disciplinary tasks of geodesy, various geometric and physical
quantities (e.g. geodetic data) need to be observed and collected extensively on the
surface of the earth and in the space exterior to it. This section briefly introduces the
methods of the data collection techniques that are commonly used in geodesy for
geodetic survey, such as terrestrial triangulateration, height measurement, space geodetic
surveying, physical geodetic surveying, and so on. The methods of measurement in
geodesy may be divided into four groups. They are astronomic, terrestrial, space and
gravimetry measurements.

3.1. Astronomic Measurement

Geodetic astronomy is concerned with the determinations of astronomic latitude and
longitude, as well as the astronomic azimuth oriented with respect to the direction of the
plumb line and obtained from direction measurements to fixed stars. When observing
fixed stars, the distance from the point of observation (topocenter) to the center of mass
of the earth (geocenter) can be neglected in comparison to the distance to the star.
Determination of time is also required in geodetic astronomy and in satellite geodesy
because of the relative motion of the target with respect to the place of observation.
Direction and time measurements are required for the determination of latitude,
longitude and azimuth. The instruments used are either permanently installed
(observatories) or set up in the field. For example, observations of the highest precision,
stationary (observatory) instruments such as the photographic zenith tube have been
utilized. This instrument photograph symmetrically stars near the zenith with respect to
the meridian while the zenith angles and hour angles can be determined from tracks of
the stars. The direction of the vertical is established by a pool of mercury. For field
measurements of first-order precision the theodolite can be used.

Advanced Geodesy 26 Ziggah, January 2020

3.2. Terrestrial Geodetic Measurement
A terrestrial geodetic measurement involves observations of horizontal angles, distances,
zenith angles, and height differences obtained from leveling. These measurements are
made on the earth surface to determine the relative spatial positions of the surface points.
Leveling is a method used for accurate determination of height difference between two
points. The basic principle of leveling is that a precisely graduated staff is held vertically
over the two points whose height difference is to be determined and then the scale
readings are made with the horizontal line of sight. The difference between the two
readings will be the height difference between the two points. The traditional spirit level
produces these practically most useful heights above sea level directly.

In establishing national geodetic control networks, it is often necessary to carry out

horizontal and vertical angle measurements. The theodolite is an instrument for
measuring angles with specific observational methods. Distance measurements
employing acoustic waves serve to position points on the ocean floor. Distance
measurements establish the scale of geodetic networks. Arranged as networks or
traverses they also provide geometrical relations between the observation stations. The
unit of length is the meter.

3.3. Space Geodetic Measurement

Space based observations are concerned with measurements independent of the
direction of the plumb line to artificial earth satellites, the moon, and extragalactic radio
sources, as well as height measurements from satellites to the earth’s surface. In this
group of measurements, one utilizes targets and sensors which are not attached to the
earth’s body. Artificial earth satellites such as GRACE, CHAMP, GOCE etc. possess the
greatest significance in this respect. Satellites are especially suitable for geodetic research
and observation because of their high and stable orbits, small area-to-mass ratio,
symmetrical spherical shape, long accumulation time for observational data, etc. Spaced
based observations can be categorized into four groups namely; Satellite Laser Ranging,
Very Long Baseline Interferometry, Satellite Altimetry and Gravimetry.

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3.3.1. Satellite Laser Ranging
Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR) rising in the mid-1960s, is a new space geodetic technique
that determines the distance between laser station and a satellite using the laser ranger to
trace and observe the satellites installed with laser reflectors. During its development over
more than 40 years, the SLR system has improved from 1 m to the present 1 cm in
distance accuracy. It is now one of the main technical means of precise satellite
positioning as well as the most precise among the current various space observation
technologies in terms of data sampling rate and absolute positioning. It not only plays a
decisive role in establishing and maintaining the Global Geocentric Coordinate System
(GGCS) but has also led to great achievements in the field surveying of modern plate
motion, improvements in the Earth gravity model and geocentric gravitational constant,
and the accurate measurement of Earth’s rotation parameters. The SLR system consists
of two main segments, a laser ranger on the ground and a laser satellite in space. SLR is
a physical distance-measuring method, using the laser as its light source and the time of
flight of the optical pulse for measurements. There are three methods of laser ranging:
the pulse method, phase method and interference method. The pulse method is usually
applied in SLR. Its basic principle is that: laser pulse signals are sent from a laser ranger
placed at the observation station to a laser satellite equipped with a back-reflecting prism
and go back to the receiving system of the rangefinder after being reflected by the tested
satellite. If the time difference Δt between the sending and receiving of these laser pulse
signals is measured, one can get the distance ρ between the satellite and the station
c
according to the formula:    t , where c is the velocity of light.
2

Satellites such as Laser Geodetic Satellite-1 (LAGEOS-1) (in 1976) and LAGEOS-2 (in
1992) launched by NASA, and satellites Etalon-1 (in January 1989) and Etalon-2 (in
May 1989) launched by Russia (the former Soviet Union), and others are dedicated laser
ranging satellites for the applied research of geodynamics and geodesy. They are
spherical in shape with a diameter of 60 cm, installed with 426 laser reflectors on their
surfaces (figure 1.7). These satellites are still being used for the common geodetic
observation of SLR nowadays and have, among others, provided much data for
establishment of the terrestrial reference frame and determination of the Earth rotation

Advanced Geodesy 28 Ziggah, January 2020

parameters. SLR has become one of the main techniques for satellite orbit determination
because of its high precision distance measurement ability. Many reconnaissance
satellites, meteorological satellites, Earth resources satellites, and oceanic satellites have
all been equipped with laser reflectors so as to carry out more precise measurement and
control of satellites by means of the SLR technique.

Figure 3.1: Artificial Earth Satellite LAGEOS (Source: NASA)

3.3.2. Very Long Baseline Interferometry

Geodetic Very long baseline interferometry (VLBI) came into development in the late
1960s and is a radio interferometric observation technique that can combine two radio
telescopes thousands of kilometers apart into a radio interferometry system with very
high resolution. Due to the large distance between telescopes (antennas) known as the
baseline, VLBI is called very long baseline interferometry.

The principle of geodetic VLBI is that, celestial bodies observed by VLBI are
extragalactic radio sources (quasars = quasi-stellar radio sources, radio galaxies), which
are usually in deep space 100 million light years from Earth. These radio sources emit
waves in the cm-to dm-range which are detected (received) by a receiving system
consisting of two widely separated (a few 1000 to 10000 km) large antennas (radio
telescopes) that are used in radio astronomy and thus has a high resolution
(wavelength/telescope diameter) due to the long baseline. Due to the large distance
Advanced Geodesy 29 Ziggah, January 2020
between antennas, a direct comparison of the wave trains arriving at the two antennas is
not possible. Thus, when the electromagnetic wave radiated from the celestial bodies
reaches the Earth’s surface, its propagation distance is much further than that of the
baseline in VLBI, so at this moment the movement of the wave front can be assumed to
be parallel propagation and the wave is called a plane wave. Therefore, the signals are
recorded on magnetic tape, along with a time signal which is generated by the frequency
standards at the respective stations. On account of the different distances between the
two antennae and a certain radio source the difference in distance is obtained. Therefore,
the time span of the radio signal from the same wave front to either antenna will be
different, resulting as a time delay. The inferences are later recovered by a digital
correlator; a correlation analysis furnishes the delay time and its variation in time, as well
as the fringe frequency. Corrections are then applied due to the systematic differences in
the frequency standards, and because of the influences of tropospheric refraction and
diurnal aberration. The accuracy of this method depends on the time measurement, the
stability of the frequency standard, the ability to account for the effects of refraction, and
the quality of the correlation. The data of about 10 radio telescopes are evaluated for the
determination of earth rotation parameters and baseline vectors, with stations in U.S.A.,
Western Europe and Japan. The accuracy of the baseline component determinations
(24h observations, 10 quasars) is a few cm.

Figure 3.2: Geometric Principle of VLBI

To improve the resolution of VLBI, the concept of space VLBI was proposed in 1970
and the establishment of the space VLBI system was also considered. Although space

Advanced Geodesy 30 Ziggah, January 2020

VLBI was proposed for astrophysics research, conceptually it has more advantages over
ground-based VLBI for application in fields like geodesy. Because of the super-high
resolution of VLBI, it has been widely applied in many fields like astronomy, geophysics,
geodesy and space technology for applications such as radio astronomy, accurate
determination of the Earth’s rotation parameters, crustal deformation detection,
exploration of deep space and the ionosphere, etc. In light of the VLBI principle, there
are no differences between space and ground-based VLBI. A space VLBI station can be
seen as a component of a ground-based VLBI net extending into space. It has the same
function as a ground antenna, i.e., to receive signals from a radio source. Then, the
required observational data for scientific research can be acquired through correlation
processing of the signals received by both the space VLBI station and the ground
antenna.

However, space VBLI is different to ground-based VLBI in technical realization since the
former places the antenna in space. The most significant technical advantage of the
application of space VLBI to geodesy is to turn the geometric measurement of ground-
based VLBI into dynamic measurement. It has been mentioned that the measurement
completed by forming a baseline between two ground VLBI observations is a geometric
one from the perspective of geodesy. Such measurement alone can only determine the
relative position of the two stations but not their geocentric coordinates. Since the orbit
of the space VLBI is described in a geocentric coordinate system and its movement is
affected by various geodynamic factors, when adopting space VLBI a dynamic
measurement system can be formed by making a baseline between the space and
ground stations so as to determine directly the geocentric coordinates of the ground
based station. Because all the VLBI antennae around the world take part in the space
VLBI observation, a complete terrestrial reference system can be established
independently using space VLBI technology itself. The direct connection and unification
of the artificial satellite dynamic reference system and the radio source reference system
can be realized. In addition, by means of space VLBI, an agreement can be made in
VLBI about conversion between the Conventional Terrestrial Reference System (CTRS)
and the Conventional Celestial Reference System (CCRS) to obtain a unified celestial
and terrestrial reference system (i.e., a unified rotation and scale system with a

Advanced Geodesy 31 Ziggah, January 2020

commonly defined origin). Such unification of coordinate systems is of great significance
for research in geodesy and other related fields.

3.3.3. Satellite Altimetry

Satellite Altimetry (SA) employs microwave radar altimeters installed in satellites,

radiometers, synthetic aperture radar, and other equipment to measure in real time the
distance from a satellite to the ocean’s surface, the effective wave height, and the
backscattering coefficients, and to carry out research in geodesy, geophysics, and
oceanography through data processing and analysis. The microwave radar altimeter
mounted on a satellite (the carrier) transmits microwave signals to the ocean’s surface.
This radar impulse reaches the ocean’s surface and then returns to the radar altimeter by
reflection. Thus, the satellite is seen as a mobile platform on which a radar altimeter
transmits a microwave pulse to the Earth’s surface and receives the signal reflected back.
Three observed quantities based on echo theory are obtained after the return of the
radar pulse, including: waveform echo signal, amplitude echo signal and round trip-time
of the echo signals. Based on the analysis of these echo signals, one can obtain
information like sea level altitude, sea level tilt, ocean currents, effective wave height, sea
surface backscattering coefficients and wind field. SA data can determine the marine
geoid and solve the gravity anomaly of the ocean to compensate for the data gap in
gravity measurement of marine areas. Therefore, SA plays an important role in
establishing an Earth gravity field model with high accuracy and high resolution. The US
Federal Geodetic Control Subcommittee (FGCS) noted that what the ocean altimetry
satellite Seasat does within 3 months would take 200 years and cost 2 billion US dollars
if done by marine gravimetry. Besides, SA data can also be used in oceanographic
studies such as the measurement of the width, boundary and velocity of ocean currents;
tidal fluctuations; sea surface topography; and mean sea level changes.

3.3.4. Gravimetry
Gravimetry deals with the measurements of gravity and the components of the gravity
gradient as well as earth tide measurements. The instrument used to measure gravity is
known as gravimeter. The determination of gravity differences and variations requires a
composite employment of absolute and relative instrumental techniques and observation
methods. Absolute and relative gravimetry allow the determination of gravity
Advanced Geodesy 32 Ziggah, January 2020
acceleration, usually just called gravity, for specific positions as well as the detection of
gravity changes with time at a given location. For high-accuracy demands, the
geometrical position of a gravity point has to be defined very accurately, e.g. in
geodynamic research projects, at a height along the vertical above a ground mark.
Geodetic networks with local, regional or global extent can be surveyed to monitor short-
term and long-term gravity variations.

Absolute gravimetry (absolute gravity measurement) is a technique utilized to determine

the gravity value (actually, gravitational acceleration) at a defined geometric point. There
are two methods for absolute gravity measurement, one using a reversible pendulum,
and the other by means of the free-fall motion of bodies. Absolute gravity measurements
are most sensitive to height changes and provide an obvious way to define and control
the vertical height datum. No additional reference points (connection points) at the
Earth’s surface and no observations of celestial bodies (quasars, stars, planets, moon) or
satellites are needed. Shortcomings of relative gravimetry, like calibration problems and
deficiencies in the datum level definition, can be overcome. The accuracy of an absolute
gravity net is independent of geographical extension which allows applications on local,
regional and global scales with consistent measurement quality. An independent
verification of displacements measured geometrically with GPS (Global Positioning
System), VLBI (Very Long Baseline Interferometry) and SLR (Satellite Laser Ranging) is
also possible. Example of absolute gravimeter is shown in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3: The two absolute gravimeters of the Leibniz Universität Hannover:
left JILAg-3 employed from 1986 to 2000 (here reference measurements in
Hannover), right FG5-220 operated since 2003 (tent measurements in
Denmark)

Advanced Geodesy 33 Ziggah, January 2020

Relative gravimetry is a technique used to determine the gravity difference between two
points, and then to obtain the gravity value of each point in a pointwise manner through
at least one point of known gravity value. The static method of relative gravimetry apply
a kind of force (such as the spring force) to work against the force of gravity that is acting
on the object and balance the gravitational pull. By changing gravity, the location of the
equilibrium position (location of the spring) is also changed. As long as the change of the
equilibrium position (the amplitude of the spring) is determined, the variation in gravity
can be calculated (according to Hooke’s Law). The gravity difference between the two
locations is thus obtained. Currently, the most frequently used gravimeter is called the
spring gravimeter, in which the spring force is used to balance gravity. Examples are the
quartz spring gravimeter ZSM series manufactured by Beijing Geological Instrument
Factory and the (LCR) metal spring gravimeter by LaCoste and Romberg in the USA.
Both of these spring gravimeters incorporate a spring mass system, optical system,
mechanical device for measurement, instrument panel, and insulated case.

Figure 3.4: Scintrex Autograv CG-3 (right) and CG-5 (left) and a LaCoste–
Romberg model G with carrying case (in front)

Advanced Geodesy 34 Ziggah, January 2020

 CHAPTER FOUR
4. GRAVIMETRY
4.1. INTRODUCTION
Instruments, with which geodetic measurements are made, on and above the surface of
the earth, are subjected to various physical forces. To interpret the results of the
measurements properly, it is necessary to understand the effects of these forces. The
measurements are taken in the physical space and the knowledge of the geometry of this
space is essential to the correct utilization of the observations. For example, when
geodesists say a surface is horizontal, what they really mean is that it is a surface of
constant gravitational potential. So, geodesists have always had to measure gravity in
addition to relative positions, which is why gravity has historically come under the
heading of geodesy.

In addition, as known from our daily experiences, the most conspicuous force present on
the surface of the earth is gravity. Thus, when studying the geometry of the earth,
geodesists, of necessity, become interested in the earth’s gravity field. Consequently,
investigation of the geometrical aspects of the gravity field is now being recognized as an
integral part of geodesy. Since basic geodesy deals with stationary or slow moving
objects, the gravitational theory needed is that of Newton rather than that of Einstein.

Gravimetry deals with the measurements of gravity and the components of the gravity
gradient as well as earth tide measurements. The instrument used to measure gravity is
known as gravimeter. The determination of gravity differences and variations requires a
composite employment of absolute and relative instrumental techniques and observation
methods. Absolute and relative gravimetry allow the determination of gravity
acceleration, usually just called gravity, for specific positions as well as the detection of
gravity changes with time at a given location. For high-accuracy demands, the
geometrical position of a gravity point has to be defined very accurately, e.g. in
geodynamic research projects, at a height along the vertical above a ground mark.

Advanced Geodesy 35 Ziggah, January 2020

Geodetic networks with local, regional or global extent can be surveyed to monitor short-
term and long-term gravity variations

4.2. PURPOSES OF GRAVITY MEASUREMENTS

Today’s aims of measuring gravity, as in the past, have a wide scope which extends with
increased precision and in combination with other improved measurements, e.g., of
distances and coordinates. Applications are inherent in geodesy – paramount for
defining the Earth’s shape, for example, in combination with levelling and other methods
of surveying. This is especially evident with the Global Positioning System (GPS) which
gives the radius of a point from the Earth’s centre and requires knowledge of the geoid –
the gravitational equipotential surface – to provide the point elevation above sea level. In
geophysics and geology the aim is exploration of the Earth’s interior and gravity has also
important bearing on oceanography, archaeology, engineering and even on theoretical
physics. In geodynamics, temporal gravity change is becoming a topical subject as the
space-time behaviour reflects processes as loading or unloading and flow inside the
Earth. Precise recording of temporal gravity variation can reveal mechanical properties
and even deep processes as Earth core oscillations.

4.3. PRINCIPLES OF GRAVITY MEASUREMENT AND

INSTRUMENT TYPES
Gravimetry is the measurement of gravity. Historically, only the measurement of the
length of the gravity vector is meant. However, more recent techniques allow vector
gravimetry, i.e. they give the direction of the gravity vector as well. In a wider sense,
indirect measurements of gravity, such as the recovery of gravity information from
satellite orbit perturbations, are sometimes referred to as gravimetry too. Commonly,
gravity measuring instruments are distinguished as absolute or relative gravimeters. An
absolute meter is where g can be directly determined by measuring a length and/or a
time. Accurate absolute measurements of total gravity acceleration over the whole range
from zero to terrestrial g can be realized. Relative means that only small differences of
gravity can be measured accurately relative to some reference station. Thus, where g
depends on things like spring constants, which cannot be so readily determined. Relative

Advanced Geodesy 36 Ziggah, January 2020

instruments can only tell you the relative difference in g between two points or between
two times.

Gravity has the dimension of acceleration with the corresponding SI unit m/s2. However,
the unit is most commonly used in gravimetry is the Gal (1 Gal = 0.01 m/s 2), which is
named after Galileo Galilei because of his pioneering work in dynamics and gravitational
research. Because we are usually dealing with small differences in gravity between points
and high accuracies- up to 9 significant digits- the most commonly used unit is rather the
mGal. Thus, gravity at the Earth’s surface is around 981 000 mGal.

4.4. ABSOLUTE GRAVIMETRY

Absolute gravity measurements are most sensitive to height changes and provide an
obvious way to define and control the vertical height datum. No additional reference
points (connection points) at the Earth’s surface and no observations of celestial bodies
(quasars, stars, planets, moon) or satellites are needed. Shortcomings of relative
gravimetry, like calibration problems and deficiencies in the datum level definition, can
be overcome. The accuracy of an absolute gravity net is independent of geographical
extension which allows applications on local, regional and global scales with consistent
measurement quality. An independent verification of displacements measured
geometrically with GPS (Global Positioning System), VLBI (Very Long Baseline
Interferometry) and SLR (Satellite Laser Ranging) is also possible.

Absolute gravimetry (absolute gravity measurement) can therefore be described as a

technique used to determine the gravity value (actually, gravitational acceleration) at a
defined geometric point. There are two methods for absolute gravity measurement, one
using a reversible pendulum, and the other by means of the free-fall motion of bodies.

4.4.1. Pendulum
Christiaan Huygens(1629-1695), Dutch mathematician, astronomer and Physicist,
developed the mathematics of using a pendulum for time keeping and for gravity
measurements in his book Horologium Oscillatorium (1673). Pendulums were used

Advanced Geodesy 37 Ziggah, January 2020

earliest to measure gravity, but their accuracy is limited to some 0.5 mGal. A
mathematical or ideal pendulum of a given length L swings freely with a period:

T  2 L g 
1
2

(18)
i.e. the determination of g requires measuring lengths and times, mostly for many
periods which increases the precision. In practice the length measurement is a problem.
A mathematical pendulum consists of a point mass suspended by a massless string at a
fixed point in constant gravity. Physical pendulums do not distinguish between mass and
string, their motion is governed by both effective translation and rotation, and the
effective pendulum length must be determined by special procedures.
The reversion pendulum exploits the fact that the locations of the effective
(mathematical) suspension point and of the effective point mass are exchangeable.
However, also the suspension structures and the underground which are not absolutely
rigid affect the period. Absolute pendulum apparatuses are particularly sensitive to such
uncertainties. The Potsdam absolute result around 1900 was the basis of the world
gravity system until its replacement after a systematic error of about 15 mGal had been
definitively established. The error was much bigger than the statistical standard error and
followed from the above problems and incorrect reductions for them. In relative
pendulums the problems are reduced by the fact that the differences of measured
periods are smaller and that the uncertain pendulum length drops out of the formulae,
by comparing the observed periods Ti at point i with To at a reference station where g o is

assumed to be known. From equation (18) follows:

gi  g o To Ti 
2

The result is immediately in m/s2 or converted to mGal.

4.4.2. Free-Fall Method

Free-fall motion refers to the accelerated linear motion of a body along the plumb line
under the action of gravity only. According to mechanics, if the gravity acceleration g in
the course of motion along the plumb line is assumed constant (no gravity changes with
height), then the equation of motion is:

Advanced Geodesy 38 Ziggah, January 2020

 1 2
l  lo  Vo t  gt ,
2
(19)
where Vo and lo denote the initial velocity of the falling body and the distance from the

origin O , respectively, at the computational time t  0 , and l is the distance of the falling
body from the origin O after a period of time t .

Two methods can be used to determine the gravity value by means of the freefall motion
of bodies: the free-fall method and the symmetrical rise-and-fall method (abbreviated as
the rise-and-fall method). The principle of the free fall method is discussed as follows.

In equation (19), to avoid determining Vo and lo , is necessary to measure from at least

three positions. Assume at time t1 , t2 , and t3 that the distances of the falling body from

the point O are l1 ,l2 , and l3 , respectively, as illustrated in Figure 3.1, where the

transverse axis indicates time and the ordinate axis indicates distance.

Figure 3.1: Gravity determination by the Free- Fall Method

Advanced Geodesy 39 Ziggah, January 2020
With reference to equation (19), for each time period there will be a corresponding
equation of motion which gives:
1 2
l1  lo  Vo t1  g t1 ,
2
1
l2  lo  Vo t 2  g t 2 , and
2

2
1
l3  lo  Vo t3  g t3
2

2
Subtracting the first equation from the second and third equations, respectively, the
results are as follows:
1
L1  VoT1  gT1 (t1  t 2 )
2
1
L2  VoT2  gT2 (t1  t 3 )
2
(20)
where L1  l 2  l1 and L2  l3  l1 are the distances from the first position to the second and

third positions, respectively. T1  t 2  t1 and T2  t 3  t1 are the times taken by the falling

body in its motion from the first position to the second and third positions. To
eliminate VO , equations in (20) are divided by T1 and T2 , respectively, and the two results

L1 L2 1
thus achieved subtracted from each, which reads as:   g (t 2  t 3 )
T1 T2 2

Since t 2  t 3  T1  T2 , the formula of g can finally be written as:

2  L2 L1 
g   
T2  T1  T2 T1 

(21)
Thus it can be seen that to determine gravity using the free-fall method requires
knowledge of the distances L1 and L2 traveled by the falling body within the time periods

T1 and T2 .

4.4.3. Rise and Fall Method

In this method, an object is thrown vertically upward and then allowed to fall freely. To
obtain the gravitational acceleration g, it is necessary to label two positions S1 and S 2 in

Advanced Geodesy 40 Ziggah, January 2020

its course of motion. The time intervals T1 and T2 .of the falling body past each position
are determined, see figure 3.2 below.

Figure 3.2: Gravity determination by the Rise and Fall Method

The transverse axis indicates time and the ordinate axis indicates the vertical position of
the falling body. Let H1 and H2 be the distances from the two measuring positions to the
peak of its motion. From equation (19), where l o  0 , Vo  0 , we will obtain:
2 2
1 T  1 T 
H 1  g  1  , and H 2  g  2  .
2 2 2  2

H is taken to denote the distance between the two positions, and hence yields:

1  T1   T2  
2 2

H  H1  H 2  g       . After rearrangement, the equation g becomes:

2  2   2  

8H
g
T  T22
1
2

(22)
Thus, it can be seen that to determine gravity using the rise and fall method requires the
determination of time intervals T1 and T2 of the object passing two positions with a
distance of H during its rise and fall

4.5. RELATIVE GRAVIMETRY

Relative gravimetry is a technique used to determine the gravity difference between two
points, and then to obtain the gravity value of each point in a pointwise manner through
at least one point of known gravity value. The static method of relative gravimetry apply
Advanced Geodesy 41 Ziggah, January 2020
a kind of force (such as the spring force) to work against the force of gravity that is acting
on the object and balance the gravitational pull. By changing gravity, the location of the
equilibrium position (location of the spring) is also changed. As long as the change of the
equilibrium position (the amplitude of the spring) is determined, the variation in gravity
can be calculated (according to Hooke’s Law). The gravity difference between the two
locations is thus obtained. Currently, the most frequently used gravimeter is called the
spring gravimeter, in which the spring force is used to balance gravity. Examples are the
quartz spring gravimeter ZSM series manufactured by Beijing Geological Instrument
Factory and the (LCR) metal spring gravimeter by LaCoste and Romberg in the USA.
Both of these spring gravimeters incorporate a spring mass system, optical system,
mechanical device for measurement, instrument panel, and insulated case.

Advanced Geodesy 42 Ziggah, January 2020

 CHAPTER FIVE
5. GRAVITY REDUCTIONS AND ANALYSIS
5.1. INTRODUCTION

Advanced Geodesy 43 Ziggah, January 2020